IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


■»  l&i    |2.2 


III 


14S 


1.6 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WBT  MA:N  strut 

WIBSTiR,N.Y.  145M 

(716)  •73-4503 


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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Mlcroraproductlons  /  institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historiquas 


mm 


Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  tachniquos  at  bibliographiquaa 


The  Instituta  has  attemptad  to  obtain  tha  bast 
original  copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturas  of  this 
copy  which  may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua, 
which  may  altar  any  of  tha  imagas  in  tha 
raproduction,  or  which  may  significantly  changa 
tha  usual  mathod  of  filming,  ara  chackad  balow. 


D 


Colourad  covars/ 
Couvartura  da  coulaur 


I      I    Covars  damagad/ 


Couvartura  andommag^a 


I      I    Covars  rastorad  and/or  laminatad/ 


Couvartura  restaurte  at/ou  palliculte 

Covar  titia  missing/ 

La  titra  da  couvartura  manqua 

Colourad  maps/ 

Cartas  gAographiquas  an  coulaur 

Colourad  ink  (i.a.  othar  than  blua  or  black)/ 
Encra  da  coulaur  (i.a.  autra  qua  blaua  ou  noira) 


I     I   Colourad  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 


D 
D 


D 


D 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  an  coulaur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
ReiiA  avec  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  ahadowa  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  re  liure  serrfte  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  la  long  de  la  marge  int^rieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  poasibla,  these 
have  been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  certaines  pagea  bianchea  ajoutAes 
lore  d'une  restauration  apparaiaaent  dans  la  texte, 
mais,  iorsqua  cela  Atait  possible,  cee  pages  n'ont 
pas  ixA  filmAas. 

Additional  commenta:/ 
Commentaires  supplAmantairos: 


L'Institut  a  microfilm^  la  meilleur  exemplaira 
qu'il  lui  a  hth  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details 
de  cet  exemplaira  qui  sont  paut-Atre  uniques  du 
point  de  vue  bibliographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier 
une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une 
modification  dans  la  mAthode  normale  de  filmaga 
sont  indiqute  ci-dessous. 


D 
D 

n 
n 

D 
D 
D 
D 
D 
D 


Coloured  pages/ 
Pagea  da  coulaur 

Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommagtes 

Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restaurtes  et/ou  pellicultea 

Pagea  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  dteolortes,  tachati^es  ou  piquAes 

Pagea  detached/ 
Pages  dAtachtes 

Showthrough/ 
Transparence 

Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Quality  in^gaia  de  Timpreaaion 

Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  suppMmentaire 

Only  edition  available/ 
Seuie  Edition  diaponible 

Pagea  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
allpa.  tiasuea,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
ensure  the  best  possible  image/ 
Lea  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obacurslea  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
etc.,  ont  At*  flimAes  k  nouveau  de  fa9on  h 
obtenir  la  meiileure  image  poasibla. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  eat  fllmA  au  taux  de  rMuction  indlqu*  ci-desaoua. 

10X  14X  18X  22X 


26X 


aox 


12X 


16X 


2QX 


I 


1 


28X 


aax 


^»^^^itf^'^ 


<«(mm!mmim0m^»<»mii 


stalls 
B  du 
lodifier 
r  uno 
Image 


irrata 
to 


palura. 


32X 


The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thank* 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Library  of  Congress 
Photodupiication  Service 

The  images  appearing  here  are  the  best  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  are  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  Impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate.  All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  Illustrated  Impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  Illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  frame  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol  — ►  (meaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  the  symbol  V  (meaning  "END"), 
whichever  applies. 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  etc.,  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios.  Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


1  2  3 


L'exemplaire  filmA  fut  reproduit  grAce  h  la 
gin4roslt4  de: 

Library  of  Congress 
Photodupiication  Service 

Les  images  suivantes  ont  At*  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soln,  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettetA  de  Texemplaire  fllmA,  et  en 
conformitA  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
fllmage. 

Les  exemplaires  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  ImprlmAe  sont  filmAs  en  commenpant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  termlnant  soit  par  la 
dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'Impresslon  ou  d'illustration,  solt  par  le  second 
plat,  salon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmAs  en  commenpant  par  la 
premlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empreinte 
d'Impresslon  ou  d'illustration  et  en  termlnant  par 
la  dernlAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte. 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparattra  sur  la 
dernlAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche,  selon  le 
cat:  le  symbole  — ►  signifie  "A  SUIVRE".  le 
symbole  y  signifie  "FIN". 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atre 
filmAs  A  des  taux  de  rAduction  diff Arents. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cllchA,  11  set  fllmA  A  partir 
de  I'angki  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenani:  le  nombre 
d'Images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
lllustrent  la  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

menMmmm 


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HYP806RAPHICAL  M^ 


NEW  YORK,  D.  APPLE 


» 


OGRAPHICAL  MAP  OF  ASIA 


e-vation.    of  tlie    Land    al>oire   tKe    Level   of  tKe    Sea. 


tUJMOflktt 


r-lKtOOWmt 


■H-E\l/  YORK,  D.  APPLETON  8cC? 


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1^ 


CONTENTS. 


'h 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

rAoa 

Chap.  I.  Oineral  Remarks  ok  Asia .      1 

Plateaux :  Highliinds  and  Lowlitnds,  p.  3.  Qeological  Formation :  Igneous  Forces,  p.  6. 
Climate:  Diminution  of  Moisture,  p.  8.  Areas  of  Inland  Drainage,  p.  9.  Rivers  flowing 
iSeawards,  p.  12.  Temperature,  Rainfall,  Vegetsition,  p.  14.  Peninsulas,  p.  16.  Inhabitants, 
Culture,  p.  18.  Religions,  p.  21.  Historical  Retrospect,  Migrations,  p.  23.  European 
Influences,  p.  24.    Progress  of  Discovery,  p.  25.    Political  Rivalries,  p.  28. 

Chap.  II.  Caccasia 33 

I.  Cauuasia:  The  Ponto>Caspian  Mountuin  System,  p.  33.  The  Great  Caucasus,  p.  34. 
Geological  Formation,  Volcanic  Action,  p.  38.  Water  Systems,  Snow-line,  Rainfall,  Glaciers, 
p.  40.  Vegetation,  Fauna,  p.  43.  Inhabitants ;  Varied  Ethnical  and  Linguistic  Elementx, 
p.  46.  Russian  Conquests :  Main  Physical  Divisions,  p.  48.  II.  Wi  stern  Cavcamia  :  Kuban 
Basin,  p.  60.  River  Systems  :  Kuban  Basin,  p.  60.  'I'aman  Peninsula,  p.  63.  Inhabitants  : 
.  the  Cherkesses,  p.  64.  The  Abkhasians  and  Cossacks,  p.  67.  Toiiography,  p.  GO.  III. 
Central  Cavcasvs  :  Koma  anu  Terek  Basins,  p.  64.  River  Systems  :  Kuma  Basin,  p.  66. 
The  Terek,  p.  68.  Inhabitants:  the  Kabards,  p.  70.  The  Osses  and  Nogai  Tatars,  p.  71. 
Topogmphy,  p.  73.  IV.  Eastriin  Caucasia  :  Daohestam,  p.  78.  River  Systems,  p.  79. 
Inhabitants :  the  Cliechenzes,  p.  79.  llie  LoEghians,  Tats,  and  Tatars,  p.  83.  Topography,  p.  86. 
V.  Inour,  Rion,  and  Chohi'kh  Bamnb:  Minorelia,  Imeritia,  Svania,  Lazibtan,  p.  88. 
Climate,  Flora  and  Fauna,  p.  91.  Inhabitants:  the  Svans  and  Ttachians,  p.  92.  The 
Imeritians,  Mingrelinns,  and  Lazes,  p.  94.  Topography,  p.  96.  ^  (  The  Kura  Bakin: 
(iBOHOiA,  Transcaicabiin  Tataht,  p.  100.  River  Systems:  thel.  >;•:  p.  100.  Agriculture, 
Irrigation  Works,  Climate,  p.  1U4.  Lower  Kura  Busin  :  Apsheron  Pen-'  ula,  p.  106.  Inhabit- 
ants: the  Georgians,  p.  111.  The  Khevsurs,  Pshavs,  and  'J'dshes,  p.  116.  The  Tatars, 
Talishes,  Slavs,  pnd  Germans,  p.  119.  Topography,  p.  120.  VII.  Bissian  Armenia  :  Ararat, 
Ala  ooz.  Plateau  op  Lake  Gok-chai,  and  Araeis  Basin,  p.  13(i.  Orography:  Ararat. 
Ala-giiz,  p.  130.  Lake  Gok-chai,  the  Karabagh,  Flora  and  Fauna,  p.  136.  The  Araxis  Basin, 
p.  139.  Inhabitants:  the  Armenians,  p.  140.  Topography,  p.  146.  YIII.  General  Con- 
dition AND  Administration  of  the  Caucasus,  p.  160.  Land  Tenure,  Agriculture,  p.  162. 
Population,  Industries,  Trade,  Education,  p.  164.    Religions,  Finance,  Administration,  p.  Iu8. 

Chap.  III.  The  Aralo-Oaspun  Basin:  Russian  Turkestan,  the  Turkoman  Country,  Khiva, 

Bokhara,  Region  op  the  Upper  Gxus 161 

T.  General  Survey,  p.  161.  II.  The  Pamir  and'AlaI,  p.  166.  Flora,  Fauna,  Lnkesof  the 
Pamir,  p.  170.  The  Ala'i  Highland,  p.  171.  III.  The  Tian-bhan,  p.  176.  Orographic 
System,  p.  176.  Katdn  and  Yulduz  Highlands,  p.  179.  Semirechinsk  Region,  p.  182.  Ala- 
tau  Highland,  p.  183.  I.Ake  Issik-kul  and  Western  Tian-shan  Highlands,  p.  184.  IV.  Tar- 
BAUATAi  Hiohlands  AND  Bai.khash  Basin,  p.  189.  Lake  Balkhash,  p.  191.  Semirechinsk 
River  System  :  the  Hi,  p.  192.  V.  The  Ahalo-Cahpian  Hyouookapkir  System,  p.  193.  The 
Turkestan  Deserts,  p.  194.  Flora  and  Fauna  of  Turkestan,  p.  196.  Water  System:  the  Sir, 
p.  108.    The  Oxns  River  System,  p  201.    The  Aral  Sea,  p.  208.    The  Turkoman  Deserts  and 


CONTENTS. 


r*aa 
Highlandi,  p.  213.  The  Atrek  and  Ourgsn  Wven.  p.  214.  Tho  U«t-urt  PlatMU,  p.  216. 
KHrt  ConBt  of  tho  Caipian,  p.  217.  VI.  Inhaiiitanth  or  tub  Aralo-Cakpiam  Uboiumk,  p.  219. 
The  Turkomani,  p.  220.  Tho  Kara-Kulpak»  and  Kirghiz,  p.  225.  Tho  Taranchii  and  Dunurnna, 
p.  231.  'JTio  Uzbogs,  p.  233.  Tho  Hurti)»,  Tajik*,  and  Oulchus,  p.  234.  VII.  Statu  ok  tub 
Aualo-Cahi>ian  lUiiN  :  I.  Haktriana,  or  Afghan  Turkestan,  p.  237.  Wakhan,  p.  238.  Dadak- 
Khan,  p.  240.  Kundui  and  Uamian,  p.  244.  Khulm,  Balkh,  Andkhoi,  p.  247.  II.  Merv :  the 
Houthom  Turkoman*,  p.  260.  III.  Bokhara,  p.  262.  Bhignan  and  Itoahan,  p.  263.  Darvas 
and  Karatoghin,  p.  263.  Hiasar :  the  Iron  Oate,  p.  366.  Topography :  Bokhara,  p.  267. 
IV.  Khiva,  p.  2U3.  V.  Uuiaian  Tuikoatan,  p.  268.  Ferghana  Baain :  Topography,  p.  372. 
humarkaiid,  p.  2!  2.     Kulja  Basin :    Topography,  284.    Administration  of  Turkestan,  287. 

Chap.  IV.  8iiiekia 292 

I.  SiBBKiA,  p.  202.  Progress  of  Conquest  and  Discovery,  p.  193.  Water  Highways,  Portage*, 
Highlands,  p.  297.  Iliver  Bystenu,  p.  300.  Northern  Heuboard,  p.  30).  Pacific  Seabuard : 
Transbaikalia,  p.  304.  Climate,  p.  306.  Flora,  p<  310.  Fauna,  p.  314.  Inhabitants :  the 
Chddes,  p.  317.  II.  Thb  Altai  Uiohlands,  p.  319.  Flora  and  Fauna  of  tho  Altai,  p.  323. 
Inhabitants:  the  Kalmuks,  Tatars,  and  llussians,  p.  324.  Topography,  p.  327.  III.  Tub  On 
Basin  :  Oovbhnmbnts  of  Akholinsk,  Bxmipalatinsx,  Tomsk,  Tobolsk,  Eastbhn  Disthicts 
OF  THB  Oovbhnmbnts  of  Pchm  and  Ohbnbuko,  p.  320.  Tho  Irtish  Basin,  p.  33).  Course  of 
tho  Ob,  p.  334.  Inhabitants  of  the  Ob  Basin :  the  Voguls,  p.  338.  The  Ostiaks,  p.  340.  Tho 
Urol  Mining  Districts,  p.  344.  Topography  of  West  Siberia,  p.  346.  IV.  Ybnbbei-Baikal 
Basin,  p.  3)2.  Basin  of  the  Western  Yenesei,  p.  362.  Inhabitants :  the  Chddes,  p.  366.  The 
Boyots  and  Karagaases,  p.  366.  The  Tunguses,  p.  368.  Topography,  p.  361.  The  Baikal- 
Angara  Boain,  p.  364.  The  Tunka  Highlands,  p.  366.  Lake  Baikal,  p.  868.  Tho  Angara 
Water  System,  p.  373.  Inhabitants  :  the  Buriats,  p.  376.  Topography,  p.  378.  V.  Ba»in  of 
thb  Lbna  :  Shobbh  of  thb  Arctic  Ocian,  p.  382.  The  Lena  and  its  Inhabitants,  p.  384.  The 
Yana,  Kolima,  and  Indigirka  Itivers,  the  .A rctic  Islands,  New  Siberia,  p.  3M8.  Inhabilanta: 
tlio  Yakuts,  Yukaghirs,  and  Chuvantzes,  p.  303.  Topography,  p.  398.  VI.  Bkuino  Pekinscla. 
Basik  of  thb  Anadir,  and  Kamchatka,  p.  899.  Bering  Strait  and  Sea,  p.  402.  Climate: 
Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  406.  Inhabitants :  the  Chnkchis,  p.  408.  The  Koriaks  and  Kamchadales, 
p.  413.  Topography,  p.  416.  VII.  Thb  Stanovoi  Highlands,  Amur  Basin,  Rvmian 
Manchuria,  p.  417.  The  Stanovoi  Uplanda:  the  Yablonoi  Range,  p.  410.  The  Dailrian 
Plateau,  p.  420.  The  Amur  River  System,  p.  423.  Tho  Sungari  ond  Usuri  Rivers,  p.  426. 
The  Lower  Amur  and  its  Delta,  p.  428.  The  Manchurian  Seaboard,  p.  43\.  Climate  of 
Manchuria,  p.  432.  Manohurian  Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  434.  Inhabitants :  the  Golds  and  other 
Tungus  Tribes,  p.  436.  The  TazI,  Mandzi,  Gilibks,  and  Russians,  p.  437.  The  Kamensh>ki, 
p.  440.  Topography,  p.  442.  VIII.  Sakhalin,  p.  448.  HigUands,  p.  462.  Climate,  Fauna, 
Flora,  p.  463.  Inhabitants :  the  Ainos  and  Oroks,  p.  466.  Topography,  p.  467.  IX.  MATsitiAi 
Condition  and  Administration  or  Siberia,  p.  469.  Social  Elements :  the  Exiles  and  Outlaws, 
p.  460.  The  Siberian  Bussians :  the  Commune,  p.  463.  Religious  Sects :  the  Stranniki,  p.  466. 
Agriculture,  the  Chase  and  Fisheries,  p.  466.  Mining  Industries,  p.  467.  Manufactures, 
Trade,  p.  469.  Highwayi*  of  Communication,  the  Trakt,  Railway  Projects,  p.  471.  Educa- 
tion, Administration,  p.  472.  Siberian  Political  Life,  p.  474.  Growth  of  tub  Russian 
Empire,  p.  476.  Merv,  p.  478.  The  Dera-g&z,4Sl.  The  Akhal  Tekke  Country,  483.  Racbs 
of  Asiatic  Russia  oroupxd  aooobdino  to  thbir  Affinitibs  and  Rblioioxh,  p.  486. 


ApPBNDIX  :  STATISriCAL 


Tables       .        .       .       /       . f 


Index 


480 
497 


^-*^«-. 


■MPP 


....  .■4.1, 


iMyii  m'  ...tipp— .■ . !  iiiiim    .  ,  .Ml  iii>ii     III  imm 


mm 


20'i 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS  PRINTED  IN  COLOUES. 


1.  Hypsographical  Map  of  Ana.     Frontiipieec. 

2.  EthnographicRl  Map  of  tho  Caucasus  . 

3.  Lakes  Balkhnsh  and  Issik-kul     . 


4.  The  Delta  of  the  Amu-daria 

6.  Ethnographical  Map  of  Northern  Asia 

6.  Victoria  Bay,  or  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great 


PLATES. 


Clillk  in  the  "  Yellow  Earth,"  north  of  Tai- 

yuen,  Shau-si    .        .  To  fact  page      11 

The  Upper  Yangtse-kiang      ....      13 

The  Darial  Defile    .        .        .        .        .        .42 

Jews  of  the  Caucasus  .   -     .       .66 

Patigorak—  View  taken  irom  the  Mnshuka  Slopes     73 

Svan  Types 92 

Mingrelian  Types  and  Costumes  ...  05 
Georgian  Types  and  Costumes  .        .111 

ImerianTypeiand  Costumes— Gronpof  Dancers    116 

KheTsnr  in  Armour 118 

A  Street  in  Tiflis     .        .  .        .        .124 

Armenian  Types  and  Costumes        .       .       .    140 

TownofQirOsi 149 

ShchuroTskiy  Glacier  .  ■  .  .  .  .173 
Kizil-kum  Desert— Dossihai  W'ellii  .  .  .194 
Ijako  Iskander-kul  .        .  .        .   '202 

Shores  ot  the  Casnian 208 

Turkoman  Customs— Pursuit  of  the  Bride       .    222 


Kirghiz  Horsemen  .  .  .  To  fact  page  226 
Kirghiz  crossiug  a  River .        .        .        .        .    229 

Tajiks  of  Bokhara '234 

Colossal  Idols,  Upper  Bamian  Valley  .  .245 
The  Iron  Gate  Defile  on  the  Kanhi-Derbent 

Route 267 

Bokhara — Assembly  in  front  of  tho  Monqne     .    268 

Khiva      , 266 

Itukhtarma  Valley— Altai  highlands  .  .319 
Ostiak  Types  and  Costumes     .        .        .        .    841 

Yekaterinburg 348 

General  View  of  Tobolsk         .        .  .360 

General  View  of  Omsk  .  .  .  .  .  851 
Tungus  Types  and  Costumes  ....  360 
Irkutsk— View  taken  before  the  Fire  of  1878  .  380 
Chukchi  T3rpe8  and  Costumes  .  .  .  .408 
General  view  of  Petropavlovsk  .  .  .416 
Gold  Types  and' Costumes  ....  436 
Port  of  Ayan,  Sea  of  Okhotsk  ....    442 


• 


T» 


LlaX  OF  ILLUSTUATlONa. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT. 


no. 
1. 
■J. 

a. 

4. 

li. 
6. 
7. 
8. 

0. 
10. 
11. 

\i. 

13. 


14. 
16. 

10. 

17. 

18. 
10. 

20. 
21. 
22. 

23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 

31. 
32. 
33. 

34. 
36. 

36. 

37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
4.5. 
46. 


A8UTIC  RTTHHIA. 

Plntmiux  nnil  I'lninn  of  Cnntnil  A»iii 
I'linillnliNtn  oi'  tliii  Main  Aiitttic  Itaiigei 
Mount  KvKiirNi'         .... 
'I'hti  llitn-lmi :  u  ilrinj-iip  8t«-V)«d 
Arid  KoKionit  mid  Cluwd  lluaini  of  Aaia 
iNoliiini  in  •liinuury     .        .         <        • 

iMotHirii  in  July 

Ciirvnaof  th«  Ka»t<  rn  Aiintii;  Huuboard  and 

Inlnndii 

Doniiity  of  thn  Aiiiittic  I'opuliitions     . 
PlNtritiiitioii  of  thn  Aitiiitic  lliicua 
('liii)f  Uoligiona  of  Central  Asia 
( 'hiof  Itinttnirioi  of  ('ontnil  Anil 
EurupottQ  Inttuunco  in  Asia 


3 
4 

6 

H 

11 

13 

14 

16 

17 
lU 
22 
27 
29 


CAUCASIA. 

Dcd  ol  tho  Canpian 35 

Ui'olo)ificuL     Konnutions    of    tho    Cuntral 

C'llllUHHIlll 27 

Hot  HpringR  und  Kuphtha  Rogioni  in  tho 

CuucHsiia 30 

Profile  of  tho  Caucosua  as  aoon  from  Pati- 

gorak 40 

Kninfall  of  tho  Cnucaius  .  .  .  .41 
TiiK    Kaziikk  :    View  taken   rnuu    Tin 

Kaziikk  Station          ....  43 

Knzbuk  and  Devdoraki  Olacion         .         .  44 

Forest*  of  tho  CaiicasiiB  ....  46 
Tho  Weatem  Caucasus  aoon  from  ofT  Capo 

Kodor 60 

Tho  Akhtari  I.iman 62 

Tho  Kuku-Uba  Mud  Volcano    ...  64 

AltKIIAHIAN    TVI'E 68 

COHBACK    KbNTINKI, 60 

Valley  of  the  B/,ib 01 

The  Tamau  Peninsula  .         .         .62 

Valleya  of  Erosion  in  the  Kuban  Baain  63 
Passanauh,  on  the  Tiflih-VlaiiiKavkaz 

Wot'TB 66 

The  f:ibruz  Oroup 66 

Uamification  of  tho  KalnOs  ...  67 
Delta  and  flooded  Districts  of  the  L  )wer 

Terek  .  .        ...        .68 

The  Terek  Floods  of  1863  .        ...  69 

Patigorak  and  the    Begion   of   Thermal 

Waters 74 

The  Vladikavkiiz-Ananur  Route  through 

the  Torek  Valley         ....  76 

The  Tebulog-mta  Oroup    ....  77 

Moutha  of  the  Terek  and  Lower  Sulak      .  80 

The  Kuba  District 81 

NooAi  Yoi'TH 84 

Mount  GCnib .86 

Derbent .87 

Mouth  of  the  Rion     .        .        .        .        .  89 

Upper  Ingiir  Valley 03 

MiNOHBLiAN  Lady 96 

Kulaiia  and  tho  Rion  and  Kvirila  Junction  97 


rii. 

47.  POTI 

48.  IIati^m       .... 
41).  Akhiilkalnki  Plntnau  . 

60.  Tatah  'I'vi-R 

61.  The  Kiini  nnd  Atnxiit  Confluonuo 

62.  Mouths  of  tho  Kuril    . 

63.  Chiiif  Region*  of  l'liirth(|ii>tkcN  in  (!ituciwiii 

64.  Usi'illatioMa  of  the  Huku  Coast  during  tho 

last  1,600  Vtiiirs 

66.  Thit  Apiihor.in  Puninaula    .... 
60.  Mt/!kiirt,  Ancunt  Caimtal  or  Oeoroia 

67.  Tho  KhevBur,  Ti^sh  Hnd  I'ahav  Ijanda 

68.  Tho  Huram  Pass  nnd  Musk  Mountains 

69.  The     Kura    Valley    bvtwnoii    Uori    and 

Mtzkhut 

60.  Tiflis 

01.  Yelizavotpol  and  Vicinity  .        .        .        . 

02.  Tho  Telav  Rosin 

03.  Baku  and  (.'aph  Bail-Buuni   . 

04.  Lenkoran 

06.  Recent  Russian  Conquent* 

00.  Ararat 

07.  MoVNV  AuAiitT 

08.  Alu-giiz      ....... 

00.  Lake  Qok-chai 

70.  llie  Alapolarim  I-4iva  Htreams  . 

71.  Araxis  and  Zuiign  Basin    .        .        .        . 

72.  Ahminian  Woman 

73.  The  Kara  chui  Valley:    Kara  and  Alox- 

andrapol 

74.  Xakiiiciibvan 

T6.  Progreaa  of  Ruaaian  Conquoat    . 

76.  Fever  Districta  in  Caucaxia 

77.  Density  of  tho  Population  of  the  Caucasus 

in  1873  per  Square  Mile       .        . 

78.  Highways  in  Caucasia       .... 

79.  Section  of  the  Route  from  Vladikavkaz  to 

Jufa 

80.  Shiahs  and  Sunnitoi  in  Eastern  Caucasia  . 

81.  Baku  Harbour 

H2.  Stavropol 


FAON 
0» 
OC 

lot 

1(13 
1U3 
100 
lUH 

109 
110 
112 
117 
121 

122 
136 
126 
127 
128 
129 
131 
132 
133 
136 
136 
137 
143 
144 

146 
148 
160 
161 

163 
164 

156 
166 
167 
160 


THE  AKALO-CASPIAN  BASIN. 

83.  Routeaof  Explorera  in  the  Aralo- Caapia>. 

Baain  .        .        .  .163 

84.  Ruaaian  Encroachments  iu  Turkestan  164 

85.  Routea  of  Explorera  in  the  Eoatem  Pamir    166 
80.  Thk  Alai  and  Thann-Alai  Ranob  .        .     168 

Beli<^f  of  the  Highlanda  and  Plateaux 
between  the  Uindu-Kuah  and  Tian- 
shan    .        ....        .        .        .170 

The  Alai  Plat<>att 173 

The  Shchurovakiy  Glacier         .        .        .173 
Routea  of  Explorera  in  the  Weatem  Pamir    174 

91.  Relative  Area  of  the  Tian-ahaii,  Alps,  and 

PjTeneea 176 

92.  Relative  Relief   of  the  Tian-ahan,  Alps, 

and  Pyreneea 176 

93.  Chief  CreaU  of  the  Tian-ohan    .        .      '.177 


87 


8S 
89. 
90, 


■■:^4" 


LIST  OF  ILLUsmATIONfl. 


fio. 
04. 
SA. 


98 

W 

lot 
ii>a 

103 
11)0 
108 

I  OB 
UO 
113 
117 
121 

1-22 
126 
12« 

lar 

IM 

139 

131 
132 
133 
13A 
138 
137 
143 
144 

146 
148 
160 
I«l 

153 
164 

li6 
166 
167 
169 


163 
164 
166 
168 


170 
179 
178 
174 

176 

176 
177 


KiMtnm  (-'hnini  nf  tho  Tinn-ahnn 

Uiiiili'it  of  Kxplonm  in  tbit  F^mtcm  Tinn- 

rIiiiii 

06.  Ovia  Kahkmni,  AhoaM,  ()vi«  I'iili 

Thi)  AktoRni  I).>Hli< 

WfRttTii  ('huiim  Iff  thii  Tiiin-ahan     . 
KmitcH  of  Kxploniri  in  the  Wtntorn  Tian- 

"hiin  ....... 

100.  SiiOrii  iiikI  TiirbH)(nlai      .         .         .        , 

101,  VltlllCTATIO.lf    OK    Tim    Kr/ll.-KI'M 

lU'i.   idinKii  of  Vi'Ki'tutioii  in  TurkcHtun  . 

I'litrov  Oliicii^r 

F-owcr  I'lirt  of  tho  lir-taah  Ulutli  r  . 
The  Hir  Didtn 

I.AKM    ViLTUKIA,    OH    SaHNKIJI. 

Map  in  thu  Cutiilonian  Attn*  of  1374        , 
Viill(<y  of  tho  Ux))oi  at  tho  Aidiii  Wulla   . 

Tho  llnlkan  Oulf 

Fnundution  of  tho  Oxiu  in  1878        . 

111.  Tho  AmlHoa 

112.  Uld  Uivvr  Boda   of   the    Anilo-Coiipian 

Uaun 

113.  Ak-tnu  and  Mortviy-kultuk     . 

114.  Entranco  to  tho  Kura-boghai  .         , 
116.  'nieTuk-karagan  Lukoa 

116.  Tentiiiksor 

117.  Ogurohinikiy  Iilund        .... 

118.  Kulali  Iilund 

Turkoman  FiUAti  HsAD-imKiiN 
Tokko  Turkoman  Oaaii  in  tho  Atok 
Area  of  the  Turkoman  RaidH  8outh  of 

Kizil-arvat 

A  Wbalthy  Kikohiz     .... 
A  KiHOHiz  Woman         .... 


07. 
OH. 


103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
100. 
110. 


119. 
120. 
121. 


122. 
123. 


124.  ropulationi  of  tho  Hi  Basin     . 

126.  Saktb  Typb 

126.  Population  of  Ferghana  .... 

127.  A  Tajik  Mollah    .        .        .   '     . 

128.  KiLA-PANM,  OK  TKi  UppBit  Oxva :  Fours 

AT  THB  Foot  of  tub  Pamir     . 

129.  Eait  Badakshan 

130.  Badakshan  and  Kundiiz   .... 

131.  Bamian  Pass  and  Kundii/.  Route 

132.  Ruins  of  Bolkh  and  Mazai-i  sherif  . 

133.  Saripul  and  Shibirkhan  Valley 

134.  The  Maimene  Valley       .... 
136.  £hanates  of  Afghan  Turkestan  Wdst  of 

the  Oxus 

136.  Metv  and  Sarakhs  Cases .... 

137.  Ak-tash  Vallky  and  Mountain  . 

138.  Shehr-i-sebs  and  Karshi  .... 

139.  Bokhara  :    Ruins  in  thb  Intebiok  of 

THE  City 

140.  Ouiaof  BoUuua 

141.  Khiva 

142.  A  Minabbt  in  Khiva     .... 

143.  Khita:  Extebich  of  a  Mosqui    . 

144.  Krasnovodak  Bay 

146.  Cheleken  Island  and  Michael  Qolf  . 

146.  Hossaii-kaleh  Bay 

147.  Ashiir-adeh 

148.  Valleys  of  the  Atrek  and  Gurgen    . 

149.  Samarkand      .     - 

160.  Samabka;<d  :  Approach  to  tan  Citaobl 


FAOI 

rtu. 

17H 

161 

IHO 

162. 

INI 

1N3 

163. 

1H6 

IW. 

16). 

1H7 

liiO. 

100 

167. 

10(1 

148. 

107 

160. 

1!)H 

lUO. 

lOU 

101. 

201 

162. 

203 

200 

1 

207 

163. 

208 

.  104. 

300 

106. 

210 

160. 

211 

167. 

212 

213 

168. 

214 

100. 

31S 

216 

170. 

217 

171. 

221 

172. 

223 

173. 

224 

174. 

227 

228 

173. 

232 

176. 

233 

234 

177. 

233 

178. 

179. 

230 

180. 

241 

181. 

242 

182. 

243 

183. 

244 

246 

181. 

247 

186. 

248 

186. 

261 

187. 

264 

188. 

266 

189. 

260 

260 

190. 

261 

191. 

2S2 

102. 

-.^63 

193. 

264 

194. 

266 

267 

196. 

268 

106. 

260 

270 

197. 

271 

198. 

rAuB 
.  Mamahkanii;    Tub  Uuh-imiu  Tomh  or 

TAUBUt.ANB 273 

.  Vamxaminoh:    Uppbr  ZAUAfHiiAN    Val- 

•-■v     . 273 

.   Ointia  i,f  thn /iiriifnhiin      ....  276 

.   l''roin  Koknn  to  .Mar^^bilan                ,        ,  277 

.    KiiojiMi:  OrNBiiAi,  \'i(\v               ,        .  t79 

.   Khoji'nd  ritid  Nnighbourh  loU    .         .  380 

.   riiiiri  of  Tiiahkind 2N1 

.  A  HrurKT  in  'I'aiiiikfnii  ....  283 

.   Kiiijn  and  NciKhlMjiiriiiK  Mines       .         .  386 

.  D;  .puled  Turritory  in  Kulji*  .  .  .  286 
.  CiiiNiNK  Tti-B,  KtiiJA    .                         .287 

.  Projuctod  Railway  Lines  in  WtNtcrn  Asia  289 

SIBERIA. 

West  Siberia,  accordinjf  to  Ihiborstoin    .  203 

Sakhalin,  according  to  l.ii  P^roiiMu   .         .  206 

(k'LF  or  Cakthiks  :    La  l'/<iio(  ss  Gats  .  296 
Wotor    Highways    and   Portugos  oiro»s 

Siberia 2U8 

Duriitiuii  of  thn  Frost  and  Thaw  on  tho 

Yenisei  and  Imuh       ....  300 

Drift  Ice  on  tliu  Bunks  of  tho  Yonisni       .  3Ul 
SiiuHis  or  thh  Ybnihbi  worn  by  Ui.aiui, 

Action 302 

BaNKSOVTIuY^RNISBI:  IcE-roHMBIlLBVEB  31)4 

Climate  of  Yakutsk  .306 

Northern  Limit  uf  Forest  Vegetation  309 
Trailino     Larch     160     Years     old  : 

Quarter  of  the  natural  H,/b        .  310 
Larch  Forsst  on  thb  Booaniua,  a  Tbi- 

uutary  of  thf.  Katanga.        .        .  312 

Range  of  Animal  Species  in  North  Asia  .  313 
The  ChindagGtui,  a  Thihutary  of  the 

Irtish,  Province  or  ^BMirALATiNSK  320 

Lake  Teletzkoyo 831 

Zmei'nog^rsk 328 

Lak^  Zaisnn 330 

The  Utft-Kiiinonogorsk  Defile  .         .         .331 

Lakes  Chany  and  Sartlam  in  1870    .        .  332 

Dried-up  Streams  in  the  Bamaiil  District  334 
Projected    Canals  between  tho  Ob  and 

Yenisei                        ....  336 
Network  of  Si  roams  at  the  Ob  and  Ket 

Junction    ......  836 

Lower  Course  and  Mouth  of  the  Ob          .  337 

Lakes  and  Marshes  in  the  Iset  Basin  346 

Yekatei  inburg  and  Berezovskiy  348 
Upper    Yenisei     Basin    and    Minusinsk 

Steppes 363 

Rock    Insohiption   on    thb    Banks    of 

I  HE  Yenisei 361 

Region  of  the  Yenisei  Qold  Mines   .        .  362 

From  Krasnoyarsk  to  Kansk   .        .        .  363 

Thb  MuNKu-sAKniK  Oboup    .        .  365 

Munku-sardik  and  Kamar-daban              .  367 
Thb   "Cup"    at   thb  Soubce   of  thb 

Oka 368 

Depths  of  the  Western  Baikal                  .  370 
Thb    Anoaba  bblow   thb    Padunskiy 

Rapiii 374 

Rapids  of  the  Angara      ....  375 

Populations  of  the  Irkutsk  Qovemment  .  381 


mt 


tiii 

no. 

199. 

200. 

201. 

202. 

203. 

204. 

205. 

206. 

207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 
216. 
216. 


LIST  OP  ILLUSTBATIONS. 


PAOC 

Coast  of  the  Taimir  Peninsula          .  383 

Old  Lake  traversed  by  the  Vitim     .        .  384 

J^na  Delta 3b6 

Archipelago  of  Xew  Siberia             .        .  389 

RoutM  of  Anjou  and  Wrangcll        .        .  390 

KoNYAM  Bay  :  tub  Vboa  at  Amcuor  .  391 

Yakutsk 397 

Volcanoes  at  Cape  Fovorotnoii,  South  of 

Avacha  Bay 400 

Bering  Sea 403 

Boring  Strait 404 

Currents  of  the  Bering  Waters         .        .  406 

Avacha  Bay 416 

Plateaux  and  Highlands  of  East  Siberia  .  418 

Lake  Khanka 426 

Isthmus  of  Kici 428 

Mouths  of  the  Amur        ....  429 

Bat  of  the  Golden  Houn    ,i       .        .  430 
Bay  of  Castries        .        .        .        .        .432 


no.  TXan 

217.  Harbour  of  Olga 433 

218.  Hbubaceouh  Ybobtation  o!f  thb  Islands 

OP  thb  A^t-u 436 

219.  Blaootvrshchensk,  on  thb  Amvk  444 
22C.  Xikolayevsk 446 

221.  America  Bay 446 

222.  The  Potsiet  Inlets 447 

223.  La  P£rouse  Strait    .        .        .        .        ■  449 

224.  Sakhalin:   Capb  La  JoNQUifcBi    .        .  460 
226.  Mamia  Rinzo  Strait         .        .        .        .461 

226.  Sakhalin 468 

227.  AiNO  QiBL 464 

228.  Sakhalin:  thb  Dui  Yallbt  .        .        .  466 

229.  Port  of  MaravioT 467 

230.  Density  of  the  Siberian  Population  .        .  460 

231.  Produce  of  East  Siberian  Sablc>hunting 

from  1860  to  1866      .        .  .466 

232.  Oold-washings  in  the  Amor  Basin  .        .  468 

233.  Vladivostok  and  the  Eastern  Bosporaa  .  473 


«*w»- 


pAoa 

•             • 

433 

IB  Islands 

,               , 

435 

Imuh 

444 

,                 ^ 

446 

•                • 

446 

•                 • 

447 

,                ' 

449 

as    . 

460 

■        •        • 

461 

■        •       • 

463 

•        • 

464 

•       •        • 

466 

467 

ition . 

460 

I>le-hiinting 

•        •        • 

466 

asin  . 

468 

BospoTOS  . 

473 

«ii.«fiMAim«Mki. 


^^^«^^j^^ 

^HH^ 

iRPP^Qn^^^^^ 

'i^^r'.^^'^^j:*^^-ly'"i^}!i^^^^^^^                           '^'^  ' -'"S'v^/^ 

THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GENERAL  REMABKS  ON  ASIA. 


F  the  great  diyisions  of  the  globe  Asia  is  by  far  the  largest,  com- 
prising almost  exactly  one-third  of.  all  the  dry  land,  and  exceeding 
in  area  even  the  double  continent  of  the  New  World.  It  is  one- 
third  larger  than  Africa,  and  five  times  more  extensive  than 
Europe,  which  may  in  some  respects  be  regarded  as  one  of  its 
peninsular  appendages.  Excluding  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  eastern  districts  of 
the  government  of  Perm,  it  has  a  total  area  of  16,776,000  square  miles,  and 
including  Japan,  the  Philippines,  and  Malaysia,  17,930,000  square  miles. 

But  if  it  takes  the  foremost  rank  in  size,  it  is  far  inferior  even  to  Europe  in 
the  variety  of  its  peninsular  forms,  in  the  development  of  its  coast-line,  in  the 
extent  to  which  the  ocean  inlets,  and  with  them  the  marine  climate,  penetrate 
into  the  heart  of  the  land ;  nor  does  it,  like  Europe,  present  the  great  advantage 
of  geographical  imity.  Divided  by  lofty  tablelands  and  old  sea-beds  into 
absolutely  distinct  regions,  it  embraces  vast  rainless  tracts,  where  the  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  cold,  and  even  the  rarbfaotion  of  the  air  o£Per  great  di£Bculties 
to  the  migrations  of  its  inhabitants,  the  more  so  that  the  opposite  slopes  are  not 
connected  together  by  natural  valley  routes  like  those  of  the  Alps.  Asia  may 
thus  have  given  birth  to  many  local  civilisations,  but  Europe  alone  could  have 
inherited  them,  by  their  ftision  raising  them  to  a  higher  culture,  in  which  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth  may  one  day  take  a  part. 

Plateaux — Highlands  and  Lowlands. 

Compared  with  the  other  continents,  Asia  is  essentially  the  region  of  table- 
lands.   Were  the  dry  land  to  subside  uniformly,  All  the  other  regions  of  the 
1 


I 


^      ' 


',     -■ 


f 


%  ASIiTIO  BUS8IA. 

globe  would  have  long  disappeared,  or  would  be  indicated  at  most  by  narrow 
islands  and  peaks,  while  the  lofty  uplands  of  Central  Asia,  with  the  ranges 
skirting  them,  still  rose  above  the  surrounding  waters.  The  plateaux  of  Asia,  with 
the  regions  enclosed  by  them,  form,  so  to  say,  a  continent  within  a  continent, 
differing  in  its  climate,  its  flora,  fauna,  and  inhabitants  from  the  surrounding 
species.  Rising  in  some  places  to  a  height  of  20,000  feet  und  upwards,  these 
plateaux  give  to  the  whole  of  Asia  a  mean  altitude  greater  than  that  of  the  other 
quarters  of  the  globe.  Humboldt  calculated  the  mean  of  the  Asiatic  continent  at 
1,165  feet,  which  on  more  recent  information  Kriimmel  raises  to  1,650  feet,  or 
one-third  more  than  that  of  Europe. 

The  Asiatic  coast-line  is  more  diversified  than  that  of  Africa  or  South 
America,  especially  on  the  south  side,  which  is  varied  with  large  peninsulas, 
gulfs,  and  islands.  But  the  central  mass,  including  the  plateaux  and  deserts, 
presents  a  great  uniformity  of  outline.  This  region,  limited  southwards  by  the 
Himalayas,  Dapsang,  and  Earakortim,  almost  everywhere  presents  other  lofty 
ranges — in  the  west  the  numerous  crests  of  the  Pumir,  in  the  north-west  the 
Tian-shan,  in  the  north  the  Altai,  in  the  north-east  and  east  the  several  chains 
separated  by  intervening  river  valleys.  This  upland  tract,  which  includes  Tibet, 
Kushgaria,  and  the  Gobi.  Desert,  presents  the  form  of  a  vast  trapeze  gradually 
narrowing  towards  the  west.  Near  its  south-west  angle  there  rises  a  lofty 
mountain  nucleus  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Himalayas  and  Earakor&m,  and 
marking  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  continent.  From  this  central  mass, 
which  is  otherwise  less  elevated  than  many  other  Asiatic  mountain  systems,  there 
radiate  three  vast  plains  and  as  many  tablelands,  disposed  like  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel.  The  lowlands  are  the  plain  of  Tatary  in  the  north-west,  the  Tarim  basin 
in  the  east,  and  iq  the  south  and  south-east  the  depression  furrowed  by  the  Indus 
and  Ganges;  the  highlands  are  the  Pamir,  Tibet,  and  Iran.  The  last  named 
doubtless  begins  with  the  Hindu-Eusb,  a  mountain  range  separating  the  Indus 
and  Oxus  valleys ;  but  this  mass  is  of  very  small  extent,  and  the  uplands  attached 
to  it,  while  less  extensive  and  less  elevated,  are  more  geometrical  in  their  outlines 
than  those  of  Tibet.  The  Iranian  tableland,  comprising  most  of  Afghanistan, 
Baluchistan,  and  Persia,  forms  a  trapeze  whose  northern  and  southern  sides  are 
almost  perfectly  parallel. 

In  the  north-west  this  plateau  is  continued  through  Kurdistan,  Armenia,  and 
Asia  Minor,  by  other  lofty  upbnds  overlooking  the  waters  of  the  Euxine  and 
Mediterranean.  Thus  nearly  the  whole  of  the  continent  is  intersected  by  an 
elevated  mass,  forming  in  the  west  a  single,  in  the  east  a  double  line,  separating 
the  northern  and  southern  slopes,  and  leaving  between  them  a  few  gateways  only, 
through  which  passed  the  great  historical  routes  of  migration.  In  the  centre  of 
East  Asia  the  Euen-lun  forms  a  continuation  of  the  Hindu-Eush  and  more 
westerly  systems.  Though  its  crests  fall  short  of  the  extreme  height  attained  by 
those  of  the  Himalayas,  this  rang^e  is  on  the  whole  the  most  elevated  on  the  globe, 
and  probably  stretches  eastwards  across  42°  of  the  meridian,  or  for  a  distance  of 
2,300  miles.     It  thus  forms  the  eastern  half  of  the  continental  axis,  and  is  much 


» *»MiiVwmmmmmmmmmim 


HMMi 


PLATEAUX-HIGHLANDS  AND  LOWLANDS.  8 

more  regular  in  outline  than  the  western,  running  in  the  direction  of  Europe. 
The  term  "  Diaphragm,"  restricted  by  the  Greeks  to  the  mountains  on  the  north 
Iranian  frontier,  might  equally  well  be  extended  to  the  whole  parting  line  from 
the  Eastern  Euen-lun  to  the  Anatolian  Taurus.  This  would  thus  correspond  with 
the  European  diaphragm  formed  by  the  Pyrenees,  Cevennes,  Alps,  and  Balkans, 
and  roughly  continuing  the  line  of  the  Asiatic  "  Great  Divide."  But  in  the 
European  section,  with  its  rare  tablelands  and  convenient  passes,  how  much  more 
numerous  are  the  gaps  and  breaks  of  continuity,  facilitating  the  movements  of 
migration  from  slope  to  slope ! 

The  ranges  skirting  or  towering  above  the  Asiatic  tablelands  are  mostly  of 
striking  regularity  in  their  line  of  direction,  and  several  consist  of  distinct  ridges, 

Fig.  I.— Plateaux  txm  Plainu  of  Gintbau  Ahia. 
Sesle  1 :  91,000,000. 


70- 


60* 


ErerSr. 


Begioiia  abore  «;^M»  XM. 


ItegioiM  Iwiow  6,600  UNt 


.800  MOm. 


all  running  parallel  to  each  other.  The  Himalayas,  cnlminating  with  Mount 
Everest,  or  Ghrarisankar,  "  the  Radiant,"  tlie  highest  pcdnt  on  the  globe,  develop 
along  the  northern  f^ntier  of  India  a  perfect  arc,  whose  focus  might  be  in  the 
very  heart  of  Central  Asia.  The  whole  system,  including  both  the  Terai  Hills  of 
Hindustan,  and  the  Dapsang,  Earakordm,  and  other  ranges  of  South  Tibet,  also 
runs  in  parallel  curves  north  and  south  of  the  main  range.  In  the  same  way  the 
Kuen-lnn  comprises  a  great  many  ridges,  all  developing  uniformly  parallel  lines. 

This  well>marked  parallelism  recurs  in  m6st  of  the  systems  of  Siberia,  China, 
Cis  and  Transgangetic  India,  Irania,  and  Western  Asia.  Speiiking  generally, 
the  main  continental  ranges  may  be  sidd  to  run  chiefly  in  two  directions — east- 
south-east  to  west-north-west   (Altai,  TarbagataX,  Western  Himalayas,  Iranian 


n 


I 


km 


■s:^\ 


4  ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 

Mountains,  and  Caucasus),  and  east  to  west,  or  rather  east-north-east  to  west- 
south-west  (Tian-shan,  most  of  the  Siberian  chains,  and  those  converging  on  the 
Pamir  tableland).  In  many  places  the  ranges  forming  curves  with  their  convex 
sides  facing  southwards,  by  their  intersections,  give  rise  to  entanglements  and 
overlappings  which  disturb  the  general  uniformity  of  the  mountain  systems. 
Thus  the  ridges  forming  a  continuation  of  the  Himalayas  and  Dapsang  intersect, 
east  of  the  Pamir,  the  reg^ular  chains  running  parallel  to  the  Tian-shan  and 
Altai.  To  these  crossings  are  probably  due  the  elevated  masses  of  Eizil-yart  and 
Tagharraa,  rising  above  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Pamir,  and  from  remote  times 

Fig.  2. — Fahallklibm  of  thi  Vain  Asiatic  Ranobs. 
Aeoordinv  to  BlohUiafeii  for  the  Central  Aiiatio  Bangs*.    Scale  1 :  180,000,000. 


.  SilOOOXiiN. 


known  to  the  Chinese  as  the  Tsung-ling,  or  "  Onion  Mount«ins,"  from  the  wild 
garlic  covering  all  their  slopes.  Out  of  these  groups  has  been  created  the 
imaginary  Bolor  range,  to  which  Humboldt  had  assigned  a  paramount  importance 
in  the  orographic  structure  of  Asia. 

Asia,  like  Surope,  runs  mainly  east  and  west,  a  geographical  fact  which  has 
had  enormous  influence  on  the  development  of  mankind.  While  Europe  and 
Asia  occupy  over  half  of  the  earth's  circumference  east  and  west,  but  a  fourth  part 
only  taken  north  and  south,  the  New  World,  confined  between  the  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  Oceans,  stretches  precisely  in  the  inverse  direction,  across  more  than  a 
third  of  the  periphery  from  the  Arctic  nearly  to  the  Antazotio  Circle.    The 


■aMMMMMMMHIHMPM 


PLATEAUX-HIGHLANDS  AND  LOWLANDS.  5 

contrast  is  complete  in  the  general  disposition  of  the  two  continental  groups,  so 
that  1.  .ra,  fauna,  and  races  all  present  analogous  contrasts.  In  Asia  the  species  are 
easily  diffused  from  one  extremity  of  the  continent  to  the  other  by  following  the 
parallels  of  latitude,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  breaks  of  continuity,  wherever 
the  upland  plateaux  present  an  obstocle  to  their  progress.  From  the  pkins  of  the 
Oxus  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  races  have  Laa  variously  displaced  without  meeting 
with  chmates  greatly  differing  from  their  own.     Hence  the  mutual  influences 

Vig.  3. — MovMT  Etubst. 


and  tiie  elements  of  a  common  civilisation  spread  over  vast  spaces.  The  same 
oauae  secured  the  inevitable  intermingling  of  all  the  European  and  Asiatic  races, 
generally  producing,  in  these  two  divisions  of  the  Old  World,  a  certain  unity 
contrasting  forcibly  with  the  diversity  characteristic  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
Here  the  migrations  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north,  were  necessarily 
confined  to  much  narrower  limits,  the  ordinary  obstacles  presented  by  plateaux  and 
highlands  being  intensified  by  thoae  flowing  from  differences  of  latitude.    Special 


MMi 


RMM 


6  ASIATIC  BUS8IA. 

civilisations  were  thus  developed  in  favoured  regions,  which  had  no  more  than  a 
distant  influence  on  each  other,  and  the  peoples  remained  almost  everywhere 
without  coherence  or  any  common  bonds  of  union.  For  how  could  the  Eskimo 
share  in  a  common  culture  with  the  Prairie  Indians,  or  these  with  the  Mexicans, 
Mayas,  Muiscas,  Quichuas,  Aymarns,  Quaranis,  PatagnniansP  It  was  even 
through  the  interference  of  Europe  that  the  American  aborigines  were  destined 
to  receive  the  first  impulse  which  caused  them  to  become  members  of  the  common 
human  family.  Thanks  to  the  position  of  the  two  continents  stretching  across  the 
northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  Europeans  of  difierent  climates — Portuguese, 
Spaniards,  Italians,  French,  English,  Scotch,  Scandinavians — have  been  able  to 
settle  north  and  south  of  the  equator  in  regions  whose  climates  resembled  their 
own,  thus  founding  in  the  two  zones  a  new  England,  a  new  Spain,  and  for  a 
time  a  now  France. 

Geological  FoRMAnoNS — Ionbovs  Forces. 

Still  but  partially  explored  as  a  whole,  Asia  remains  even  now  to  a  large  extent 
an  imperfectly  known  region.  The  western  section,  Siberia,  with  some  of  the 
highlands  separating  it  from  the  central  plateau,  India,  and  various  tracts  of 
Further  India  and  Ohina  are  the  parts  whose  iormations,  disposed  in  the  same 
order  as  in  Europe,  have  already  been  studied  and.  classed  by  the  geologist. 
Crystalline  rooks,  old  schists,  paleeozoic  strata,  are  the  chief  constituents  of  the 
Siberian  highlands.  The  Euen-lun  and  the  £arakorilm  seem  also  to  belong  to 
the  primitive  structure  of  the  continent,  whereas  the  Himalayas,  while  resting  on 
crystalline  masses,  have  been  more  recently  upheaved  during  the  secondary  and 
tertiary  periods.  An  idea  of  the  tremendous  disturbances  that  have  here  taken 
place  may  be  had  from  the  fact  that  the  eocene  strata  near  Leh  have  been  raised 
to  a  height  of  11,650  feet. 

The  tracts  covered  with  molten  lava  occupy  a  great  part  of  the  periphery  of 
the  continent.  Yoloanio  eminences  occur  in  Siam  and  Pegu;  half  of  the  Ganges 
peninsula  is  strewn  with  igneous  rooks ;  hot  springy  and  mud  volcanoes  bubble 
up  on  the  crests  of  argillaceous  cones  on  the  Mekran  coast,  and  near  the 
Helmand  ;  extinct  craters  are  met  in  South-west  Arabia  and  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  as  well  as  in  Abyssinia,  on  the  opposite  coast ;  the  Hejaz  also,  and  the 
Sinai  peninsula,  have  their  ancient  lava  streams ;  in  Asia  Minor  we  meet  with  the 
burnt  plains  of  Oappadocia,  "  Phlegrsean  Fields"  like  those  of  Italy,  the  Hassan 
Dagh,  Arg^us,  and  other  mountains  of  igneous  origin ;  in  Armenia,  Mounts 
Ararat,  Alagoz,  and  Abul  are  of  the  same  character ;  and  Elbiirz,  giant  of  the 
Caucasus,  is  also  an  old  volcano,  while  the  two  extremities  of  this  range  are 
marked  by  boiling  mud  and  naphtha  wells.  Laistly,  Demavend,  rising  majesti- 
cally above  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  is  a  burning  mountain,  whose 
crater  is  not  yet  quite  extinct. 

The  northern  ranges,  which  under  various  names  separate  Russian  Turkestan 
and  Siberia  from  the  Chinese  Empire,  must  be  regarded  as  forming  a  section  of 


u  liuw  uiiltwi*  9'*mM^m 


■^■■■itMMn 


GEOLOGICAL  FOEMATIONS— IGNEOUS  F0BCE8. 


the  vast,  though  frequently  interrupted,  ridge  stretching  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  Africa  to  that  of  the  New  World,  and  forming  un  immense  crescent 
round  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans.  But  within  this  is  another  crescent,  the 
"fiery  circle"  already  traced  by  Leopold  von  Buch.  Starting  from  the  volcanoes 
of  New  Zealand,  it  runs  through  the  Philippines  and  along  the  Asiatic  seaboard 
northwards,  through  Japan  and  the  Kuriles,  to  the  Aleutian  archipelago  and 
Alaska,  whence  it  is  continued  in  a  south-easterly  direction  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Magellan  Strait.  In  the  Asiatic  section  of  this  crescent  the  active  or  barely 
quiescent  volcanoes  are  reckoned  by  the  hundred,  though  the  only  fiery  cones 
still  active  on  the  mainland  are  those  of  Kamchatka,  which  counert  the  Euriles 
with  the  Aleutian  group. 

In  some  regions  of  the  interior  there  also  occur  masses  of  scoria  and  lava 
streums,  but  the  craters  whence  they  flowed  have  been  extinct  either  since  the 
second  half  of  the  tertiary  period,  or  at  least  for  some  centuries.  The  doubts 
formerly  thrown  on  the  reality  of  the  active  volcanoes  mentioned  in  the  Chinese 
records,  and  often  referred  to  by  Humboldt,  have  not  yet  been  finally  disposed  of. 
The  observations  made  by  Stoliezka,  who  fancied  he  had  traversed  a  volcanic 
district  with  basalt  rooks  in  the  distance,  have  been  called  in  question.  But 
west  of  Irkutsk  the  valley  of  a  tributary  of  the  Oka  is  filled  by  a  vast 
lava  stream,  above  which  rise  two  craters.  Other  craters  occur  in  the  valley  of 
the  Irkut,  and  other  lava  streams  farther  east,  in  the  basin  of  the  Jida,  near 
Selenghinsk,  and  on  the  Yitim  plateau,  near  the  north-east  angle  of  Lake  Baikal. 
Lavas  and  basalts  have  also  flown  from  the  neighbouring  Okhotsk  Mountains, 
while  vestiges  of  recent  eruptions  occur  in  most  of  the  terraced  mountains  of 
Siberia  flanking  the  north-west  side  of  the  Mongolian  plateaux. 

The  suspension  of  the  lava  streams  arises  firam  the  almost  total  disappearance 
of  the  saline  lakes  formerly  filling  tbe  great  depressions  of  Oentral  Asia.  Never- 
theless there  is  a  volcanic  tract  in  the  east  of  the  continent  south  of  A'igun,  and 
540  miles  from  the  coast,  where  eruptions  certainly  took  place  in  1721  and  1722. 
The  detailed  reports  of  the  Chinese  savants  brought  to  light  by  Yasilyev  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  this  fact,  which  should  perhaps  be  explained  by  the  number  of  lakes 
and  swamps  still  found  on  the  plateau. 

The  oscillations  which  have  given  its  prMent  form  to  the  continent  are  still 
going  on  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  enable  observers  to  detect  them  along  a  great 
extent  of  the  seaboard.  Thus  there  can  be  scarcely  any  doubt  that  the  northern 
shores  of  Siberia  are  slowly  rising  above  the  Arctic  Ocean,  for  islands  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  standing  at  some  distance  from  the  coast  are  now 
connected  with  it,  not  by  sand-banks,  but  by  the  rooky  bed  of  the  sea.  Similar 
phenomena  have  been  observed  in  the  ^gean  and  Black  Seas,  as  well  as  along 
the  east  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  shown  by  the  upheaved  coral  banks  fringing 
the  coast  of  Arabia.  Traces  of  recent  upheaval  have  likewise  been  noted  on  the 
shores  of  Baluchistan  and  Malabar,  in  Ceylon,  British  Burmah,  East  China,  about 
the  Amur  delta,  and  in  Kamchatka. 

Symptoms  of  subsidence,  so  much  more  easily   recognised  than  the  upward 


m 


ftt^'ssa^^-  i>f-,M^*!r  •  ■«-  X'  ■'fl^'iv  r 


8 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


motion,  huve  hitherto  been  detected  only  at  a  very  few  points  along  the  Aaiatio 
■eabourd.  A  part  of  the  ooaat  of  Syria,  the  Great  Western  Runn  between  the 
Indus  delta  and  Eatch,  the  shores  of  Fo-kien,  Ton-kin,  and  Coohin  Ohina,  are  at 
present  subsiding.  But  the  movement  is  most  perceptible  in  the  Laooadives  and 
Maldives,  where  the  atolls,  or  circular  coral  reefs,  are  slowly  disappearing, 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  busy  polyps  to  keep  them  above  the  surface. 
The  Chagos  Bank  has  already  been  entirely  engulfed. 

•  > 

CuMATE — Diminution  of  Moisture. 

The  great  elevation  of  the  Asiatic  plateaux,  with  an  atmosphere  twice  as 
rarefied  as  that  of  the  lowlands,  modifies  to  a  remarkable  extent  the  normal 
climate  of  the  continent.     Already  as  a  whole  far  more  extensive  than  Europe, 

Fig.  4. — ^TuB  Han-haK  :  a  ouid-vf  8ba-bid. 
Aeeording  to  Biohthoftn.    Betlt  1 :  81,000,000. 


6aaAy  or  Stonr  DcMtt. 


UphMvad  IdamU.       Beoent  LaeaifaiM  Depnatau. 


and  consequently  less  exposed  to  oceanic  influences,  it  everywhere  receives  a 
proportionately  less  amount  of  moisture.  But  the  central  portions,  being  almost 
completely  encircled  by  mountains  which  arrest  the  course  of  wet  or  snowy  winds, 
receive  far  less  humidity  than  the  average  rain&Il  of  the  rest  of  the  continent. 
Still  the  maritime  slopes  of  the  plateaux  and  highlands  do  not  retain  all  the 
moisture  brought  by  the  winds,  so  that  torrents  and  even  rivers  furrow  the  slopes 
facing  inland.  Some  of  these  streams  ultimately  find  their  way  to  the  ocean, 
but  most  of  them  run  dry  either  in  the  "cirques "  where  they  rise,  or  at  a  lower 
elevation,  or  else  in  the  deep  and  binding  depression  stretching  south-west  and 
north-east,  between  the  Euen-lun  and  the  Tian-shan  and  Altai  mountam  vjrstems. 
At  a  time  when  these  waters  were  more  abundant  the  whole  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  great  Asiatic  depression  was  filled  by  a  vast  sea  nearly  as  long,  east  and  west, 


mMiiiiimmmiiam 


45- 


35* 


AREAS  OF  INLAND  DRAINAGE. 


0 


as  the  Mediterranoan,  but  somewhat  narrower.  This  dried-up  soa,  the  Han-hai 
of  the  Chinese,  seems  to  have  stood  about  5,000  feet  above  the  actual  sea-level, 
roJt:  a  depth  in  some  places  of  3,000  feet.  It  occupied  between  Tibet  and  the 
Tian-shan  range  all  the  present  Tarim  basin,  forming  between  the  Tian-shan  and 
Altai  a  ramifying  gulf,  which  Richthofen  has  called  the  "  Zungariun  Basin." 
Eastwards  it  joined  the  Chamo  basin  through  a  strait  studded  with  islands,  all 
running  in  the  same  direction  us  the  Tian-shan.  At  present  this  depression  is 
divided  by  slight  elevations  into  secondary  cavities,  each  with  its  dried-up 
river  beds  and  marshes,  or  saline  incrustations,  last  remnants  of  what  was  once 
the  Asiatic  Mediterranean. 

In  spite  of  the  different  elevations  and  latitudes,  a  singular  uniformity  is 
imparted  to  all  these  inland  regions  by  the  general  sterility  of  the  soil,  the 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  sudden  vicissitudes  of  temperature.  The 
rolling  steppes  of  red  earth  in  the  Altai  region ;  the  argillaceous  plateaux,  heavy  and 
grey  like  a  sea  of  congealed  mud ;  the  less  monotonous  districts,  varied  here  and 
there  by  a  few  protruding  rocks ;  the  deserts  where  orescent  sandy  dunes  drive 
like  mighty  billows  before  the  wind ;  lastly,  the  stony  plains  strewn  with  frag- 
ments of  quartz,  chalcedony,  jasper,  camelians,  amethysts,  released  from  their  less 
solid  and  vanished  matrices,  weathered  to  dust  and  dispersed  by  the  winds — all 
these  regions  form  a  monotonous  whole  sublime  in  the  very  simplicity  of  their 
lines.  On  these  vast  tablelands,  crossed  from  horizon  to  horizon  by  long  furrows 
like  the  ground-swell  produced  by  the  trade  winds,  caravans  wind  their  way 
for  days  and  weeks  through  a  changeless  scene  of  dreary  majesty.  Even  the 
descent  from  the  plateaux  towards  the  deep  depressions  produces  little  change. 
The  upland  steppe,  3  miles  above  sea-level,  the  bed  of  the  dried-up  Mediterranean, 
the  naked  lands  of  Tibet  and  the  Northern  Gobi,  separated  from  each  other  by 
18°  of  latitude,  present  everywhere  the  same  uniform  aspect,  broken  only  by  a 
few  oasecf,  whose  fresh-water  streams,  with  their  fringe  of  rich  herbage,  contrast 
forcibly  with  the  bare  mountain  crags  and  steppes  of  the  surrounding  plateaux. 
The  species  of  indigenous  plants  are  nowhere  numerous,  and  even  by  the  running 
waters  few  trees  are  met  except  the  poplar  and  willow.  The  nomad  shep- 
herds, who  drive  their  flocks  from  the  lowlands  to  the  uplands,  13,000  to  20,000 
feet  above  sea-level,  are  little  affected  by  -the  change.  How  different  all  this 
from  the  contrast  presented  in  Europe  by  the  luxuriant  plains  of  Lombardy  with 
the  rug;ged  Alpine  heights  I  ■■         ' 

Areas  of  Inland  Drainaob. 

The  expression  "Central  Asia"  is  by  the  Russians  wrongly  applied  to  the 
part  of  the  continent  bordering  on  Europe,  and  lying  within  the  same  Aralo-Caspian 
depression  as  the  portion  of  Russia  watered  by  the  Volga  and  its  tributaries. 
Richthofen  more  correctly  restricts  this  term  to  the  Han-hai'  depression,  and  the 
Tibetan  tablelands  whose  waters  evaporate  without  forming  streams.  This  part 
of  the  continent  is,  in  fact,  distinguished  from  all  the  surrounding  regions  by  the 


10 


ASIATIC  EU88IA. 


ciroumstunoo  that  the  detritua  of  the  plateaux  and  highlands  caused  by  weathering 
and  erosion  remains  in  the  basin  itself,  whereas  it  is  elsewhere  regularly  carried 
u\^ay  to  the  sea.  The  general  movement  of  Oentrul  Asia  proper  is  centripetal, 
that  of  the  periphery  centrifugal.  But  on  the  Pamir,  forming  the  wuter-parting 
between  China  and  the  Caspian,  there  also  occur  closed  cirques,  whose  waters  do 
not  reach  the  lowlands.  Afghanistan  and  the  Persian  tableland  have  also  their 
isolated  basinn,  their  land-locked  takes  and  marshes;  and  Asia  Minor  itself 
presents  saline  lakes  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  the  sea,  notwithstanding 
the  greater  relative  abundance  of  the  rainfall  in  this  sea-girt  region.  The  plains 
of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  even  India,  also  comprise  vast  spaces  whose  waters  have  no 
outlet  towards  the  sea.  Lastly,  the  Aralo-Caspian  depression  is  now  a  laud- 
locked  basin,  or  rather  forms  a  group  of  distinct  basins  like  that  of  the  Chinese 
Mediterranean,  with  which  they  seem  to  have  formerly  communicated  through 
the  Straits  of  Zungaria.  Before  the  present  geological  epoch  the  Caspian,  Aral, 
Balkash,  and  countless  other  lakes  of  smaller  size  were  successively  isolated  like 
those  of  the  Han-haK.  But  the  two  depressions  of  Western  and  Central  Asia 
present  a  complete  contrast,  the  one  in  the  generally  horizontal  direction  of  its 
plains,  the  other  in  the  great  relief  of  the  surrounding  highlands. 

Taken  collectively,  all  the  Asiatic  regions  with  no  outlets  seawards  have 
an  area  of  perhaps  4,000,000  square  miles,  equal  to  that  of  the  whole  of 
Europe.  This  arid  tract  is  connected  through  the  Arabian  peninsula  with  the 
zone  of  waterless  deserts  occupying  nearly  the  whole  of  Africa  between  the 
Mediterranean  seaboard  and  Sudan.  Thus  all  the  eastern  hemisphere  is  crossed 
obliquely  by  a  belt  of  arid  regions,  which  barely  fringes  the  south-east  corner  of 
Europe,  and  is  divided  in  nearly  equal  proportions  between  Asia  and  Africa. 
Historic  evidence  shows  that  for  the  last  four  thousand  years  a  large  portion  of 
Central  Asia  has  been  dried  up.  At  one  time  the  region  of  Lake  Lob  was 
occupied  by  a  vast  inland  sea,  the  Li-ha'i,  or  "  Western  Sea,"  forming  a  con- 
siderable section  of  the  ancient  Han-ha'i.  But  as  the  process  of  desiccation 
progressed  this  term  had  to  be  transferred  from  the  Turim  basin  to  the  Caspian. 
Skilfully  planned  works  of  irrigation  may  have  here  and  there  created  a  few 
small  oases,  but  the  loss  of  habitable  land  has  been  enormous.  Whole  kingdoms 
have  disappeared,  many  cities  have  been  swallowed  up  in  the  sands,  and  certain 
tracts,  formerly  accessible  to  travellers,  can  no  longer  be  visited,  owing  to  the 
total  absence  of  water  and  vegetation.  Inhabited  districts  south  of  the  Lob-nor, 
traversed  by  Marco  Polo,  are  now  inaccessible.  Even  beyond  the  larg^  Asiutic 
basins  on  the  South  Siberian  and  Mongolian  plateaux  the  same  phenomenon  of 
gradual  absorption  is  perceptible,  especially  in  the  west.  East  of  Lake  Baikal 
the  ancient  sheets  of  water  filling  the  cavities  and  terraces  have  been  replaced  by 
countless  lakelets,  tarns,  marshes,  forming  an  ever-changing  watery  labyrinth. 
From  the  Baikal  to  the  Amur,  fW)m  the  Argun  to  the  Khingan  Mountains,  the 
land  is  studded  with  these  lacustrine  bodies,  recalling  a  time  when  the  country 
exhibited  the  same  aspect  as  the  present  Finland. 

East  of  the  western  Chinese  closed  basin  the  erosive  action  of  running  waters 


mmi 


wouthoring 
irly  carried 
oontri  petal, 
ter-parting 
B  waters  do 
e  also  their 
[inor  itself 
ithstanding 
The  plains 
»ra  have  no 
[)w  a  laud- 
bhe  Chinese 
3d  through 
ipian,  Aral, 
solated  like 
entral  Asia 
otion  of  its 

nrards  have 
e  whole  of 
la  with  the 
)etween  the 
e  is  crossed 
At  corner  of 
md  Africa. 
:e  portion  of 
:e  Lob  was 
ting  a  con- 
desiccation 
the  Caspian. 
)ated  a  few 
le  kingdoms 
and  certain 
ring  to  the 
he  Lob-nor, 
irg^  Asiatic 
iuomenon  of 
L<ake  Baikal 
replaced  by 
f  labyrinth, 
luntains,  the 
the  country 

tning  waters 


•miM 


ji.^  .n''j''  I.'.!  sWWWf-^'^'^si'*^ 


M]iJ4l^MltL«iUjliiirWJi|imil<WBllM»IJJ>lWWMiJ!iB«^^ 


ARKA8  OF  INLAND  DUAINAOK. 


11 


han  exoavutiHl  vuHt  oailona,  ruvcaliiig  the  (^lof^icul  Htruoturu  of  tho  uld  hod  of  the 
•teppoi.  Fur  u  Hpuuo  fur  hir^vr  than  the  whole  of  Frunco,  North  Chiiiii  is 
ooinp«>iod  of  a  yellow  clay,  in  «ume  places  1,600  to  2,000  foot  thick.  In  the 
prurince  of  Shuu-ni  the  atinoaphoro  ii  nearly  alwuya  churned  with  thia  dunt, 
which  gives  a  yellow  hu«  to  roudu,  houses,  tree*,  fields,  way  furors.  This 
"Yellow  I^nd  "  (IIoang<tu)  ^as  ^ivun  its  name  to  tho  Yellow  Uivur  (ITouiig-ho), 
which  hours  its  uUuvium  to  the  Yol[(rv  8«^;i  (Huang-hai).  Tho  clity  is  exactly 
like  tho  loess  of  the  JUuue  and  Danube  valleys  of  alluvial  ur  glacial  origin.     It 


S 


llg,  4.— Auo  HioioMs  AND  OLorao  fiAflNH  or  Asu. 
OostponC  PrnJwH'ti.      OoaU  1  :  IXiOMMXIO. 


OMMf*. 


TTMti  with  no  onUat  iMmKla. 
8,000  Milw. 


is  not  perceptibly  stratified  like  aqueous  deposits,  nor  does  it  contain  fluvial  shells, 
but  only  the  remains  of  land  molluscs.  Throughout  its  whole  thickness  it  is 
pierced  by  vertical  holes  variously  ramified,  evidently  caused  by  the  roots  of 
countless  plants,  above  which  the  dust  of  the  soil  has  been  successively  accumu- 
lated. Through  this  porous  soil  the  water  percolates  rapidly,  except  where  roads 
have  been  formed,  destroying  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  clay.  According  to 
Richthofen,  this  yellow  earth  is  nothing  more  than  the  soil  of  tho  steppes  formerly 
deposited  by  the  winds  in  the  closed  basins.  ' 


12 


ASIATIC  EIJSSIA. 


The  erosion  of  these  vast  accumulations  is  effected  by  the  infiltration  of  water. 
Wells  are  sunk,  and  underground  galleries  opened  here  and  there,  over  which  the 
clay  vaults  sink  in.  Thus  are  formed  ravines  with  vertical  walls  ramifying  in  all 
directions.  In  many  places  the  plateau  seems  perfectly  horizontal ;  yet  it  is  out 
up  into  so  many  fragments  connected  by  narrow  isthmuses  that  the  traveller, 
unaccompanied  by  a  guide,  would  inevitably  lose  his  way.  The  erosion  is 
incessantly  advancing  in  the  west,  where  nothing  remains  in  many  river 
valleys  except  isolated  vertical  masses  assuming  the  form  of  walls,  turreted 
castles,  or  keeps.  Many  of  these  blocks  have  even  been  converted  into  strong- 
holds pierced  with  invisible  caverns,  affording  shelter  to  their  occupants.  By  a 
remarkable  contrast,  this  clay,  formerly  covering  uninhabited  wastes,  now  yields 
the  heaviest  crops  in  the  irrigated  districts.  The  yellow  earth  even  serves  as  a 
manure  for  the  neighbouring  lands.  The  Tibetan  plateaux  would  seem  to  be  also 
composed  of  a  similar  clay,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  geological  pheno- 
mena are  taking  place  corresponding  exactly  with  those  of  the  Upper  Hoang-ho 
basin.  In  their  aggregate  all  the  geographical  zones  of  Eastern  Asia  may  be 
said  to  have  shifted  westwards.  The  ravines  of  the  Yellow  Land  encroach  on  the 
plateaux,  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho  and  its  tributaries  advance  continually 
farther  inland,  the  coast-line  itself  stretched  formerly  farther  eastwards,  and 
Japan  and  the  Euriles  are  probably  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Asiatic  seaboard. 

ItlVERS   FliOWING   SeAWARDS. 

On  the  northern  slope  of  the  continent  the  waters  drain  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
through  the  three  mighty  rivers  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  though  they  flow  freely 
for  a  portion  only  of  the  year.  In  these  northern  latitudes  the  streams  are  ice-bound 
or  blocked  for  eight  or  nine  months,  besides  which  Uieir  navigation  is  extremely 
tedious  between  frozen  tundras  destitute  of  towns,  villages,  or  cultivated  lands. 
The  sea  voyages  from  Europe  to  the  mouths  of  the  great  Siberian  rivers  did  not 
begin  till  about  1600  under,  the  Ozar  Boris  Godunov,  but  a  few  years  thereafter 
a  decree  of  the  Russian  Government  closed  all  trade  with  the  Siberian  coast, 
which  was  not  reopened  till  1869  by  the  Norwegians  Oarlsen  and  Johannesen. 
The  Lena,  however,  was  ascended  for  the  first  time  in  1878  by  a  vessel  accom- 
panying that  of  Nordenskjold.  But  though  the  communication  is  now  fully 
established  between  Europe  and  the  Siberian  estuaries,  this  result  can  have  but 
little  economic  importance  so  long  as  these  northern  lands  remain  tmpeopied. 
Out  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  ice  and  the  bleak  wastes  of  the  seaboard, 
the  Siberian  rivers,  though  flowing  to  the  open  sea,  may  be  said  to  possess  no 
more  interest  for  uian  than  if  they  drained  to  inland  basins.  Even  the  Amur, 
flowing  under  a  more  favourable  climate  eastwards  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk,  is 
ice-bound  for  eis.  months  in  the' year.  Thus  fully  half  of  Asia,  consisting  either 
of  inland  depressions  or  of  valleys  without  easy  outlets,  is  deprived  of  the 
advantages  derived  by  most  other  regions  from  their  running  waters. 

From  the  Pet-chi-li  to  the  Persian  Gulf  most  of  the  coast  lands  are  abundantly 


MWMili 


mMm 


tion  of  water, 
'er  which  the 
lifying  in  all 

yet  it  is  out 
the  traveller, 
le  erosion   is 

many  river 
alls,  turreted 
I  into  strong- 
ipants.    By  a 
!s,  now  yields 
en  serves  as  a 
iem  to  be  also 
logical  pheno- 
per  Hoang-ho 
1  Asia  may  be 
icroach  on  the 
se  continually 
astwards,   and 
ic  seaboard. 


Arctic  Ocean 
bey  flow  freely 
s  are  ice-bound 
a.  is  extremely 
iltivated  lands. 
L  rivers  did  not 
rears  thereafter 
Siberian  coast, 
ad  Johannesen. 
a  vessel  accom- 
in  is  now  fully 
It  can  have  but 
lain  unpeopled. 
)f  the  seaboard, 
d  to  possess  no 
Even  the  Amur, 

of  Okhotzk,  is 
consisting  either 
leprived  of  the 
ers. 
1  are  abundantly 


12 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


The  erosion  of  these  vast  accumulations  is  effected  by  the  infiltration  of  water. 
Wells  are  sunk,  and  underground  galleries  opened  here  and  there,  over  which  the 
clay  vaults  sink  in.  Thus  are  formed  ravines  with  vertical  walls  ramifying  in  all 
directions.  In  many  places  the  plateau  seems  perfectly  horizontal ;  yet  it  is  out 
up  into  so  many  fragments  connected  by  narrow  isthmuses  that  the  traveller, 
unaccompanied  by  a  guide,  would  inevitably  lose  his  way.  The  erosion  is 
incessantly  advancing  in  the  west,  where  nothing  remains  in  many  river 
valleys  except  isolated  vertical  masses  assuming  the  form  of  walls,  turreted 
castles,  or  keeps.  Many  of  these  blocks  have  even  been  converted  into  strong- 
holds pierced  witb  invisible  caverns,  affording  shelter  to  their  occupants.  By  a 
remarkable  contrast,  tliis  clay,  formerly  covering  uninhabited  wastes,  now  yields 
the  heaviest  crops  in  the  irrigated  districts.  The  yellow  earth  even  serves  as  a 
manure  for  the  neighbouring  lands.  The  Tibetan  plateaux  would  seem  to  be  also 
composed  of  a  similar  day,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  geological  pheno- 
mena are  taking  place  dorresponding  exactly  with  those  of  the  Upper  Hoang-ho 
basin.  In  their  aggregate  all  the  geographical  zones  of  Eastern  Asia  may  be 
said  to  have  shifted  westwards.  The  ravines  of  the  Yellow  Land  encroach  on  the 
plateaux,  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-ho  and  its  tributaries  advance  continually 
farther  inland,  the  coast-line  itself  stretched  formerly  farther  eastwards,  and 
Japan  and  the  Kuriles  are  probably  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Asiatic  seaboard. 

Rivers  fix)wing  Seawards. 

On  the  northern  slope  of  the  continent  the  waters  drain  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
through  the  three  mighty  rivers  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  though  they  flow  freely 
for  a  portion  only  of  the  year.  In  these  northern  latitudes  the  streams  are  ice-bound 
or  blocked  for  eight  or  nine  months,  besides  which  their  navigation  is  extremely 
tedious  between  frozen  tundras  destitute  of  towns,  villages,  or  cultivated  lands. 
The  sea  voyages  from  Europe  to  the  mouths  of  the  great  Siberian  rivers  did  not 
begin  till  about  1600  under,  the  Czar  Boris  Godunov,  but  a  few  years  thereafter 
a  decree  of  the  Bussian  Government  closed  all  trade  with  the  Siberian  coast, 
which  was  not  reopened  till  1869  by  the  Norwegians  Oarlsen  and  Johannesen. 
The  Lena,  however,  was  ascended  for  the  first  time  in  1878  by  a  vessel  accom- 
panying that  of  Nordenskjold.  But  though  the  communication  is  now  Ailly 
established  between  Europe  and  the  Siberian  estuaries,  this  result  can  have  but 
little  economic  importance  so  long  as  these  northern  lands  remain  unpeopled. 
Out  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  ice  and  the  bleak  wastes  of  the  seaboard, 
the  Siberian  rivers,  though  flowing  to  the  open  eea,  may  be  said  to  possess  no 
more  interest  for  man  than  if  they  drained  to  inland  basins.  Even  the  Amur, 
flowing  under  a  more  favourable  climate  eastwards  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk,  is 
ice-bound  for  pix  months  in  the'  year.  Thus  fully  half  of  Asia,  consisting  either 
of  inland  depressions  or  of  valleys  without  easy  outlets,  is  deprived  of  the 
advantages  derived  by  most  other  regions  from  their  running  waters. 

From  the  Pet-chi-li  to  the  Persian  Gulf  most  of  the  coast  lands  are  abundantly 


-dMM 


MMUi 


iion  of  water, 
'er  which  the 
lifying  in  all 

yet  it  is  out 
the  traveller, 
le  erosion   is 

many  river 
alls,  turreted 
I  into  strong- 
ipants.    By  a 
!s,  now  yields 
en  serves  as  a 
3em  to  be  also 
logical  pheno- 
per  Hoang-ho 
1  Asia  may  be 
icroach  on  the 
se  continually 
astwards,   aud 
io  seaboard. 


Arctic  Ocean 
bey  flow  freely 
B  are  ice-bound 
a.  is  extremely 
iltivated  lands. 
L  rivers  did  not 
rears  thereafter 
Siberian  coast, 
ad  Johannesen. 
a  vessel  accom- 
in  is  now  fully 
It  can  have  but 
lain  unpeopled. 
)f  the  seaboard, 
d  to  possess  no 
Even  the  Amur, 

of  Okhotzk,  is 
ionsisting  either 
leprived  of  the 
ers. 
)  are  abundantly 


RIVEBS  FLOWING  8EAWAEDS. 


18 


watered,  and  some  of  their  rivers  are  not  only  amongst  the  largest  on  the  glohe, 
but  are  also  amongst  the  most  useful  for  trade  and  irrigation.  Those  flowing 
eastwards  to  the  Pacific  and  southwards  to  the  Indian  Ocean  are  disposed  in 
groups  presenting  striking  analogies  with  each  other.  Thus  the  Hoang>ho  and 
Yang-tze-kiang,  rising  in  close  proximity,  flow  first  in  opposite  directions,  and 
after  describing  vast  curves,  again  approach  each  other  so  closely  that  their 
deltas  have  often  been  nearly  united  in  the  Shan-tung  peninsula.  The 
Me-khong,  the  chief  river  of  Indo-China,  and,  according  to  Francis  Gamier, 


Hg.  6.  — Ibobab*  :n  JamuaIit. 
Baale  1 :  lao.OOCMWO. 


■M 


.  S,000  UilML 


the  largest  in  volume  in  Asia,  rises  in  the  same  highlands,  as  do  likewise 
the  Salwen  and  Irawady.  The  Brahmaputra  and  Ganges  also  have  their 
sources  near  each  other,  but  on  opposite  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  reuniting 
only  in  the  common  delta  formed  by  their  own  alluvia.  The  Indus  and 
Satlaj  may  likewise  be  regarded  as  twin  streams,  in  their  upper  courses 
resembling  the  two  last  mentioned.  Collectively  these  four  rivers  represent 
the  four  animals  of  the  Hindu  legend — elephant,  stag,  cow,  and  tiger — 
which  descend  to  the  plains  of  India  from  the  orest  of  the  sacred  moun- 
tain. -  The  two  streams  flovring  to  tbe  Persian  Gulf,  the  Tigris  and  the 
Euphrates,  also  form  an  analogous  group  famous  in  legend  and  history.    Lastly, 


14 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


the  Sea  of  Arali  ov  inland  basin  of  Turkestan,  offers  a  like  phenomenon  in  the 
Oxus  and  Sir-darya,  flowing  parallel  to  each  other,  and  at  one  time  apparently 
united  in  a  common  delta. 

Temperature — Rainfall — Vegetation. 

The  work  of  geographical  exploration  being  still  unflnished,  pluviometrioal 
observations  are  also  necessarily  incomplete,  the  direction  and  force  of  the  winds 
and  the  amount  of  humidity  having  been  gauged  only  in  the  regions  accessible 
to  European  science,  so  that  tracts  as  large  as  all  Europe  are  still  almost  unknown 

Rg.  7. — Ibobabs  IK  JULT. 
Sad*  t :  xaajooafloo. 


tfiOOi 


lands  for  the  meteorologist.  Not  even  a  proximate  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the 
rainfall  in  the  various  Asiatic  countries,  though  we  know  that  in  the  aggregate 
the  climate  of  Asia  contrasts  sharply  with  that  of  Europe.  The  latter,  almost 
everywhere  sea-girt,  receives  moisture  at  all  seasons,  the  mean  difference  between 
the  driest  and  wettest  months  oscillating  between  1  and  3,  whereas  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Asiatic  mainland  is  exposed  to  atmospheric  strata  far  more 
regular  in  their  action.  East  of  the  transitional  zone  bordering  on  Europe,  the 
course  of  the  winds  and  rains  is  marked  by  extreme  uniformity.  On  all  the 
southern  and  eastern  seaboards  the  driest  month  yields  fifty  to  sixty  times  lew 
moisture  than  the  rainy  season.    In  winter  the  cold  atmospheric  strata  become 


PENINSULAS. 


16 


in  the 
rently 


etrioal 

winds 

easible 

known 


50 


lO* 


ad  of  the 
ggregate 
r,  almost 
between 
treas  the 
far  more 
rope,  the 

aU  the 
imefl  lew 

become 


concentrated  in  Eastern  Siberia  in  the  basin  of  the  Lena  and  its  tributaries.  The 
maximum  point  of  cold  oscillates  about  Verkhojansk,  where  the  sky  is  always  clear, 
the  air  bright.  On  some  places  snow  falls  so  rarely  that  sleighs  are  unavailable 
for  a  great  part  of  the  winter.  Then  this  cold  air  sets  eastwards  and  southwards* 
bringing  in  its  wake  fine  weather  and  dryness.  Tn  summer  the  reverse  process 
takes  place,  as  shown  in  Yoye'ikov's  tentative  chart.  Siberia,  where  the  barometer 
in  winter  marked  the  greatest  pressure,  is  then  exposed  to  the  least  atmospheric 
weight.  The  sea  air  is  here  concentrated  from  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans, 
filling  up  the  vacuum  and  bearing  with  it  clouds  and  rain.  Along  all  the  sea- 
board from  the  Arabian  Sea  to  the  Oulf  of  Okhotzk  the  wet  monsoon  prevails 
during  this  period  of  atmospheric  reflux  to  Eastern  Siberia. 

Cis  and  Transgangetio  India,  with  the  neighbouring  archipelagos  cf 
Malaysia  and  the  Philippines,  probably  receive  more  than  half  of  the  whole 
continental  rainfall.  In  this  region,  exposed  by  the  barrier  of  the  Himalayas  and 
its  eastern  extensions  to  the  full  play  of  the  tropical  currents,  the  sea  air  arrives 
charged  with  vapours,  which  are  precipitated  at  the  slightest  contact  with  the 
upland  slopes.  In  summer  the  southern  portion  of  the  contineut,  having  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  the  sea,  attracts  the  aerial  masses  resting  on  the  Indinn 
Ocean,  thus  producing  the  southern  monsoon.  Saturated  with  the  moisture 
arising  from  the  sea  as  from  a  seething  caldron,  this  monsoon  discharges 
torrential  downpours  on  the  Malabar  and  Transgangetio  coasts,  after  which  it 
strikes  against  the  advanced  Himalayan  spurs  and  other  ranges  flanking  the 
southern  border  of  the  Chinese  tablelands.  The  moist  clouds,  thus  arrested  by  the 
lower  chains,  show  that  the  marine  breezes  seldom  rise  higher  than  from  5,000  to 
6,500  feet.  But  here  the  tropical  rains,  real  deluges,  exceed  anything  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  temperate  zone  have  any  experience  of.  Annual  rainfalls  of 
20,  30,  and  40  feet'  are  by  no  means  rare  in  various  parts  of  India,  and  in  the 
Eassia  Hills,  overlooking  the  course  of  the  Lower  Brahmaputra,  it  amounts  to 
52  feet.  Certain  Indian  valleys  have  received  in  one  downpour  as  much  water  as 
many  Frraich  valleys  in  a  twelvemonth. 

Peninsulas. 

Thanks  to  their  varied  ooast-Iine  ond  reliefs,  the  regions  of  Southern  Asia, 
Irania  and  Arabia  alone  excepted,  present  a  greater  diversity  of  aspects  than  the 
other  parts  of  the  continent.  The  two  great  peninsulas  of  India  and  Indo- China, 
with  the  neighbouring  archipelagos,  are  probably  unequalled  in  the  richness  of 
their  vegetation,  the  splendour  of  flower  and  foliage,  end  the  beauty  of  the 
animal  species.  These  are  the  enchanted  isles  of  the  Arab  legends,  where 
the  sands  sparkle  with  rubies  and  sapphires,  where  the  trees  shed  strength  and 
health-giving  perfumes,  where  the  birds  with  their  diiunond  plumage  speak  with  a 
wisdom  unknown  to  the  inhabitants.  Many  of  these  islands,  gems  set  in  a  blue 
sea,  lie  nevertheless  within  the  zones  of  typhoons,  earthquakes,  and  fierce  volcanic 
action.  But  the  vapour- charged  sea  breezes  soon  repair  the  disasters  of  these 
agendea,  quickly  reviving  the  magnificence  of  their  tropical  vegetation. 


/•j  •• 


10 


ASIATIC  EUSSU. 


Oomparing  continents  with  continents,  the  Swede  Turbern  Bergmann  remarked 
in  the  last  century  that  the  large  peninsulas,  such  as  Arabia,  Hindostan,  and 
Indo-China,  nearly  oil  face  southwards.  These  correspond  exactly  with  the 
Hellenic,  Italic,  and  Iberian  peninsulas  in  Europe,  and  to  a  less  degree  with  those 
of  Lower  California  and  Florida  in  the  New  World,  where  the  intermediate  peninsula 
has  been  transformed  to  an  isthmus  by  the  upheaval  of  the  land  in  Central  America. 

Fig.  8. — OvKTKS  OF  THR  Eastbhn  Asiatic  Siaboabu  and  IsLANUt. 
SnOe  1  :  aO;000.000. 


OtoSlO 
IWthanu. 


810  FrthoiM  iu»A 
npwaida. 


The  peninsulas  of  the  two  continents  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  taken  in  their 
g^graphical  order,  are  also  distinguished  by  special  and  analogous  features. 
Thus  Arabia,  nearly  quadrangular  in  form,  is  another  Spain  in  the  solidity  of  iU 
contour  and  the  monotony  of  its  coast-line.  India,  like  Italy,  presents  more  varied 
outlines,  and  has  a  large  island  at  its  southern  extremity.  Lastly,  Indo>  China  and 
Greece  are  both  alike  washed  by  seas  studded  with  countless  islands  and  islets.  These 
European  and  Asiatic  archipelagos,  like  the  corresponding  Antilles  in  America, 


mam 


mmtm 


PENINSULA8. 


17 


have  all  their  igneous  phenomena,  their  craters  of  molten  lava — more  numeroVs, 
however,  in  Asia  than  elsewhere.  Important  geological  changes  are  now  taking 
place  in  this  partially  upheaved  region,  which  may  in  its  aggregate  he  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  isthmus  between  Asia  and  Australia.  Nevertheless  Wallace  has  noted 
a  sharp  line  of  separation  between  these  two  worlds,  easily  recognised  by  the 
di£ference  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  species  peopling  the  lands  situated  on  either 
side  of  this  line.     In  the  volcanic  chain  of  the  Southern  Sundas,  Bali  belongs  to 

Fig.  0. — Density  of  thi  Ahiatio  Popvlations. 

▲oooiding  to  B«hm  uid  Hanemann.— Coatpont  ProjeoUon. 

Soda  1  :  190.000,000 


Par  SqoaM  mk. 


Uninhabited.  Undw*.      StolS.        18toS6.      aStoTI.     ntol«4.    144tof88.     SSBand 

npwaids. 

8,ooomi«a. 

the  Asiatic,  while  Lombok,  only  24  miles  distant,  already  forms  part  of  the 
Australian  group. 

Like  the  southern,  the  eastern  Asiatic  seaboa^  has  also  its  three  peninsulas 
stretching  southwards — Kamchatka,  Corea,  and  Sakhalin — the  last  apparently  an 
island,  but  really  a  peninsula,  being  connected  with  the  Siberian  coast  by  a  bank 
inaccessible  to  large  vessels.  Though  possibly  mere  coincidences,  these  facts  are 
more  probably  the  result  of  a  law  reg^ulating  the  distribution  of  dry  land,  the 
existence  of  which  can  scarcely  be  questioned,  if  its  explanation  must  still  remain 
an  unsolved  problem. 


•  .n 


18 


ASUTIO  BUSSIA. 


No  less  reiniirkable  geographical  analogies  occur  in  the  south-eastern  archi- 
pelago. Thus  Sumatra  is  obviously  a  peninsula  of  Malacca,  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  the  partly  submerged  isthmus  of  the  Nioohar  and  Andaman  groups. 
Several  of  the  Malay  Islands,  Sumatra  itself  included,  are  disposed  in  regular  order 
on  openings  in  the  crust  of  the  earth,  through  which  they  communicate  with  an 
underground  lava  sea.  But  the  distinctive  feature  presented  by  all  these  insular 
groups  consists  in  their  coast- lines  forming  a  succession  of  segments  of  circles. 
From  the  north-west  extremity  of  Sumatra  to  Flores  the  shores  facing  the  Indian 
Ocean  are  developed  in  the  form  of  a  regular  arc,  and  the  same  is  true  of  Borneo, 
Paliivan,  Luzon,  and  Formosa.  The  east  coast  of  Corea  begins  a  third  curve,  which 
is  continued  towards  the  Liu-khieu  Islands,  while  Japan  and  Sakhalin  form  a 
fourth,  which  in  the  island  of  Yesso  intersects  a  fifth,  sweeping  through  the  Euriles 
along  the  east  side  of  Kamchatka.  Lastly,  the  chain  of  the  Aleutians,  resting  on 
a  Kamchatka  headland,  stretches  like  a  barrier  across  Bering  Strait  to  Alaska. 
The  radii  of  these  insular  curves  vary  in  mean  length  from  1,100  to  1,200  miles, 
and  the  continental  seaboard  facing  them  is  also  disposed  in  large  circular  lines. 
The  coasts  of  Siberia  beyond  the  Amur,  the  Chinese  seaboard  between  the  Yellow 
Sea  and  Qulf  of  Ton-kin,  that  of  Cochin  China  as  far  as  the  Me-khong  delta,  are  all 
traced  as  if  by  the  compass.  Were  the  level  of  the  Pacific  to  be  raised  from 
1,600  to  2,000  feet,  the  Sikhuta-Alin  coast  range,  Russian  Manchuria,  would  be 
changed  to  an  archipelago  like  that  of  Japan,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Amur 
and  Sungari  would  be  transformed  to  a  sea,  in  its  outlines  resembling  that  of  the 
Euriles.  In  the  west  the  Khingan  range  also  develops  a  curve  parallel  to  the 
sweep  of  the  Euriles,  though  composed  of  older  rooks. 

Inhabitants — Cultuiie, 

About  two- thirds  of  the  whole  population  of  the  globe  are  probably  concen- 
trated in  Asia ;  but  thesef  multitudes  are  far  from  being  evenly  distributed  over 
its  surface.  They  are  disposed  according  to  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate, 
and,  speaking  generally,  their  density  may  be  said  to  be  in  proportion  to  the 
abundance  of  the  rainfall.  Over  one- tenth  of  the  land,  consisting  of  sands,  rocks,  or 
frozen  tablelands,  is  absolutely  uninhabited,  and  some  of  these  tracts  are  never  even 
traversed  by  caravans.  In  four-fifths  of  the  surface  the  number  of  inhabitants 
scarcely  reaches  40  per  square  mile.  But  in  the  remaining  fifth,  comprising 
India,  pirts  of  Indo-China,  the  Yang-tze-kiang  and  Hoang-ho  basins,  Japan, 
Luzon,  and  China,  the  population  is  dense  enough  to  give  Asia  a  decided  numerical 
preponderance  over  the  other  continents.  More  than  half  of  mankind  are  grouped 
in  Southern  and  Eastern  Asia  within  a  space  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  dry  land. 
Thus  one  of  the  extremities  of  Asia  presents  in  this  respect  a  phenomenon  analogous 
to  what  is  witnessed  in  Western  Europe  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  Old  World. 
Isolated  from  each  other  by  plateaux,  lofty  ranges,  or  waterless  wastes,  the 
Asiatic  populations  have  naturally  remained  far  more  distinct  than  those  of 
Europe.     Whatever  be  the  origins,  rivalries,  or  antagonisms  of  the  European 


H.l«IilW 


INHABITANTS— CULTURE. 


19 


nutiona,  they  have  none  the  less  the  full  oonsciousness  of  belonging  to  the  same 
human  family,  and  in  many  places  the  interminglings  of  Iberians  and  Celts,  of 
Slavs  and  Finns,  of  Turks  and  Albanians,  have  effaced  all  primitive  differences. 
But  crossings  are  far  from  having  produced  a  similar  racial  uniformity  in  Asia. 
Doubtless  in  the  north  an  ethnical  fusion  has  taken  place  between  many  T(^rki  and 
Mongolian  tribes,  in  the  west  between  Semites  and  Iranians.     Nv      re  there  any 


concen- 

«d  over 

climate, 
►n  to  the 

rocks,  or 
ever  even 

labitants 
uprising 
is,  Japan, 
numerical 
grouped 

dry  land. 

analogous 
d  World. 

rastes,  the 
those  of 

European 


e 


Fig.  10. — DlBTHIHVTION  OP  THB  ArIATIO  RaOSS. 
Boole  1  :  110.000,000. 


50' 


F 


"m 


Harlh 


JO 


L^ 


30* 


110'  E.of  6r 


ES 


AiyaiM.  KnngoUuiii.   Tatan.        Finno-       Tibetann.      ChincM,      SemitM.    UnTidiua 
■    li'silana  Jfipanaw,  ke. 


CuoeaaiMia.     EfUmn.      AMcaiu.      UalaTi.      Pdi)taiia. 

__^i__i_ii-n— _• .— i— —  a,000  MilM. 

longer  to  be  found  completely  homogeneous  races,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  Anda- 
man  Islands  and  Tesso.  Tet  what  striking  contrasts  are  still  to  be  seen  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  continent !  The  various  so-called  "  Turanian  "  or  Finnn-Tataric 
races  mostly  form  distinct  groups,  completely  separated  from  the  other  races  in 
their  mental  qualities  and  social  habits.  In  the  north  the  Samoyedes,  Ostyaks, 
and  other  Siberian  tribes  form  one  of  the  most  easily  recognised  subdivisions.  In 
the  east  Manohus  and  Tunguses,  in  the  west  Kirghiz  and  Tatars,  represent  the 


80 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


'.'  , 


:''^1 


^.^ 


TArki  stnck.  The  Mongolians  and  Duriuts  of  the  centre  are  regarded  as  the 
typical  brunch  of  the  Mongol,  or  Yellow  family.  On  the  southern  plateaux  the 
Tibetans  also  form  a  distinct  group,  while  the  basins  of  the  eastern  rivers  are 
occupied  by  the  more  or  less  mixed  Chinese  nation,  surpasding  all  others  in 
numbers,  and  distinguished  itoxii  them  by  well-marked  moral  and  mental  features. 
In  the  south-east  the  Malays  constitute  another  division  of  mankind,  which  in 
some  of  the  Sunda  Islands  and  Malacca  exhibits  characteristics  contrasting  with 
those  of  all  the  Asiatic  peoples.  The  Arabs  also,  who  with  the  Jews  form  the 
Semitic  family,  have  maintained  the  primitive  purity  of  their  type  in  the  interior 
of  the  south-western  peninsida.  Lastly,  the  races  of  India  have,  so  to  say, 
followed  each  other  in  successive  layers.  Although  living  in  the  same  land,  the 
various  ethnical  groupn,  divided  into  hostile  castes,  have  been  developed  side  by 
side,  while  keoping  aloof  from  nil  physical  or  social  intermixture.  The  sacred 
poems  of  the  Hindus  relate  how  the  noble  races  had  to  struggle  with  the  low-caste 
tribes,  people  of  black  complexion  and  flat  nose,  and  even  withthe  Ana«ika»,  demons 
and  monkeys.  The  struggle  has  ceased,  but  the  law  of  caste  has  raised  a  brazen 
barrier  between  these  prim  ^val  conflicting  elements. 

Speaking  generally,  the  thickly  peopled  southern  and  eastern  regions  may  be 
said  to  be  occupied  by  cultured  races,  while  the  more  desert  northern  tracts  were 
till  recently  the  exclusive  domain  of  savage  tribes,  the  intervening  plains  and 
plateaux  being  held  by  nomad  peoples  at  the  transitional  or  barbarous  stage  of 
civilisation.  Yet  through  a  strange,  though  by  no  means  solitary  delusion,  the 
lofty  Central  Asiatic  highlands  have  often  been  described  in  legends  as  the  cradle 
of  mankind,  and  the  influence  of  these  childlike  traditions  has  been  felt  in  many 
grave  scientifio  works.  It  seemed  natural  that  these  cloud-capped  peaks — abode 
of  the  gods  and  immortals — should  also  be  the  first  home  of  man  orr<it^  by  them, 
and  that  the  migrations  of  the  tribes  should  follow  the  course  of  i,au  streams, 
descending  to  the  lowlands  from  the  pure  sources  springing  amidst  eternal  snows. 
The  Hindus,  gazing  northwards  on  the  glittering  crests  of  Mount  Meru,  fancied 
that  here  the  first  rays  of  light  had  beamed  on  their  forefathers.  The  Armenian 
Ararat,  with  its  snowy  cone  sweeping  a  boundless  horizon  of  hills  and  plains,  was 
also  for  many  peoples  the  eminence  on  which  the  universal  father  of  mortak  had 
first  set  his  foot.  Lastly,  the  Pamir,  well  named  the  "  Roof  of  the  World," 
forming  the  g^eat  divide  between  east  and  west,  was  held  sacred  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  Aryan  tribes,  who  spread  thence  over  Western  Asia  and  Europe.  Thus 
have  these  uninhabited  upland  wastes  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  cradle  of  the 
countless  multitudes  which,  since  the  appearance  of  the  Aryan  race,  have  dwelt 
west  of  the  Pamir. 

But  these  delusions  are  henceforth  dispelled,  and  the  peoples  of  the  earth  have 
ceased  to  discover  in  the  regions  of  perpetual  snow  the  first  trace  of  their  anoeston. 
The  geography  of  traditions  and  legends  is  doubtless  of  great  importance,  often 
furnishing  valuable  hints  to  the  historian  ;  but,  if  taken  as  an  exclusive  guide^,  it 
could  lead  to  nothing  but  error.  The  civilisation  of  modem  Europe  cannot  have 
had  its  rise  in  the  arid  upland  plateaux  and  desert  valleys  of  Central  Asia.    Apart 


na 


INHABITANTS— CULTURE. 


81 


m«t  be  trff'  ,  to 
!>ylonia,  A    ibiu, 


tVom  what  has  heen  devolopod  on  the  spot,  most  of  its  elero<'rit 
the  Nile  basin,  to  the  Asiatic  coast  hinds,  Asia  Minor,  Svri<-i, 
Persia,  India,  and  China. 

All  the  languages  of  Europe,  except  Basque,  are  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  .dl, 
whether  introduced  by  the  Aryans,  Finns,  or  Tatars,  bear  witness  in  thcir 
vocabularies  to  the  multiplicity  of  objects  derived  from  the  Eastern  civilisations. 
In  prehistoric  times  especially  Asiatic  influences  must  have  been  most  felt  by  the 
still  barbarous  tribes  of  Europe.  Previous  to  the  national  and  spontaneous 
development  of  independent  Hellenic  culture,  the  first  impulses  had  come  from 
Asia,  where  the  more  advanced  peoples  had  already  worked  out  complete  systems 
of  culture.  Here  were  invented  the  arts  of  copper  casting,  of  blending  the  metals 
into  useful  alloys,  of  smelting  iron,  working  in  gold  and  silver.  Languages, 
religions,  customs,  implements,  domestic  animals,  all  came  from  the  East.  But 
after  Europe  had  achieved  its  first  triumph  over  Asia  by  the  overthrow  of  Troy, 
Hellenic  culture  made  rapid  progress  in  the  western  peninsulas  of  Asia  Minor  as 
well  as  in  Greece  itself.  Europe  began,  so  to  say,  east  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  where 
the  Ionian  cities  received  and  transmitted  to  posterity  the  inheritance  of  knowledge 
bequeathed  to  them  by  the  Ohaldeans,  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians.  The  very 
name  of  Asia  seems  to  be  of  Hellenic  origin,  restricted  at  first  to  a  small,  portion 
of  the  Ionian  seaboard,  and  afterwards  spread  to  the  Anatolian  peninsula  and  the 
whole  continent.  By  an  analogous  phenomenon  the  name  of  a  small  tribe  dwelling 
on  the  south  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  was  first  extended  to  a  Libyan  province, 
and  then  to  all  Africa. 

Beligions, 

But  even  long  after  the  great  centres  of  civilisation  had  been  shifted  from  the 
Mesopotamian  regions  westwards  to  Athens  and  Rome,  the  religion  destined 
gradually  to  spread  over  the  West  took  its  rise  in  an  obscure  hamlet  by  the  shores 
of  Lake  Tiberias.  The  Arab  writers  had  already  observed  in  mediaeval  times  that 
all  the  great  religions,  except  Buddhism,  had  their  origin  in  Western  Asia,  which 
has  given  birth  to  Judaism,  the  Zoroastrian,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan 
worships,  which,  like  rhythmical  waves  of  thought,  here  succeeded  each  othei;  at 
regular  intervals  of  about  six  hundred  years.  All  these  systems  have  otherwise  a 
strong  family  likeness  ;  all  have  been  alike  influenced  by  outward  surroundings, 
which  in  their  essential  features  present  striking  analogies  from  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian  to  those  of  the  Red  Sea.  Notwithstanding  minor  differences,  the  wilder- 
nesses of  Arabia,  Palestine,  Chaldna,  and  Persia  have  the  same  aspect  of  monotonous 
g^ndeur. 

Buddhism  also  attempted  to  penetrate  westwards,  and  traces  of  its  passage 
are  still  preserved  in  the  upland  valley  of  Bamian,  the  main  highway  of  intercourse 
in  former  times  between  India  and  Western  Asia.  On  this  historic  spot,  8,600  feet 
above  the  sea,  in  the  Hindu-Kush,  a  Buddhist  king  ruling  over  the  Upper  Oxus 
basin  caused  two  colossal  statues  to  be  hewn  in  the  solid  rock,  pierced  with  niches 
giving  access  to  pilgrims.   Other  religious  monuments  mark  the  track  of  Buddhism 


ifiai«««w?^frmm'#^rgffif^ 


22 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


towurda  tho  north  and  north-woat.  But  it  failed  to  secure  u  pormaaont  footing 
anywhere  wefit  of  the  Pamir  and  Tian*Bhan.  But  Mongola,  Chinese,  and  Tibetans 
received  the  Indian  raisaionarius,  and,  though  misunderstanding  their  doctrine, 
they  at  least  accepted  its  name,  repeated  its  formula),  and  practised  its  rites.  At 
present  Buddhism,  mingled  with  divers  superstitions, prevails  in  China,  Tibet,  Japan, 
Mongolia,  amongst  numerous  tribes  about  Lake  Baikal,  and  oven  in  Europe  on  the 
short'8  of  tho  Caspian.  In  point  of  numbers  it  takes  the  foremost  rank  amongst 
the  religions  of  the  earth,  while  geographically  Christianity  has  become  the  most 


Fig.  U.— Chibf  RauoioNa  or  C'intkal  Asia. 
B«aU  I  :  68.000.000 


m 


ao 


ChiitUuU'     Moh»i»nnd»ni.     BnUunani. 


Bnddlitota. 


1400 


Vagonik 


widely  diffused.  In  Asia  the  influence  of  the  latter  is  limited  to  the  Armenians, 
Georgians,  Nestorians,  Maronites,  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  the  evangelized  tribes  of 
Asiatic  Bussia,  a  few  Chinese,  Japanese,  a^d  Indians,  besides  European  immi~ 
gprants  a&d  Eurasians.  But  elsewhere  it  has  become  the  creed  of  all  the  civilised 
nations  of  Europe,  America,  South  Africa,  and  Australasia.  Mohammedanism  also 
has  spread  over  a  vast  domain,  stretching  mainly  south  and  east  of  the  Christian 
area.  Arabia,  its  original  home,  Palestine,  nearly  all  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the 
Hindu-Eush,  belong  to  the  various  Moslem  sects.  In  India  the  followers  of  the 
Prophet  are  more  numerous  and  influential  than  elsewhere,  while  their  domain  has 


mAWIHSTm 


"fi^>! 


UIHTOKIO  BETUObi'ECr— MIORATIONH. 


88 


ttlw)  been  extondcHl  to  Ohinu  and  MulayBin.  North  Africa  has  aim  been  converted 
by  thu  ArubH,  and  Iiilaip  in  rapidly  developing  in  Sudan,  and  even  uppruach< 
ing  the  Guinea  ouust.  In  Kurope  it  in  praotiaed  onlj'  by  the  OBmunli,  AniuutH, 
Pomaki,  and  Hoiiniuna  of  the  Balkan  peniniula,  and  by  tho  Tiitara  and  other  non- 
Aryan  races  of  llusiiia.  In  the  huuIH  it  has  been  extirpated  by  fire  and  sword, 
though  not  before  it  had  exeroinod  a  considerable  influence  on  European  civilisa- 
tion. Tho  Hponish  Moors  were  for  some  time  the  teachers  of  the  Western  nations, 
nor  were  the  urta  and  sciences  unaifeotod  by  tbe  warfare  carried  on  for  two 
centuries  by  the  Crusaders  against  the  Saracens  and  Turks  for  the  |)08ac'Msion  of 
the  Holy  Laud. 

HlSTORKJ   RkTKOSPIXT MlORATIONM. 

Sekn  from  an  elevated  standpoint,  the  great  drama  of  universal  history  resolves 
itself  into  endless  struggles,  with  varying  issues,  between  Kuropo  and  Asia.  After 
the  initial  Asiatic  movement  a  European  reaction  began  in  the  legendi'.ry  tines 
which  are  recalled  by  the  myths  of  the  Argonautio  expedition.  But  the  ICuropean 
period  begins  probably  with  the  first  great  defeat  of  Asia,  when  the  free  citiisens 
of  Athens  triumphed  over  tho  hosts  of  Dariua  and  Xerxes.  Henceforth  the  spirit 
of  Western  civilisation  stood  out  in  bold  contrast  with  that  of  the  Eatit.  Greece  and 
the  heirs  of  her  greatness  understood  that  the  true  object  of  life  is  to  uphold  and 
expand  freedom,  even  at  the  cost  of  life  itself.  But  after  the  glorious  Htruggle 
ending  with  tho  memorable  victories  of  Marathon  and  Salamis,  Europe  failed  to 
maintain  her  rising  superiority.  Alexander  no  doubt  in  a  few  yearn  overran 
Aaia  to  the  Indus;  but  his  Macedonian  followers  ended  by  beconi og  Asiatics 
themselves,  leaving  successors  who  sought  to  continue  the  work  of  Darius  and 
Xerxes  by  attaching  Greeoe  to  Asia.  Evon  Rome  accepted  her  religion  from 
Palestine,  and  tbe  seat  of  empire  was  shifted  to  the  Bosporus.  And  while  the 
cultured  peoples  of  tho  South,  the  Aryans  and  Semites,  were  thus  exercising  a 
moral  influence  on  the  West,  the  barbarous  tribes,  of  Eastern  Europe  and  of  Asia 
contributed  by  wholesale  migrations  to  modify  the  races,  if  not  of  the  West,  at  least 
those  of  the  Sarmatian  plains.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  eastern 
continent  again  acquired  an  a.tcondancy,  which  lasted  for  a  period  of  a  thousand 
years.  In  the  north  the  Alanf.  Avars,  Huns,  Pecheneghs,  Kumans,  Magyars,  and 
other  Finns,  followed  later  on  by  T  itars  and  Mongolians,  penetrated  at^ross  the  steppe 
lands  westwards,  and  one  of  thow)  nations  founded  a  state  within  the  circuit  of  the 
Carpathians  which  still  flourishes.  In  the  south  the  Arabs,  following  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  reached  the  very  heart  of  Gaul,  whilo  between  these 
two  great  movements  the  Turks  seized  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  made  the  second 
Rome,  the  city  of  Constantine,  the  capital  of  their  empire.  For  a  time  the  European 
world  threatened  to  be  swallowed  up  in  the  advancing  tide  of  Eastern  supremacy. 
One  of  the  most  astounding  phenomena  of  history  is  the  sudden  rise  in  the 
thirteenth  century  of  the  Mongolian  Empire,  the  largest  that  ever  existed.  The 
strictly  nomadic  population  of  tho  E^t  can  scarcely  be  estimated  at  more  than 
four  or  five  millions,  and  tbe  fighting  element  oan  at  no  time  have  exceeded  half  a 


mmm 


wm 


W' 


24 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


million  in  these  regiona.  The  Mongolian  hordes  could  never  of  themselves  alone 
have  made  up  those  vast  hosts  spoken  of  in  the  mediaaval  chronicles.  The  alarm 
and  terror  of  the  vanquished  multiplied  in  imagination  the  number  of  the 
conquerors,  and  in  the  popular  fancy  the  East  seemed  to  be  an  offlcina  gentium 
peopled  by  vast  multitudes,  whereas  the  more  favoured  regions  of  the  West  were 
really  far  more  populous.  The  Mongolian  conquests  were,  in  fact,  achieved  by  small 
armies  moving  quickly  from  place  to  place  with  a  unity  of  purpose,  and  fulling 
suddenly  on  enemies  too  scattered  or  dismayed  to  offer  an  effectual  resistance. 
The  detachment  sent  by  Jenghis  Ehan  to  Samarkand  in  pursuit  of  Sultan  Ala- 
ed-din  consisted  of  no  more  than  20,000  men,  and  for  three  years  these  warriors 
triumphantly  overran  Persia,  Ehorassan,  Armenia,  Qeorgia,  the  Caucasus,  the 
Crimea,  and  the  plains  of  the  Volga  before  returning  to  their  master. 

The  Mongols  easily  reached  China  by  descending  from  their  barren  tablelands 
through  the  many  valleys  watered  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Hoang-ho.  But  towards 
the  west  there  was  but  one  route,  which  all  could  not  reach.  During  the  great 
displacements  of  populations  vast  numbers  were  crowded  into  Eashgaria,  where 
they  found  themselves  enclosed  by  lofty  ranges  inaccessible  to  armies.  But  the 
bulk  of  the  migratory  tribes  followed  the  traditional  route  along  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Alt^'i,  whence  they  swept  over  Western  Siberia  in  two  streams,  one 
proceeding  westwards  to  Europe,  the  other  southwards  to  Persia  and  India.  None 
of  these  hordes  ever  returned  to  their  native  pastures,  except  a  few  of  the  Astrakhan 
Kalmuks,  who  attempted  in  1770  to  escape  from  Russian  rule  to  their  ancestral 
homes  at  the  foot  of  the  Alta'i.  And  now  silence  reigns  in  the  restless  regions  which 
were  once  the  centre  of  the  Mongolian  Empire,  and  the  highway  of  the  Alta'i  is  a 
solitude.  The  turbulent  populations  formerly  dwelling  on  the  northern  frontier 
of  China  have  been  pacified  largely  through  the  policy  which,  by  the  propagation 
of  Lamaism  in  Mongolia,  has  changed  a  population  of  waiTiors  into  a  community 
of  monks. 

But  the  traces  of  the  old  migrations  have  not  been  e£faced.  The  flora  and 
fauna  of  the  two  continents  have  become  intermingled,  while  the  peoples  them> 
selves  overlap  anj  encroach  on  each  other  at  various  points.  Samoyedes  and 
Lapps  may  still  te  regarded  as  Asiatics,  and  many  even  of  the  Mordvinianb, 
Chuvashes,  and  Cheremissians  in  Central  Russia  are  more  akin  in  their  habits  to 
the  remote  Si^jerian  Ostyaks  than  to  the  surrounding  Russian  populations.  Many 
Bashkirs,  Tatars,  Kirghiz,  and  Kalmuks  are  also  settled  in  Burope,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  European  nations  have  penetrated  far  into  Asia.  Compact  Slav 
communities  are  settled  in  Transcaucasia,  and  even  on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  while 
the  Hellenes  are  more  numerovs  in  Anatolia  than  the  Osmanli  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula. 

EuROFKAN  Influences. 

Formerly  the  civQising,  the  Asiatics  now  represent  the  barbarous  element  in 
the  presence  of  the  Europeans,  whose  culture,  with  all  its  shortcomings,  may  still 
be  regarded  as  the  focus  of  education  for  the  Eastern  world.     The  general  move- 


^^mmm 


.ves  alone 
he  alarm 
ir  of  the 
3  gentium 
Vest  were 
i  by  Btnall 
id  fulling 
resistance, 
iltan  Ala- 
e  warriors 
casus,  the 

tablelands 
lit  towards 
the  great 
iria,  where 
.     But  the 
e  southern 
reams,  one 
iia.    None 
Astrakhan 
T  ancestral 
jions  which 
e  Altai  is  a 
)m  frontier 
iropagation 
community 

e  flora  and 
oplfis  themo 
oyedes  and 
ordvtnianb, 
ir  habits  to 
ms.  Many 
while,  on 
impact  Slav 
)oard,  while 
the  Balkan 


I 
PEOOEESS  OP  DISCOVEEY.  25 

ment  of  civilisation  has  thus  been  reversed,  and  intellectual  life  now  radiates 
from  Europe  to  the  remotest  comers  of  the  earth.  Wherever  the  European 
explorers  first  settled  they  doubtless  ?egan  their  civilising  work  by  massacring, 
enslaving,  or  otherwise  debasing  the  natives.  But  the  beneficial  influences  of 
superior  races  have  ever  commenced  by  mutual  hatred,  mistrust,  and  antagonism. 
The  conflicting  elements  everywhere  contend  for  the  mastery  before  they  awaken 
to  the  conviction  that  all  alike  are  members  of  the  same  hum&n  family. 

Like  the  civilising  action  of  Asia  in  former  times,  that  of  Europe  spread 
eastwards  first  from  the  seaboard.  The  Portuguese  led  the  way  by  establishing 
themselves  on  the  shores  of  both  India  and  Malaysia  ;  and  these  were  followed 
successively  by  the  Spaniards,  Dutch,  English,  and  French,  who  founded 
factories  or  forts  on  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  same  regions.  At  present 
Cyprus  is  an  English  island,  while  Asia  Minor  is  at  least  in  theory  under  the 
protectorate  of  Great  Britain,  whose  agents  are  also  establishing  her  supremacy 
over  Baluchistan,  Afghanistan,  end  possibly  even  over  Persia.  Several  points  on 
the  Arabian  and  Persian  seaboards  belong,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  England,  which 
guards  the  waters  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  reigns  as  undisputed  mistress  over 
India,  Ceylon,  and  part  of  Indo-Ghina.  A  large  portion  of  Further  India  is 
imder  French  rule,  while  Holland,  England,  and  Spain,  share  with  a  few  native 
sultans  the  possession  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Of  all  the  Asiadc  nations 
Japan  has  been  most  rapidly  transformed  under  European  influences,  and  in  the 
Chinese  seaports  whole  quarters  are  already  occupied  by  European  or  American 
trading  communities.  Lastly,  all  the  northern  division  of  the  continent  owns  the 
sway  of  Russia,  whose  Cossack  pioneers  have  since  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  brought  the  whole  of  Siberia  under  the  sceptre  of  the  Czar.  Thus  about 
one-half  the  area  and  one-third  the  population  of  Asia  belong  henceforth  politically 
to  Europe,  as  appears  from  the  subjoined  table  of  the  direct  and  indirect  Asiatic 
posaeasions  of  the  various  European  states : — 

Ana  in  Sq  llllt*.  Fopnlatloo. 

Asiatic  Buisis  and  DependenoieB 6,736,000  17,000,000 

British  Poas-^Miona  and  Dependflnoies  in  Alia        .  2,772,000  248,600,000 

Dutch   ...........  696,000  26,600,000 

French 66,200  2,760,000 

Spanish 118,200  7,460,000 

Portugoeao 7.200  770,000 

Total  Asia  subject  to  Europe   ....  10,386,600  313,080,000 

From  the  settlements  on  the  seaboard  the  political  conquests  and  commercial 

relations  of  the  West  have  advanced  with  ever-increasing  rapidity  towards  the 

interior,  although  the  work  of  scientific  discovery  is  still  far  from  complete. 

There  are  extensive  regions  of  Central  Asia  scarcely  visited  except  by  solitary 

explorers,  while  even  in  the  parts  already  surveyed  many  obscure  problems 

remain  still  to  be  solved. 


element  in 
fs,  may  still 
neral  move- 


pRooRESs  OF  Discovert. 

The    ancients,   whose  navigators  never  ventured   to    sail  beyond  the  Indian 
waters  to  China,  carried  on  a  tedious  overland  tra£Bic  with  that  country  by  caravan 


mm 


ae 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


IX 


kl 


'«i 


routes,  which  remained  unknown  to  the  Western  conquerors.  It  will  be  scarcely 
possible  to  discover  the  exact  highway  followed  by  the  Greek  traders ;  but  Bactra 
being  at  that  time  the  great  emporium,  the  route  indicated  by  Ptolemy  most 
probably  penetrated  eastwards  through  the  Upper  Oxus  valley  across  the  southern 
portion  of  the  Pamir,  thence  descending  by  one  of  the  head-streams  of  the 
(Echardes  (Turim)  to  the  present  basin  of  Kashgaria.  Attempts  have  even  been 
made  to  identify  the  Tash-Edrgan,  which  lies  on  a  tributary  of  the  Yarkand  in 
Sarikol,  with  the  "  Stone  Tower  "  spoken  of  by  the  old  traders.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  when  their  military  power  was  most  flourishing,  the  Chinese 
subdued  Western  Tutary,  and  while  their  armies  were  crossing  the  Tian-shan 
passes,  their  merchunts  and  pilgrims  were  traversing  the  rougher  routes  over  the 
"  Roof  of  the  World."  Hwen-T'sang,  the  most  famous  of  these  pilg^ms,  describes 
his  journeys  with  sufficient  minuteness  to  enable  us  to  follow  his  footsteps  ucross 
the  Pamir  and  the  Upper  Oxus  valley.  Marco  Polo  also,  after  leaving  Bactra 
(Balkh),  followed  a  route  diffiaring  little  from  that  of  his  Oreek  predecessors,  and 
running  north-east  across  "  the  plain  of  the  Famier,  which  they  say  is  the  highest 
place  in  the  world."  Beyond  Yarkand  he  skirted  the  Gobi  district  on  the  south, 
entering  China  proper  about  the  souroea  of  tbe  Hoang-ho.  This  journey  of 
Marco  Polo  across  the  continent  from  west  to  east  still  remains  unrivalled  after  a 
lapse  of  six  hundred  years.  As  an  imperial  functionary  he  also  visited  most  of  the 
Chinese  provinces  and  East  Tibet,  penetrating  into  Burmah  through  the  still  little- 
known  itigions  separating  Yun-nan  from  Indo-China.  By  his  enthusiastic  account 
of  China,  it«  great  cities  and  eastern  islands,  he  contributed  more  than  any  other 
traveller  to  stimulate  the  love  of  enterprise,  and  by  him  was  conjured  up  the  phantom 
pursued  by  Columbus  across  the  western  waters  to  the  goal  of  a  new  world. 

When  Marco  Polo  was  making  his  way  over  the  Pamir,  another  more 
northern  route  to  Mongolia  had  already  boon  traversed  by  numerous  merchants, 
missionaries,  and  envoys.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  Mongol  Empire  lay  about  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Altai.  Hence 
the  main  commercial  highway  naturally  converged  on  Earakordm,  capital  of  the 
state,  and  this  was  the  road  already  followed  by  the  Mongol  and  Tatar  hordes 
north  of  the  Tian-shan,  and  along  the  valley  of  the  Sir-darya.  It  was  also 
traversed  by  Plan  de  Carpin  and  Rubruk,  envoy  of  Louis  IX.  Western 
adventurers  now  crowded  round  the  imperial  tent,  and  so  numerous  were  the 
relations  of  the  West  with  the  great  Eastern  potentate  that  there  was  question  of 
founding  a  chair  of  the  Mongolian  language  in  the  Paris  Sorbonne. 

But  the  empire  was  soon  broken  up ;  Earakordm  ceased  to  be  a  capital,  and 
its  ruins  were  forgotten  in  the  sands.  Still  the  route  to  China  along  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Tian-shan,  and  through  Zungaria,  remained  open  to  trade.  Pegolotti 
and  others  followed  it  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  it  might  have  ultimately 
acquired  real  commercial  importance,  had  the  attention  of  the  Western  nations  not 
been  diverted  to  the  great  oceanic  discoveries  round  the  Cape  of  Gbod  Hope  to 
India,  and  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  New  World.  The  long  and  dangerous 
highways  of  Tatary,  Zungaria,  and  Mongolia  were  now  forsaken,  and  the  work  of 


MM 


mmm 


PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERT. 


27 


scarcely 
t  Bactra 
ay  moat 
louthern 
I  of  the 
ren  been 
rkand  in 
Bginning 
Chinese 
'ian-shan 
over  the 
describes 
>pa  across 
g  Bactra 
isors,  and 
e  highest 
ihe  south, 
mmey  of 
sd  after  a 
lost  of  the 
itill  little- 
ic  account 
any  other 
)  phantom 
rid. 

her  more 
uerohants, 
I  centre  of 
i.     Hence 
>ital  of  the 
tar  hordes 
)  was  also 
Wefltem 
were  the 
question  of 

lapital,  and 
e  northern 

Pegolotti 
ultimately 
nations  not 
9d  Hope  to 

dangerous 
the  work  of 


Marco  Polo  ha&  been  resumed  only  in  our  days.  But  it  is  being  now  prosecuted 
by  many  explorers  armed  with  'le  resources  of  science,  and  protected  by  the 
respect  with  which  the  natives  have  learnt  to  regard  the  Western  nations.  From 
year  to  year  the  space  still  remaining  to  be  explored  becomes  narrower ;  the  main 
features  of  the  mysterious  Pamir  are  already  determined ;  Northern  and  Western 
China  have  been  traversed  in  every  direction.  But  certain  Tibetan  districts  still 
remain  a  ierra  incognita,  pending  the  exploration  of  which  many  important 
geographical  problems  must  remain  unsolved.    Asia  may  still  be  said  to  lack 

Fig.  12.— Chup  Itinibariu  op  Centuai.  Asia.    ■ 
Boale  1 :  l«O,O0O,00O. 


__  BOkBootB. 

Hoaaa  CUiieM  in  fifth  omtmy. 

»_  Hmn-T'MDy. 

>~-~.  Aikbs. 

,__-  Nicolo  and  KcJTeo  P«do. 

— —  Marco  Polo. 


• Pimdita. 

Oabet. 

.-~_  XVaaobOMnicr. 
— ~-.  VoCwUqr. 
•» Bicfatbofsii. 

,«»— ^  eum,  isrs. 


w Main  ThKte  Route  aomrdiDg  to  Tegoletti,  IWO.    —• •♦-  Soanowkl. 

Forqrth,  1870.  ^. —  Cooper. 

PrjeraUkL  .».>.-  Amurnd  David. 

— —  ftAlagiatwrit. 

————<——«— —I  8,00OSIflei. 

geographical  unity  in  its  relations  with  the  history  of  man ;  for  the  interior 
remains  but  partially  known,  while  the  movements  of  population  and  commerce 
continue  still  to  be  made  by  the  seaward  routes  and  coast  regions. 

The  progress  of  trade  and  discovery  must  ultimately  give  to  Asia  the  unity  it 
now  lacks,  and  the  result  must  be  a  general  shifting  of  equilibrium  throughout 
the  whole  world.  At  no  distant  day  the  European  railway  system  will  be 
continued  eastwards,  connecting  the  dties  of  the  Bosporus  with  those  of  India, 
and  enabling  goods  to  be  forwarded  without  break  from  the  Yistula  to  the  Indus 
basin.     Travellers  will  then  flock  to  those  still  unknown  regions  of  Eastern  Tibet, 


'^h'-' 


fo': 

It       - 


28 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


the  scene  of  some  of  the  grandest  phenomena  on  the  globe.  The  teeming 
populations  of  India  and  China  will  then  also  enter  into  direct  relations  with  each 
other,  and  the  trade  routes  of  Calcutta  and  Shanghai  will  meet  midway  between 
those  emporiums. 

All  these  economic  revolutions  must  revive  many  cities  decayed,  or  even 
vanished,  since  the  overland  routes  were  abandoned  for  the  safer  and  easier 
oceanic  highways.  Large  cities  cannot  fail  again  to  spring  up  in  Bactriana  and 
Sogdiana,  where  the  main  road  between  Central  Europe  and  India  will  cross  that 
leading  to  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Egypt.  But  besides  the  new  centres  of 
population  that  must  arise  in  the  West,  others  will  be  founded  in  Central  Asia, 
the  rallying-points  of  Chinese  and  Russians,  of  the  Hindu  and  European  traders. 
But  the  precise  locality  of  these  new  marts  must  be  determined  by  political  as 
well  as  by  climatic  and  other  physical  considerations,  for  Asia  is  a  battle-field 
which  is  destined  soon  to  witness  a  decisive  struggle  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

Political  Rivalries. 

The  influence  of  Europe  on  the  Asiatic  populations  is  steadily  increasing,  so 
that  the  vast  eastern  continent  would  seem  in  some  respects  to  be  becoming  more 
and  more  a  simple  dependency  of  its  little  western  peninsula.  The  power  of 
Europe  is  represented  in  Asia  mainly  by  the  two  rival  states,  England  and  Russia, 
differing  profoundly  from  each  other  in  their  traditions,  political  situation,  and 
interests.  Russia  rules  in  the  northern,  England  in  the  southern  zone,  and  many 
small  intermediate  peoples  struggling  to  maintain  their  independence  gravitate 
necessarily  to  the  orbits  of  these  great  states.'  In  the  extreme  east,  Japan,  while 
preserving  its  political  autonomy,  is  striving  to  rival  the  European  peoples  in  the 
form  of  its  administrative  system.  But  the  Chinese  still  cling  to  their  individual 
nationality.  Their  power  has  been  but  little  affected  by  the  recent  invasions  and 
treaties  with  foreign  states,  and  the  empire  is  already  beginning  to  resist  further 
aggression  by  the  inert  force  of  its  teeming  populations.  But  these  countless 
masses  have  also  the  strength  imparted  by  industry,  toil,  and  patience,  while 
common  sense,  methodic  habits,  unflagging  tenacity,  render  them  formidable 
competitors  in  the  race.  Compared  with  the  Hindus,  the  Chinese  have  the 
paramount  advantage  derived  from  a  thorough  mixture  of  races  and  national 
cohesion.  Their  temperate  habits  also  enable  them  to  become  acclimatized  under 
the  most  varied  climes.  They  are  an  enduring  race,  which  acquires  fresh  vitality 
from  oppression  and  defeat.  Hence  England  and  Russia  are  not  the  only  rivals 
for  supremacy  in  Asia.  Nay,  more,  the  Chinese  race  cannot  fail  to  clash  with  the 
peoples  of  Europe  and  North  America  on  the  fundamental  questions  of  culture  and 
social  habits,  before  taking  an  active  and  intelligent  part  with  them  in  the  work 
of  human  progress.  This  conflict  mtist  needs  retard  the  development  of  mankind 
until  its  course  be  again  resumed  by  a  final  reconciliation  of  the  ideas  common  to 
both  elements. 

The  ineviiable  struggle  between  these  three  rival  states  is  still  retarded  by 


%'-ij-s?,v??'&ia!rm?*'<'«f*'ffl>??w^^^ 


tooming 
ith  each 
between 

or  even 
1  easier 
lana  and 
rose  that 
intres  of 
ral  Asia, 
1  traders, 
litical  as 
ittle-iield 
akiud. 


lasing,  so 
ing  more 
power  of 
id  Russia, 
ition,  and 
ind  many 
gravitate 
»n,  while 
les  in  the 
ndividual 
isions  and 
st  further 
countless 
ice,  while 
ormidable 
have  the 
national 
zed  under 
ih  vitality 
•nly  rivals 
I  with  the 
ilture  and 
the  work 
mankind 
ommon  to 


POLITICAL  RIVALBIES. 


S» 


the  vast  extent  of  the  partly  desert  lands  separating  them.  If  China  is  easily 
acoBHsible  by  sea,  she  is  at  least  completely  enclosed  landwards.  Towards  Russian 
Siberia  she  has  far  more  solitudes  than  peopled  regions,  and  here  also  Russia,  having 
but  few  colonies,  is  incapable  of  exercising  any  political  pressure  on  China.  Between 
the  "  Flowery  Land  "  and  British  India  the  zone  of  separation  is  formed  not  by 
solitudes,  but  by  highlands  still  scarcely  explored.  In  the  west  there  is  still  a 
considerable  tract  intervening  between  Russian  territory  and  India,  and  here  the 
native  element  has  hitherto  maintained  a  certain  political  independence.    In  both 

Fig.  18. — EvBopxAir  Imfldbho  ut  Aau. 

Scale  1  :  130,000,000. 


Salijeet  to  RuMlaii 
Inflnenoe. 


Britidi  SnUMt  to  Britiah 

PoMeMtoos.  Tnflnence. 


,  8,000  XilM. 


directions  the  Turkomans  and  Afghans  have  till  recently  presented  a  bold  front  to 
the  Russian  and  English  invaders,  who  are  endeavouring  to  seize  the  strategic  points 
of  their  territory.  Influential  statesmen  have  even  declared,  whether  sincerely  or 
not,  that  this  intermediate  zone  should  be  permanently  respected  by  the  two  rival 
powers,  and  that  the  advanced  sentinels  of  British  India  and  Russian  Turkestan 
run  little  risk  of  soon  meeting  on  some  pass  of  the  Hindu-Eush,  or  about  the 
sources  of  the  Murghab. 

From  the  military  point  of  view  China  is  still  far  inferior  to  the  two  other 


BiliMiiiBllllMWMi 


fwrnm^mrng-y-M^^m'^mmrwmw^^mmf^^'^v 


80 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


great  Asiatic  powers.  Although  she  has  had  the  foresight  to  utilise  the  lost  twenty 
years  of  peace  to  reorganize  her  arnty,  replenish  her  arsenals,  oast  guns,  build 
ironclads,  slie  is  scarcely  yet  strong  enough  to  contend  with  any  European  power 
beyond  her  own  limits.  She  is  also  still  largely  enslaved  to  official  etiquette  and 
deep-rooted  traditions,  preventing  her  from  /reely  entering  on  the  new  career 
towards  which  ahe  is  impelled  by  the  course  of  events.  Nevertheless  both 
Government  and  people  are  at  one  in  the  determination  to  prevent  foreigners  from 
monopolizing  the  wealth  and  trade  of  the  country.  While  receiving  thetti  in 
compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  treaties,  the  Chinese  have  contrived  to  protect 
their  own  interests,  and  while  slowly,  accepting  new  ideas,  they  prefer  to  be  their 
own  teachers  in  applying  them  to  economical  purposes.  From  the  material 
point  of  view  they  also  possess  the  strength  inherent  in  numbers.  In  Manchuria, 
in  Formosa,  and  in  the  central  regions  they  are  gradually  acquiring  the  land  by 
cultivation,  and  even  in  many  foreign  countries  they  have  attained  a  decided 
preponderance.  From  their  over-peopled  native  laudlhey  are  already  overflowing 
into  Further  India,  Malaysia,  Auistralia,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the  United 
States. 

On  the  othex'  hand,  England  is  unable  to  contend  by  means  of  compact  masses 
for  the  supremacy  in  Asia.  In  the  very  centre  of  her  power  she  has  nothing  to 
depend  upon  beyond  her  European  troops  and  native  mercenaries.  Still  the 
territory  already  acquired  gives  her  a  tremendous  defensive  and  aggressive  power. 
She  not  only  raises  formidable  armies  in  an  empire  containing  one-sixth  of  the 
population  of  the  globe,  but  also  a  sufficient  revenue  to  be  independent  of 
the  resources  of  the  home  country,  The  English  cannot,  of  course,  rely  on  the 
sympathy  of  their  subjects,  whom  they  probably  despise  too  much  to  expect  it  of 
them.  The  time  must  also  doubtless  come,  though  it  may  be  still  remote,  when 
the  Hindus  will  develop  a  national  life  and  get  rid  of  their  foreign  masters. 
Meanwhile  the  English  tenure  is  far  more  secure  than  before  the  mutiny  of  1857, 
although  the  majority  of  the  army  is  composed  of  sepoys,  and  all  the  lower 
functions  of  the  administration  are  in  the  hands  either  of  natives  or  of"  Eurasians ; " 
that  is,  half-caste  Hindus  and  Europeans.  The  secret  of  England's  strength  lies 
in  the  fact  that  no  national  spirit  has  yet  been  evolved,  no  public  opinion  formed, 
except  here  and  there,  and  even  then  deprived  of  all  efficacy  in  a  country  which  is 
divided  into  a  multitude  of  distinct  societies  by  the  institution  of  caste.  The 
English,  belonging  almost  exclusively  to  the  wealthy  and  influential  classes,  and 
unattended  by  servants  of  their  own  nationality,  whose  menial  status  might 
diminish  British  prestige,  are  enabled  to  live  like  gods  and  move  in  a  higher 
world,  fur  above  their  multitudinous  subjects,  by  whom  they  are  hated,  yet  feared. 

Apart  from  the  various  qiiestions  of  internal  policy,  the  main  point  for 
England  is  not  only  to  uphold  her  sway  in  Oisgangetic  India,  but  also  to  con- 
nect by  easy  and  rapid  routes  the  two  centres  of  her  vast  empire  on  which  "  the 
sun  never  sets."  She  requires  the  geographical  unity  of  a  powerful  state,  for 
there  are  still  great  gaps  in  her  boundless  domain.  The  London  and  Oalcutta 
highway  is  not  absolutely  secured  to  her  fleets  and  armies,  and  would  be  exposed 


t 


■^  ». 


POLITICAL  EIVALBIES. 


81 


t  twenty 
as,  build 
An  power 
lette  and 
iw  career 
[ess  both 
aers  from 
thetn  in 

0  protect 
)  bo  their 

1  material 
[anchuria, 
)  land  by 
a  decided 
rerflowing 
le  United 

act  masses 
nothing  to 
Still  the 
Ave  power. 
Ixth  of  the 
lendent  of 
ely  on  the 
ixpect  it  of 
aote,  when 
n  masters, 
ly  of  1867, 
the  lower 
urasians ; " 
irength  lies 
ion  formed, 
•y  which  is 
aste.     The 
classes,  and 
atus  might 
n  a  higher 
yet  feared. 

point  for 
Iso  to  con- 
nrhioh  "  the 
1  state,  for 
id  Calcutta 

be  exposed 


on  the  flank  were  Russia  to  seize  the  Dardanelles  and  upper  basin  of  the 
Euphrates,  or  place  Cossack  garrisons  in  the  strongholds  of  Afghanistan.  Thanks 
to  her  fust-sailing  fleets,  England  has  hitherto  enjoyed  a  great  advantage  over  her 
rival  for  empire ;  for  British  armies  are  moved  from  the  Thames  to  the  Indus  far 
more  expeditiously  than  feeble  Kussian  columns  from  the  Caspian  to  the  oasis  of 
Morv.  Hence,  in  spite  of  the  maps,  England  is  in  reality  much  nearer  to  India 
than  are  the  advanced  Muscovite  outposts  on  the  Upper  Oxus.  The  Mediter« 
ranean  belongs  to  the  fleets  of  England,  which  is  thus  enabled  to  close  the  Suez 
Canal  at  pleasure.  She  also  rules  supreme  in  the  Red  Sea,  on  the  Arabian  sea- 
board, in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  along  the  coasts  of  Persia  and  Baluchistan.  But 
the  water  highways  are  insufficient,  and  she  will  also  have  to  hold  the  overland 
routes  beyond  Europe.  With  this  object  she  has  already  secured  the  virtual  pos- 
session of  Asia  Minor  and  occupied  Cyprus,  at  the  extreme  comer  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, over  against  the  great  bend  of  the  Euphrates ;  she  also  holds  strong  posi- 
tions in  Makran  and  Baluchistan,  and  must  either  now  or  ultimately  annex 
Kandahar  permanently  to  British  India.  She  is  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
Western  Asiatic  sovereigns,  by  means  of  pensions  g^dually  transforming  them 
into  vassals,  thus  avoiding  the  risk  and  expense  of  ruling  them  directly,  for  she 
also  enjoys  over  Russia  the  great  advantage  derived  from  the  possession  of  accu- 
mulated capital.  Her  military  routes  are  being  rapidly  developed,  and  a  line  600 
miles  long  will  soon  connect  the  Indian  railway  system  with  £andahar,  the  true 
key  to  Afghanistan.  Half  the  distance  separating  Alexandretta  from  Calcutta 
will  thus  be  traversed  by  English  locomotives.  But  is  it  nc«  evident  from  such 
efibrts  that  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in  Asia  is  approaching  P 

Slower  in  their  movements,  because  opposed  by  still  unsurmounted  physical 
obstacles,  the  Russians  have,  as  a  military  power,  advantages  of  another  description 
over  their  English  rivals.  Their  territory  is  not  composed  of  scattered  frag- 
ments, but  forms  from  the  shores  of  Lapland  to  the  Pumir  a  perfect  geogra- 
phical unity.  A  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are,  moreover,  of  Russian  stock, 
and  this  ethnical  element  is  yearly  increasing  by  colonisation.  Nor  are  the 
native  tribes  anywhere  numerous  enough  to  cause  serious  alarm  to  thr  Slav 
settlers,  who  have  become  diversely  intermingled  with  them,  and  who  do  not 
maintain  a  haughty  reserve  towards  the  former  owners  of  the  land.  Perfect 
fusion  is  prevented  by  differences  of  social  habits,  and  amongst  the  Moham- 
medans by  religious  prejudice.  Still  the  Orthodox  Russians  and  the  Moslems  of 
Turkestan  do  not,  like  the  English  and  Hindus,  hold  aloof  from  each  other,  as  if 
they  belonged  to  two  distinct  orders  of  humanity.  Hence  national  cohesion  may 
be  ultimately  realised  in  Asiatic  as  easily  as  it  has  been  in  European  Russia. 
The  Russians  will  also,  like  the  English,  soon  doubtless  succeed  in  giving  greater 
material  cohesion  to  their  Asiatic  Empire  by  means  of  military  routes,  lines  of 
wells,  and  even  railways  across  the  intervening  wastes.  The  railway  system,  now 
reaching  no  farther  than  the  Caucasus,  Atrek  valley,  and  river  Ural,  will  bo 
continued  to  the  foot  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  and  then  formidable  armies  may  in  a  few 
weeks  be  massed  on  the  frontiers  of  the  lands  hitherto  swayed  by  British  influence. 


8fl  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

But  theae  frontiers  still  present  many  weak  points,  especially  on  the  Iranian  table- 
land and  in  the  upland  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Whether  the  two 
rivals  wish  it  or  not,  whether  they  seek  to  precipitate  or  avoid  the  conflict,  it  must 
sooner  or  later  inevitably  come.  All  the  petty  intermediate  states  are  already 
being  disintegrated  under  the  pressure  of  the  twofold  attraction,  and  on  both 
sides  the  intrigues,  rivalries,  political,  commercial,  and  religious  jealousies  have 
silently  begun  the  mighty  struggle  which  must  one  day  burst  into  open  warfare. 

Thus  are  being  prepared  revolutions  of  a  vital  character  in  the  heart  of  the 
Old  World.  The  Asiatic  lands,  where,  rightly  or  wrorgly,  the  cultured  races  seek 
their  primeval  origins,  are  becoming  the  scene  of  a  supreme  political  struggle 
between  the  two  most  powerful  nations  in  Europe.  Whatever  be  the  issue,  the 
hope  may  be  entertained  that  Western  Asia  and  tbe  Indian  world  will  definitely 
belong  to  the  domain  of  Western  civilisation,  and  that  thenceforth  all  the  European 
and  Asiatic  peoples  will  accomplish  their  evolution  harmoniously  together,  so  that 
all  may  benefit  by  the  progress  of  each.  Thanks  to  the  reaction  of  Western 
culture  on  the  Eastern  world,  mankind,  conscious  of  its  unity,  has  already  been 
enlarged,  and  political  revolutions  are  preparing  for  the  world  a  common  destiny 
and  solution  of  the  problems  affecting  the  life  of  nations. 


\ 


CHAPTER  U. 

CAUCASIA. 


I.— THE  PONTO-CASPIAN  MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM. 

I  HE  Gauoasion  mountain  syatem  is  often  regarded  as  belonging  to 
Europe.  Rising  like  a  barrier  north  of  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  Black  Sea,  it  must  have  seemed  to  the  Greek  navigators  dis- 
tinctly eevered  from  Asia,  whereas  to  the  traders  settled  on  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Euxine  it  appeared  to  form  the  southern 
limits  of  the  great  Scythian  plains.  Since  that  time  geog^phers  have  discussed 
the  question  whether  the  natural  confines  of  the  two  continents  were  indicated  by 
the  bed  and  marsh  lands  of  the  Phasis  in  Colchis;  or  by  the  Kimmerian  Strait 
and  course  of  the  Tanais.  Apart  from  this  question,  Hellenic  tradition  constantly 
kept  in  view  these  mountains,  loftier  than  either  Olympus,  Etna,  Hemus,  or  the 
Alps.  The  history  of  Greece  itself  was  associated  in  legend  with  this  distant 
range,  where  the  firtit  germs  of  oiviliftation  were  sought.  Towards  the  shores  of 
Colchis  was  directed  the  famous  Argonautio  expedition  in  search  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  symbolizing  the  wealth  of  every  sort  flowing  both  from  science,  trade,  and 
industry.  Here,  also,  the  Hellenes  endeavoured  to  find  the  origin  of  their  race. 
Deucalion,  who  peopled  Greece,  was  son  of  Prometheus,  and  it  was  to  a  rock  in 
the  Caucasus  that  this  Titan  was  -bound  for  having  stolen  the  fire  from  heaven. 
A  sort  of  superstition,  perhaps  associated  with  the  Promethean  myth,  formerly 
induced  savants  to  apply  the  term  Caucasian  to  all  the  fair  European  and  Asiatic 
races,  thus  testifying  to  the  instinctive  reverence  with  which  the  nations  have 
ever  regarded  these  mountains  forming  the  barrier  between  two  worlds.  This 
border-land  was  supposed  to  be  still  inhabited  by  the  purest  representatives  of  the 
race,  whose  beauty,  symmetry,  and  graceful  carriage  were  spoken  of  as  physical 
advantages  peculiar  to  all  the  white  peoples.  Nor  has  this  term  Caucasian  yet 
quite  disappeared  from  ordinary  language  as  the  synonym  of  the  White,  Aryan,  or 
Indo-European  stock. 

Since  the  true  relief  of  the  land  has  been  determined  by  Pallas  and  other 
explorers,  there  can  be  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the  Caucasus  belong^  to  Asia. 
It  is  sharply  separated  from  Europe  by  the  deep  depressioi^  now  traversed  by  the 


A8IATI0  BUSdIA. 


'-. 


Manlch,  and  formerly  filled  by  the  waters  of  the  Ponto-Oiupirtn  Strait.  In  the 
aouth  the  ayatetn,  while  preHerving  its  ohari'oter  of  a  distinct  chain,  is  connected  by 
spurs  and  a  lofty  transverse  ridge  with  the  Auutolir.n  mountains,  so  that  it  forms 
the  advanced  moss  of  the  whole  continent.  Historically,  also,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Caucasus  belong  to  the  Asiatic  woriii.  Before  the  intervention  of  Russia  the 
Georgians,  Mingrelians,  Armenians,  Kurds,  Tatars,  and  other  Transcaucasian 
peoples  maintained  relations,  whether  friendly  or  hostile,  chiefly  with  the  inha- 
bitants  of  Anatolia  and  Persia.  The  southern  slopes  facing  the  sun  are  also  much 
more  densely  peopled  than  those  turned  towards  the  arid  steppes  of  Europe. 
Hence,  even  after  their  annexation  to  Russia,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  these  Asiatic 
lands  was  naturally  found  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Caucasus,  where  is  conoen* 
trated  the  aggressive  force  of  the  empire  against  the  other  regions  of  Western 
Asia.  Recently  a  considerable  strip  of  Turkish  territory  has  been  forcibly  added 
to  Transcaucasia,  so  that  this  division  of  the  Caucasus,  already  the  most  populous, 
has  become  nearly  as  extenfiive  as  the  northern.  It  is  even  larger,  if  in  it  be 
included  the  province  of  Daghestan,  which,  though  lying  north  of  the  main  range, 
is  administratively  regarded  as  part  of  Transcauoasia.* 


The  Great  Caucasus. 

Few  ranges  are  characterized  by  a  more  striking  unity  than  the  Caucasus,  the 
Eok-kaf  or  Eaf-dagh  of  the  Turks  and  Tatars,  a  section  of  "  the  chain  that 
girdles  the  world,"  according  to  the  Oriental  mythologies.  Seen  from  the  distant 
steppes  of  Muzdok  or  Yekaterinogradsk,  k>i.retohing  from  horizon  to  horizon,  it 
seems  like  a  rampart  with  a  thousand  sparkling  battlements.  The  poets  call  it 
simply  the  Caucasus,  as  if  it  were  but  one  frowning  mass  reaching;  'rom  sea  to  sea 
for  a  distance  of  720  miles.  It  is  also  called  the  "  Great  Caucasus,"  in  contradis- 
tinction to  tba  irregular  spurs  of  the  "  Little,"  or  rather  "  Anti-Caucasus  "  beyond 
the  Eura  basin.  Approached  from  the  Euxine  or  the  Russian  steppes,  it  seems 
at  first  an  impalpable  vapour,  a  hazy  cloud  mingling  with  the  fogs  of  the  sur* 
rounding  swamps ;  then  it  assumes  more  distinct  outlines,  breaking  into  snowy 
or  wooded  crests  and  deep  goiges,  the  whole  soon  bounding  tbe  horizon,  towering 
above  the  ssone  of  cloud,  wind,  and  storm,  eclipsing  the  sun  midway  in  its  course, 
threatening  the  lowlands  with  avalanches  and  widespread  ruin,  hurling  the 
foaming  torrents  in  cascades  and  rapids  down  to  the  plains.  Accustomed  to  the 
sight  of  boundless  steppes  or  slight  eit.inencee,  the  Russians  could  not  fail  to 
be  struck  by  these  lofty  sumroit«  which  seemed  to  belong  to  another  nature, 
whose    charm  was  enhanced  by   the  valour  and   beauty  of    its    inhabitants. 

*  Area  and  population  of  Rusaian  Caucasia : — 

Aim  in  Sqnara  Eitimated  PopnUtioa 

Mile*.  (1880). 

CiKaucasia    .        .        .       ^        .        .  88,000  1,020,000 

Daghestan 11,436  600,000 

TranMaucaaia  with  Kuba              .        .  76,844  8,260,000 

Becent  conqueeta 10,636  200,000 

Total 186^  6,870.000 


mr 


■MH 


.1 


THE  OBEAT  0AUCA8U8.  W 

Rusrian  literaturo  reflects  the  deep  improMion  produced  on  the  imagination  by 
the  sight  of  the  CaucanuR,  and  by  the  warfare  wug^d  against  its  numerous  tribes. 
Pushkin  det4cribed  in  song  the  romantic  scenery  of  Oircassia ;  I^ermontov  inter- 
preted the  traditions  of  the  inhabitants,  and  made  the  Cauriisus  the  scene  of  his 
novel  the  "  Hero  of  the  Day,"  which  had  such  a  large  share  in  the  intellectual 
development  of  the  rising  generation.  How  many  noble  spirits  have  perished, 
'  like  Lermontov  himself,  in  this  region,  persecuted  during  life,  all  the  more 
honoured  in  death  I 

The  general  south-east  and  north-west  direction  of  the  range  suffers  but  slight 
deviations.  It  thus  follows  the  same  line  us  the  mountains  of  Persia,  Asia  Minor, 
and  so  many  other  Asiatic  systems.  Its  origin  is  therefore  associated  with 
the  laws  by  which  a  large  portion  of  the  crust  of  the  Old  World  has  been  modified. 

« 

Fig.  U.— Bso  OP  TMi  Caspian. 

AoBoidla*  to  A.  Orinmuk    BoO*  1  ;  S,mo,oeo. 


I 

/ 


i 


I 


m 


0  to  e  I!»tiiomi. 


toaix 


ectoiao. 


laotoiao.    iSOMidtiinnmlii. 
WICOm. 


In  the  formation  of  the  surrounding  lands  the  Ouuoasvs  has  even  played  a  more 
important  part  than  is  evident  from  its  apparent  relief.  W'th  a  regularity  sur- 
passing that  of  all  other  systems,  it  is  continued  beyond  the  main  ridge  by  argil- 
laceous hills  thrown  up  by  igneous  agencies.  At  either/  extremity  low  peninsulas 
heaving  with  the  pressure  of  pent-up  forces  are  projected  seawards — those  of 
Taman  on  the  west,  and  Apsheron  on  the  east.  The  first  is  scarcely  separated 
from  another  peninsula,  that  of  Kertch,  advancing  from  the  Crimean  mountains, 
while  the  second  stretches  across  the  Caspian  in  a  line  marked  first  by  volcanic 
islets,  and  then  by  a  submerged  bank  separating  the  two  g^reat  northern  and 
southern  marine  depressions.  On  both  sides  of  this  bank  the  lead  sinks  1,300 
feet  deeper  than  the  line  of  projection  of  the  Caucasus.  On  the  east  coast  the 
cape  north  of  the  Erasnovodsk  peninsula  is  the  starting-point  of  a  chain  of 


M  ARIATIO  BUSfllA. 

heigbtfl,  bills  or  aingle  eaoarpmpntN  continuing  the  lino  of  the  OauoaauH  direotly 
to  the  Murghub  valley  between  Morv  and  Herat.  Through  these  eminences  and 
those  of  North  Afghanistan  the  Oauoasian  syNtein  ia  connected  with  that  of  the 
Hindu*Kush. 

The  Caucasus  resembles  the  Pyrenees  in  its  direction,  in  the  serrated  form  of 
the  main  range,  in  its  position  between  two  murine  basins,  and  like  them  uIho  it 
may  be  considert^d  as  consisting  of  two  sections  of  unequal  length.  But  if  the 
gap  forming  the  natural  limit  between  the  western  and  eastern  sections  is  not 
situated  in  the  middle  of  the  range,  it  lies  at  all  events  almost  exactly  midway 
between  the  two  seas.  Through  this  depression  pusses  the  grout  military  highf 
way  betwi  an  Russia  and  Tiilis.  On  the  meridian  of  this  pass  the  main  range 
contracts  on  either  side  to  a  width  of  about  60  miles  between  the  two  opposite 
plains,  while  east  and  west  the  highlands  spread  much  further  north  and  south. 
The  western  section,  though  the  narrower,  is  the  higher  of  the  two,  for  here 
rise  the  loftiest  summits,  six  at  least  of  which  surpass  Mont  Blanc,  culminating 
point  of  Europe.*  Daghestan,  i.e.  "  the  Highlands,"  comprising  the  most 
important  region  of  the  Eastern  Ouucasus,  is  lower,  but  more  irregular  and  rugged, 
than  the  western  section. 

The  old  geographers  supposed  that  the  system  consisted  of  a  simple  unbroken 
ridge ;  but  the  investigations  of  Abish  and  others  show  that  the  general  relief  is 
much  more  intricate.  The  chain  is  almost  everywhere  formed  by  two  ridges,  and 
in  many  places  even  by  three  or  four  running  parallel,  or  nearly  so,  with  each 
other,  and  connected  at  intervals  by  nuclei,  thus  presenting  a  formation  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Andes.  The  upper  valleys  of  the  Caucasus  generally  take  the 
form  of  cirques,  or  elongated  craters,  in  which  are  collected  the  head-streams, 
and  from  which  they  escape  through  a  deep  lateral  gorge.  From  the  orographic 
point  of  view  the  Eoshtan-tau  may  be  considered  the  culminating  point  of  the 
system  ;  for  this  peak,  which  has  never  been  scaled,  rises  on  the  parting-line 
between  the  two  slopes.  Between  the  sources  of  the  Kuban  and  of  the  Adai- 
kokh,  100  miles  further  east,  the  watershed  presents  no  passes  lower  than  10,000 
feet.  The  first  breach  below  this  eluvation  is  the  Mamisson  Pass  (9,540  feet), 
situated  at  one  of  the  sudden  breaks  in  the  main  range,  on  a  transverse  ridge 
branching  off  at  the  Zikari  Mountains.  East  of  this  pass  numerous  gaps  ooour 
at  altitudes  ranging  from  6,500  to  10,000  feet.  Although  the  triangular  survey 
of  the  Caucasus  has  long  been  finished,  the  work  of  exploration  is  still  far  from 
complete.  Since  1868  the  Kazbek  and  Elbruz  have  been  ascended  by  Freshfield, 
Moore,  and  Tucker,  accompanied  by  the  Chamonix  guide  Devouassoud,  and 
several  other  peaks  have  also  been  scaled ;  yet  the  Alpine  Clubs  have  still  plenty 
of  work  before  them,  especially  in  the  Western  Caucasus. 

The  northern  and  southern  slopes  of  the  rang^  differ  greatly  in  their  general 


*  Chief  summitH  of  the  Caucasus : — 


Elbrus    . 

Kashtan-tau 

Dikh-tau 


Feat. 
18,820 
17,370 
17,190 


Kaisbek     .        .        .        . 
Tshba  (Resoch-mta) 
Aghiih-tau,  or  Adiah-tau . 


F<wt. 
16,800 
16.760  (P) 
10,260  (f) 


mmmmammm 


£i:^ 


TOR  ORKAT  CAUCASUS. 


87 


Mpeotfl.  Tlio  lotter  {■  on  the  whi)lo  the  more  abrupt  of  the  two,  and  tho  diHtunco 
from  tho  control  ridgo  to  tho  phiins  wutorod  by  tho  Kura  ia  about  ono-hulf  thut 
which  intorvonen  botwoen  tho  Haino  point  and  tho  northorn  valloyn  of  tho  Suhik 
and  Tori'k.  In  tho  woHt  a  ainiilur  oontrait  in  proHontod  by  tho  alop^m  fuuing  tho 
Rion  und  Kubun  renpectively.  Tho  deacont  towards  tho  Kuban  is  very  irregular, 
boing  broken  first  by  a  toriot  of  parallel  oresta,  and  then  lower  down  by  tho  pro- 
jections of  the  upland  limeatono  terraces  roaembling  tho  glocia  of  a  rampart,  which 
stretch  somewhat  confusedly  from  the  Euxine  to  tho  Oaspian,  but  which  present 

Fig.  18.— GaoLoaicAL  Fornationi  or  thi  Cbntiul  CavcaiuSi 
AMordiof  to  K.  I'arr*.    Sod*  I  :  l,400,0aa 


GMAitM. 


P«l»eaoic 
BohMi. 


Lowar  JnnMic 


Upptr  Jtmudo 
Uuidi. 


Tiomr  Chalks. 


UppirCluaiw. 


Undetarmiued 
Lower  Tertiaiiei. 


Anaitb 
Porpbyrr. 

—  MlUlM. 


AaOnbu, 


remarkably  i^istinct  outlines  about  the  western  hemicyclc  of  the  Upper  Terek. 
There  ia  thus  developed  a  vast  intermediate  valley  between  the  main  range  and 
the  advanced  ridges  of  Jurassic  formation.  These  terraces  slope  very  gently 
toward  the  steppe,  whereas  the  side  facing  the  central  chain  is  broken  by  steep 
declivities,  some  of  which  present  nearly  vertical  walls  over  3,000  feet  high. 
These  broken  terraces,  intersected  by  rapid  torrents,  are  regarded  by  the  inha- 
bitants as  of  far  greater  importance  than  the  higher  eminences  of  the  main  range, 
for  the  pastures  and  woodlands  are  here  parcelled  out  as  landed  property.  Every 
prominence  has  its  name,  whereas  till  recently  the  Elbruz  and  Eazbek  were  the 
only  peaks  of  the  main  range  known  by  name  to  the  lowlanders, 


88 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA, 


Geological  Formation — Volcanic  Action. 

The  regularity  of  the  Caucasian  system  is  not  confiued  to  the  general  relief, 
but  is  also  shown,  at  least  on  the  northern  slopes,  in  the  main  features  of  its 
geology.  The  chief  range  consists  principally  of  crystalline  schists,  resting  here 
and  there  on  granites,  and  diminishing  in  extent  as  we  go  eastwards.  The 
Suram  transverse  ridge,connecting  the  Oau  casus  with  the  Anti-Caucasus,  also 
consists  of  crystalline  rocks ;  but  here  the  strata  are  fur  less  regular  than  on  the 
northern  slopes.  Bight  and  left  of  the  great  central  chain,  the  prominences  on 
both  slopes  are  chiefly  composed  of  limestone  and  silicious  strata  of  various  ages 
— Jurassic,  cretaceous,  or  eocene.  In  the  north  these  older  formations  are  covered 
by  the  pliocene  and  more  recent  steppe  lands.  In  their  prevailing  characteristics 
the  Urukh,  Terek,  and  Baksan  valleys  all  closely  resemble  each  other.  Here  the 
streams  rise  in  wild  and  rugged  granitic  cirques,  thence  traversing  marls  and  sandy 
clays  between  glens  dotted  with  numerous  villages,  beyond  which  they  enter 
narrow  gorges,  above  whose  chalk  sides  are  visible  the  pastures  and  woodland  r. 
Lower  down  stretches  the  steppe,  where  the  torrents  combine  to  form  the  Terek. 
About  the  middle  of  the  range,  between  Daghestan  and  the  Western  Caucasus, 
a  sort  of  geological  inlet  penetrates  into  the  Upper  Terek  valley,  where  a  vast 
horizontal  plateau  of  tertiary  grits  projects  like  a  peninsula  between  the  surround- 
ing chalks.  Here  the  attraction  of  the  hills  is  unusually  active,  the  deviation  of 
the  plummet  towards  the  intermediate  rocks  amounting  to  thirty-eight  seconds 
between  Vladikavkaz,  at  the  northern  base,  and  Dushet,  south  of  the  range. 

Porphyries  cropping  out  in  the  upper  regions  raise  their  steep  crests  above  the 
snow-line,  while  in  the  central  regions  more  recent  lavas  have  broken  through  the 
crust,  especially  on  the  southern  slopes.  In  the  north  the  Elbruz,  culminating 
point  of  the  system,  is  an  old  volcano,  which  was  probably  active  when  the 
Euxine  and  Caspian  were  still  connected  by  the  Manich  Strait  towards  the  close 
of  the  tertiary  or  beginning  of  the  following  epoch.  This  mountain  terminates  in  a 
sort  of  horseslioe  cirque,  which  eeems  to  be  a  crater  partly  fallen  in.  The  Kazbek 
also  is  a  trachyte  cone,  while  the  cfestsof  the  "  Bed  Hills,"  farther  south,  are  all 
volcanic,  and  the  route  skirting  the  Aragva  passes  along  the  foot  of  columnar 
basalt  rocks.  Nor  are  the  subterraneous  forces  still  extinct  in  the  Caucasus. 
Not  only  arc  both  extremities  fringed  by  boiling  mud  volcanoes,  but  numerous 
mineral  and  naphtha  springs  bubble  up  from  underground  lakes  disposed  in 
symmetrical  order  on  both  sides  of  the  range.  The  hot  springs  are  amongst  the 
most  copious  in  the  world,  though  few  of  them  seem  to  he  associated  with  the 
igneous  forces  lying  beneath  the  main  chain. 

Earthquakes,  probably  of  volcanic  origin,  occur  at  frequent  intervals  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Eura  and  Araxis,  while  regular  upheavals  of  the  land  have  taken 
place  at  both  ends  of  the  range.  The  steep  cliffs  overlooking  the  little  harbour 
of  Petrovsk,  in  Daghestan,  are  scored  by  horizontal  lines  produced  by  the  former 
action  of  the  waves,  although  they  are  now  some  300  feet  above  tbe  present  level 
of  the  Caspian.     On  the  Abkhasian  coast   there  are  also  distinct  evidences  of 


W^SfSOhiiaiiii^ua.  .<>... 


w 


erul  relief, 
turea  of  its 
'esting  here 
ftrdfl.  The 
icasus,  also 
than  on  the 
ninences  on 
various  ages 

are  covered 

aracteristics 

Here  the 

Is  and  sandy 

they  enter 
.  woodlands, 
a  the  Terek, 
rn  Caucasus, 
rhere  a  vast 
ae  surround- 

deviation  of 
ight  seconds 
range, 
its  ahove  the 

through  the 

culminating 
re  when  the 
irds  the  close 
rmiuates  in  a 

The  Eazhek 
south,  are  all 

of  columnar 
Lhe  Caucasus, 
mt  numerous 
disposed  in 
)  amongst  the 
ated  with  the 

;erval8  in  the 
id  have  taken 
little  harhour 
by  the  former 
5  present  level 
,  evidences  of 


GEOLOGICAL  FOBMATION— VOLCANIC  ACTION.  89 

changes  of  level,  and  as  high  as  600  feet  there  are  visible  old  marine  shores  in 
every  respect  resembling  those  still  washed  by  the  waves  of  the  Black  Sea.  The 
marshy  springs  oozing  from  the  ground  at  this  elevation  contain  shell-Bsh,  such  as 
the  mi/m  and  gammarm,  of  the  same  species  as  those  now  inhabiting  the  Euxine, 
though  their  presence  has  been  attributed  either  to  a  former  communication  with 
that  sea,  or  to  the  action  of  water-fowl  carrying  the  spat  backwards  and  forwards 
in  their  plumage.  Lake  Abra(k,  near  Novo-Rossusk,  also  contains  a  semi-marine 
fauna,  which  has  gradually  adapted  itself  to  the  fresh  water.  The  remains  of 
buildings  in  the  alluvia  near  Sukhum-Kaleh,  both  above  and  below  the  surface, 
show  that  even   in  historic  times  the  land  has  first  subsided  and  then  been 

Fig.  16.— Hot  Sviunoh  and  Naphtha  Rsgionb  in  the  Cavgasub. 
Soda  1 :  11,000,000. 


NiVliUiaBegiain.       Hot  Springs.        Nq^UteWelK 


.  ISOHilw. 


upheaved,  and  that  it  is  now  again  subsiding.  The  ruins  of  a  fort  are  at  present 
16  to  18  feet  under  water,  und  a  large  wall  has  been  found  even  at  a  depth  of 
32  fTOt.  After  every  storm,  coins,  rings,  and  other  antique  objects  are  constantly 
thrown  up,  and  in  one  instance  a  gold  coronet  was  discovered  in  the  sands. 
Similar  oscillations  have  occurred  on  the  Baku  coast  of  the  Caspian,  where  the 
remains  of  a  building  are  still  visible  near  the  shore. 

The  advanced  spurs  of  the  Caucasus  are  not  high  enough  to  conceal  the 
oratral  chain  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains.  From  the  steppes  of  Stavropol, 
a  distance  of  120  miles,  the  snowy  Elbrus  I?  distinctly  visible,  rising  in  solitary 
majesty  on  the  horizon.    Travellers  approaching  from  the  north  see  it  for  miles 


*,!■ 


■Mk. 


40 


ASIATIC  EUSSU. 


and  miles  along  the  route,  constantly  increasing  in  size  long  before  the  presence 
of  the  range  is  betrayed  by  any  other  peaks  to  the  right  or  left.  But  when  it 
suddenly  comes  in  sight  it  presents  a  stern,  almost  a  terrible  aspect,  snow-clad 
only  on  the  highest  crests,  here  and  there  furrowed  by  avalanches,  but  lacking 
the  charm  and  variety  of  the  Alpine  masses.  Being  much  narrower  and  simpler 
in  its  structure,  it  is  necessarily  more  uniform  than  the  Alpine  system.  It  is  aUo 
deficient  in  grand  cascades,  its  hills  having  already  been  furrowed  by  the  action 
of  water  into  regular  river  beds. 

Water  Systems — Snow-line — Rainfall — Glaciers. 

The  absence  of  detached  masses  and  of  broad  intervening  valleys  deprives  the 
Caucasus  of  great  lakes  like  those  of  the  Alps.  No  such  lacustrine  tarns  even 
occur  as  are  so  frequently  met  in  the  Swiss  and  Tyrolese  highlands.  The  fresh- 
water lakes,  formerly  stretching  along  the  plains  at  both  sides  of  the  range,  have 
been  drained  since  the  glacial  period.     One  of  these  old  lakes,  contemporary  with 


Fig.  17. — Pkofilb  of  the  Caucasus  as  sben  from  Patioobbk. 
According  to  Fresbfl«ld. 


the  volcanic  eruptions,  is  now  replaced  by  the  cultivated  fields  of  Vladikavkaz  and 
Alagir  in  the  Terek  valley.  Another  of  equal  extent  on  the  south  filled  the 
Karthalian  basin  between  Suram  and  Mtzkhet,  disappearing  with  the  bursting  of 
the  embankments  that  confined  the  waters  of  the  Eura.  The  whole  of  the 
Alazan  valley,  with  that  of  its  tributary  the  Aliri>chai,  was  also  flooded  by  a 
lake,  which  ultimately  escaped  through  a  gorge  in  the  advanced  spurs  of  the 
Caucasus.  In  fact,  all  the  river  valleys,  those  of  the  Euban  and  its  tributaries 
the  Zelenchuck,  the  Laba,  and  the  Belaya,  no  less  than  those  of  the  Eura  system, 
formerly  served  as  lacustrine  reservoirs,  so  that  the  Caucasian  streams,  like  so 
many  others,  may  be  regarded  as  rediiced  lakes  or  contracted  fiords.  But  the 
Anti-Caucasus,  a  vast  hilly  plateau,  or  rather  an  aggregate  of  irregular  masses 
'  with  axes  at  various  angles,  thus  presents  far  more  numerous  land-locked  depres- 
sions, and  this  system  accordingly  offers  in  its  lakes  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
Ponto-Caspian  chain. 

Although  with  a  greater  mean  elevation  than  those  of  the  Alps,  the  Caucasian 
peaks  are  far  less  covered  with  snow  and  ice,  not  only  in  consequence  of  their 
more  southerly  latitude  and  other  climatic   conditions,  but  also  owing  to  the 


WATEE  SYSTEMS— SNOW-LINE— EAINFALL—GLACIEBS. 


41 


presence 
when  it 
low-olad 
lacking 
.  simpler 
it  is  ako 
ae  action 


irives  the 
.ms  even 
'he  fresh- 
age,  have 
rary  with 


avkaz  and 
filled  tiie 
ursting  of 
le   of  the 
Dded  hy  a 
lira  of  the 
tributaries 
ira  system, 
ns,  like  so 
But  the 
liar  masses 
:ed  depres- 
rast  to  the 

)  Oauoasian 
ce  of  iheir 
Lng  to  the 


narrowness  of  the  upper  crests,  and  the  absence  of  cirques  where  the  accumulated 
snows  might  serve  as  reservoirs  of  glaciers.  The  snow-line  varies  considerably 
with  the  latitude,  exposure,  amount  of  snow  or  rainfall,  direction  and  force  of  the 
winds,  and  relative  position  of  the  several  mountain  masses.  The  extreme  limits 
would  appear  to  differ  as  much  as  6,100  feet,  for,  according  to  Radde,  the  line 
falls  to  8,460  feet  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Qaribolo,  whereas  Parrot  fixes  it 
at  14,560  feet  on  the  north-west  side  of  the  Great  Ararat.  Mount  Alagoz,  rising 
to  a  height  of  13,660  feet  in  the  Anti-Oaucasus,  is  entirely  free  of  snow  in 
summer,  and  even  in  the  Great  Caucasus  Rupreoht  ascended  to  an  elevation  of 
12,600  feet  on  the  south  side  without  meeting  a  single  snow-field  ;  but  this  was 
in  the  eastern  section  facing  the  Caspian.     Farther  west  the  moist  winds  from 

Fig.  18. — BAHfrALL  or  nn  Cavoaius. 
.Stale  1 :  10JSOO,000 


Undmr  10  Inebts. 


lotoao. 


MtoM 


MtoSO. 


80  and  opwudi. 


the  Euxine  often  cover  the  southern  slopes  with  snow.  In  some  of  the  upper 
valleys  of  the  Rion  basin  ihe  snowfall  is  said  to  amount  to  firom  16  to  23  feet. 
On  the  whole,  and  apart  from  local  differences,  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  would 
seem  to  oscillate  on  the  southern  slopes  between  9,600  and  11,600  feet,  and  on 
the  northern  between  11,000  and  13,000  feet.  Thus  the  mean  limit  is  about 
2,000  feet  higher  than  in  the  Pjrrenees,  though  they  lie  in  the  same  latitude. 
This  contrast  must  be  attributed  to  the  greater  general  dryness  of  the  climate,  at 
least  on  the  northern  slopes,  and  to  the  greater  summer  heats  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  portion  under  perpetual  snow  begins  at  the  Oshtek,  or  Oshten,  in  the  west, 
and  extends  eastwards  to  the  Kazbek,  beyond  which  the  mow  rests  throughout 
the  year  only  on  isolated  peaks. 


48 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


m 


The  various  meteorological  statioLd  established  along  the  range  have  approxi- 
mately determined  the  diminution  of  humidity,  owing  to  which  the  snow-line 
rises  gradually  eastwards,  according  as  the  moist  winds  recede  from  the  Euxine 
and  approach  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  where  the  continental  winds  prevail.  On  the 
slopes  facing  the  Black  Sea  the  snow  or  rain  fall  is  three  times  more  abundant 
than  in  the  centre,  and  six,  eight,  or  even  ten  times  more  so  than  in  the  Eura 
basin  and  the  Apsheron  peninsula.  At  times  not  a  drop  of  water  falls  for  six 
months  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Eura,  for  the  influence  of  the  west  winds 
from  the  Euxine  reaches  no  farther  than  the  Suram  Mountains,  which  connect 
the  main  range  with  the  Anti-Cuucasus,  east  of  Euta'is.  The  Caspian  itself 
supplitsa  very  little  moisture  to  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  because  the  limited  amount 
of  humidity  brought  by  north-east  winds  is  mostly  discharged  on  the  advanced 
spurs  at  the  foot  of  the  .Daghestan  highlands. 

Notwithstanding  the  excessive  summer  heats  of  this  region  and  its  higher  snow- 
line, the  mean  annual  temperature  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  Pyrenees,  or  even 
of  the  Alps.  For  the  cold  north-east  winds,  being  untempered  by  the  warm 
south-westerly  breezes,  which  are  arrested  by  the  Anatolian  plateaux,  lower  the 
normal  temperature  of  the  Caucasus.  The  climates  of  Caucasia  and  Switzerland  have 
a  common  mean,  but  the  extremes  are  much  greater  in  the  Ponto-Caspiau  region 
than  in  Central  Europe.  The  temperature  in  summer  and  winter  varies  in  Switzer- 
land about  18°  or  19°,  whereas  there  was  a  difference  of  27°  at  Patigorsk  in  1876. 

The  absence  of  snow  produces  a  corresponding  scarcity  of  glaciers.  Tet  they 
are  numerous  enough,  especially  about  the  Elbruz,  and  there  is  almost  continuous 
ice  for  a  distance  of  120  miles  between  the  Juman-tau  and  the  Ealtber,  above  the 
Ar-dun  valley.  The  lowest  glacier  is  that  of  Ealchi-don,  or  Earagan,  which 
drains  from  the  Adai-kokh  into  the  Upper  Urukh  valley.  According  to 
Fresbfield  the  only  Swiss  glacier  of  equal  length  is  that  of  Alech.  But  as  a  rule 
the  frozen  streams  of  the  Caucasus  descend  no  farther  than  7,000  feet  above 
the  sea ;  that  is,  several  hundred  feet  above  the  corresponding  limits  in  the  Swiss 
Alps.  Unlike  the  snow,  they  reach  a  lower  point  on  the  northern  than  on  the 
southern  slopes,  a  fact  due  to  the  general  relief  of  the  mountains,  which  are  much 
more  abrupt  on  the  south  than  on  the  opposite  side,  where  they  slope  northwards  in 
long  valleys.  Unmistakable  evidences  of  the  passage  of  former  glaciers  show  that 
in  the  Caucasian,  as  in  the  European  mouucain  i^stems,  the  frozen  streams  reached 
a  much  lower  depth  formerly  than  at  present.  About  the  outlets  of  the  Malka, 
Baksan,  and  Terek  valleys  there  occur  erratic  boulders  suspended  at  a  slight 
elevation  along  the  slopes  of  the  bluffs  overlooking  the  plains.  The  Termolov 
stone,  near  the  northern  entrance  of  the  Oarial  Gorge,  is  96  feet  long,  with  a  bulk 
of  197,900  cubic  feet,  and  similar  blocks  26  feet  long  are  met  at  Vladikavkaz,  and 
even  5  miles  farther  north.  In  Svania  the  upland  villages  now  standing  over 
a  mile  from  the  extremity  of  the  glaciers  are  built  with  the  detritus  of  the 
moraines  here  stranded  from  former  glaciers. 

At  present  the  best  known  and  most  frequently  visited  glacier  in  the  Caucasus 
is  the  Devdoraki,  or  Devdoravki,  one  of  the  eight  that  descend  from  the  Eazbek. 


1 


approxi- 
mow-line 
e  Euxine 
On  the 
abundant 
the  Eura 
Is  for  six 
est  winds 
1  connect 
ian  itself 
1  amount 
advanced 

■her  snow- 
18,  or  even 
the  warm 
lower  the 
iand  have 
iau  region 
a  Switzer- 
L  in  1876. 

Yet  they 
sontinuous 

above  the 
an,  which 
ording  to 
b  as  a  rule 
feet  above 
.  the  Swiss 
lan  on  the 
L  are  much 
th  wards  in 

show  that 
ns  reached 
the  Malka, 
it  a  slight 
I  Yermolov 
irith  a  bulk 
avkaz,  and 
ading  over 
tus  of  the 


^-\ 


^Stob^  ^'5 


'V-.-t- 


PC  f. 


^>^>>.vi 


cs^^ 


I 

V 


e  Caucasus 
be  Kazbek. 


'<xm^m^^m%imsm&,^ 


..  _    ,  .f.^fi'^^^^ 


VEGETATION— FAUNA. 


48 


It  is  visible  at  a  distance  of  over  5  miles  west  of  the  valley  watered  by  the  Terek, 
and  crossed  by  the  military  route  between  Vladikavkaz  and  Tiflis.  Its  lower 
course  is  subject  to  sudden  and  violent  floodings,  and  while  most  of  the  other 
Caucasian  glaciers  are  retreating,  the  Devdoraki  has  advanced  770  feet  between 
the  years  1863  and  1876.     The  general  progress  of  the  ice  has  been  calculated 

Fig.  19.— Thb  Kazbrk  :  View  takbn  from  tbi  ELaibbk  Station. 


!- 


not  to  exceed  4  inches  a  day,  whereas  the  average  velocity  on  Mont  Blanc  is 
about  12  inches. 

Vkgbtation — Fauna. 

While  the  lower  limit  of  the  ice-fields  is  higher  in  the  Caucasus  than  in  tho 
Alps,  forest  vegetation  reaches  a  higher  point.  True  timber  flourishes  at  a  mean 
elevation  of  7,730  feet.  Then  come  the  azalea  and  rhododendron,  the  dwarf 
laurel  and  bright  green  sorrel,  and  lastly,  the  Alpine  plants  of  the  pastures. 
The  zone  of  trees  is  higher  on  the  northern  than  on  the  southern  slopes,  thanks, 
doubtless,  to  their  greater  humidity ;    for,  although  they  receive  less  rain,  they 


I 


M 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


lose  less  by  evaporation.  The  greatest  elevation  is  reached,  not  by  evergreen 
pines,  as  in  Central  Europe,  nor  by  the  cedar  and  larch,  as  in  Siberia,  but  by  the 
birch,  while  the  great  forests  of  the  slopes  consist  chiefly  of  conifers,  the  maple, 
lime,  ash,  hornbeam,  beech,  oak,  and  chestnut.  The  valuable  box,  so  largely 
exported  to  England,  and  thence  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  forms  in  certain  parts  of 
Lower  Transcaucasia  impenetrable  masses  of  vegetation,  which,  especially  between 
Poti  and  Nikolaya,  covers  the  whole  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  queen  of 
Oaucasian  shrubs  is  the  Azalea  Pontica,  one  of  the  glories  of  terrestrial  vegetation. 
This  lovely  plant,  whose  blood-red  autumn  foliage  oontraetB  with  the  dark  green, 
of  the  fir,  occupies  a  zone  at  least  6,000  feet  in  vertical  height  between  the 


Fig.   20.    Kazbek    and    Dbvdobaki    Qlacibbs. 
rrom  the  Hap  of  the  BuHiitii  Staff.   Soala  1  :  183,000. 


i- 

f 


8MflM. 


advanced  offshoots  and  the  slopes  upwards  of  6,600  feet  high.  In  some  places 
the  azalea  is  replaced  by  the  rhododendron.  The  traditional  belief  in  the  intoxi- 
cating and  even  maddening  effects  of  its  honey  has  not  been  confirmed  by  more 
recent  observation,  and  would  seem  to  rest  on  altogether  exceptional  facts.  In 
Eabarda,  where  bee-farming  is  largely  developed,  no  such  evil  consequences  are 
attributed  to  the  honey  of  the  azalea. 

On  the  lower  slopes  the  wild  vine  twines  round  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  whose 
branches  are  festooned  with  its  foliage,  intermingled  with  that  of  other  twining 
plants.  The  vine  is  probably  here  indigenous,  and  the  walnut  is  also  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  valleys  of  Imeria.  In  no  other  region  are  there  so  many  stone 
fruits,  several  species  of  which,  elsewhere  unknown,  are  found  growing  wild  in  the 


MHlil 


VEGETATION— PAXJNA. 


46 


foreata  of  Karthalia,  south-west  of  the  Eazhek.  The  Caucasus  is,  in  fnct,  the 
classic  land  of  fruit  trce.4,  and  the  gardens,  especially  of  Mingrelia,  abound  in 
flowers  and  fruits,  to  which  Western  culture  might  easily  impart  an  exquisite 
perfume  and  flavour.  But  as  we  proceed  eastwards  from  the  well-watered  shores 
of  the  Euxine  to  the  arid  Caspian  seaboard  the  vegetation  gradually  diminishes  ; 
the  forest  lands  become  less  numerous  as  we  appro.-  ~h  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  main  range  ;  the  dry  steppe  winds  burn  up  the  grass  itself,  and  the  solur  rays 
are  reflected  on  the  bare  rock.  Some  Russian  plants  grow  with  difficulty  even  ot 
elevations  where  they  find  a  mean  temperature  answering  to  that  of  their  native 
homes.    The  Russian  soldiers  have  succeeded  in  acclimatizing  the   European 

Fig.  31. — FdRisn  op  th«  Caucakus. 
Aoeordinv  to  PetermMiii.    Bmde  t  :  11,000,000. 


.180  MUci. 


vegetables  in  the  upper  valleys  of  Svania,  but  the  beloved  birch-tree>  which  might 
remind  them  of  their  distant  fatherland,  nowhere  acquires  a  vigorous  growth. 

The  cultivated  no  less  than  the  wild  plants  reach  a  much  higher  elevation  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  than  in  the  Alps,  a  fact  due  to  the  greater  summer 
heats  of  the  former  region.  In  the  district  destined  some  day,  perhaps,  to  be 
pierced  by  the  tunnel  of  the  future  Caucasian  trunk  line  betwoon  the  Ar-don  and 
Lakhva  basins,  all  the  upland  villages  are  surrounded  by  barley- fields  to  an  alti- 
tude of  over  6,500  feet.  In  Oasetia  this  cereal  reaches  the  village  of  Eolotu 
(8,230  feet),  and  farther  south  it  ripens  on  the  fi*..ipes  of  the  Alagoz  at  an  elevation 
of  8,300  feet.  Wheat  also  is  grown  as  high  as  6,700  feet,  or  3,300  feet  higher  than 
in  the  Alps ;  maize  reaches  3,000  feet,  and  the  vine  3,630  feet,  near  the  village  of 


1 


■4 


•V 

-:3. 


M 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Kurtu,  in  Oasetia ;  but  the  best  vintages  of  Kakbetia  are  those  of  the  Alaxan 
valley,  2,i)00  feet  above  seu-lovul. 

Many  Oaucusian  forests  have  been  cleared  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  many 
more  have  btun  wantonly  destroyed,  and  the  destruction  is  still  going  on  in  the 
most  reckless  manner  where  timber  rno^t  abounds.  To  save  the  labour  of  felling 
the  trees,  they  are  burnt  down  at  the  risk  of  setting  fire  to  whole  forests.  When 
fodder  fails,  the  trees  are  dextruyed,  and  the  cattle  fed  with  their  leaves  and 
sprouts.  Ilence  many  regions  formerly  densely  wooded  ure  now  bare,  and  even 
on  the  upland  slopes  the  woodlands  are  rapidly  disappearing. 

In  spite  of  the  ravages  of  man,  most  of  the  original  wild  animals  of  the  Caucasus 
are  still  found  there.  The  chamois  and  the  (our,  a  species  of  wild  goat,  it-  lent 
the  upper  valleys,  and  some  herds  of  the  ^ison  or  wisant,  wrongly  described  as  the 
auroc/is,  roam  over  tbe  forests  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Kuban  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Elbruz.  The  Caucasian  bear,  less  formidable  than  the  Russian,  is  found  no 
higher  than  5,000  feet,  the  limit  of  fruit  trees.  Like  the  wolf  and  lynx,  he  inhabits 
the  Abkhusian  forests,  and  Prendel  ro.et  one  wi(  Min  6  miles  of  Sukhum-Kaleh.  The 
wild  boar  haunts  the  thickets  of  the  lowlands,  especially  along  the  banks  of  tarns 
and  rivers.  The  tiger,  said  to  have  come  from  the  plateaux  of  Persia,  rarely 
ventures  to  show  himself  on  the  plains  of  Transcaucasia,  and  never  penetrates  into 
the  upland  valleys.  The  leopard,  hyena,  and  juckal  are  not  unfrequently  met 
about  the  Lower  Eura,  and  the  jackal  occasionally  finds  his  way  across  the  main 
range  to  the  forests  of  the  northern  slopes.  In  its  fauna  and  flora  Trarscaucasia 
already  belongs  to  the  sub-tropical  Asiatic  world,  whereas  in  this  respect  Cis- 
caucasia must  still  be  included  in  the  European  xone. 

Inhabitani-s — Varied  Ethnical  and  Lingcistic  Elements. 

The  well-watered  Transcaucasian  plains  might  support  as  g^at  a  population  as 
France,  and  two  thousand  years  ago  were  probably  abundantly  peopled.  The 
northern  valleys  are  also  fertile  enough  to  supply  the  wants  of  mill  ons ;  yet  Caucasia 
is  on  the  whole  less  densely  peopled  than  Russia  itself.  In  tbe  north  the  steppe 
prevails,  and  here  the  population  is  restricted  to  the  river  banks.  In  the  south  also 
the  plains  of  the  Araxis  and  Lower  Kura  have  remained  unpeopled,  owing  to  their 
extremely  unhealthy  climate,  while  in  the  highlands  nearly  all  the  region  above 
the  forest  zone  is  a  solitude  of  pasture,  rooks,  or  snows,  frequented  only  by  a  few 
herdsmen  and  hunters.  The  highest  Caucasian  village,  Eurush,  in  the  Daghestan 
highlands,  about  the  source  of  a  head-stream  of  the  Siunur,  is  8,200  feet  above  sea- 
level,  an  elevation  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Hospice  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  in 
the  Swiss  Alps.  But  the  summits  of  the  chain  rise  from  6,000  to  9,000  feet  above 
this  last  inhabited  spot  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  most  healthy  zone  lies  between  2,500  and  6,650  feet,  and  here  are  situated 
the  sanitary  stations  wh3re  most  of  the  officials  of  Tiflis,  Erivan,  and  Telisabetpol 
spend  the  summer  months  The  most  favourite  elevation  is  4,000  feet,  where  the 
vine,  mulberry,  and  southern  cereals  still  flourish,  and  where  the  pure  and  cool  air 


^ 


-WW^Wf^ 


e  Alaxan 

but  laany 
on  in  the 
of  felling 
When 
>ayei  and 
and  even 

3  Caucasus 
;,  fr-  lent 
bed  as  the 
the  foot  of 
I  found  no 
le  inhabits 
aleb.  The 
C8  of  tarns 
sia,  rarely 
)trateB  into 
lently  met 
B  the  main 
irscaucasia 
jspect  Cis- 


pulation  as 
pled.  The 
et  Caucasia 
the  steppe 
B  south  also 
ing  to  their 
Bgion  above 
ly  by  a  few 
)  Daghestan 
t  above  sea- 
Bernard  in 
0  feet  above 

are  situated 
Felisabetpol 
;,  where  the 
and  cool  air 


1 
i 
! 

i 


■LidH'IIMUJiiiiij  I  . 


■"■I  J      I       'I !»l.l 


ILWHWIII    HWUMifiipfc-'W 


>-  tt^mmmfjftmitmif' 'mjmmmmm9''m'V'    "** 


■**< 


CTHNOORAPHICAL  MAP  Of 


MusHmns  Ae.  CI 

.0»»ttmm 
0A00A8XA>S. 

JSm»ti?'MaiTHb»0   HID 
atOirooiiS. 

AjyAur 

ArdW  [T] 


Sa^  1  t.AOO.OOO. 


NEW  TrOHK.  D 


APPLETC 


I 


mMH** 


APHICAL  MAP  or  THE  CAUCASUS 


NEW  -yOHK,  D  APPLETON  &C? 


'-sf'-""-  "'■i'  irf«lilBiiwii,»!^:  ■-,.■  ..1  ■-^<Agr.;T;geaBjrg:s-a:S 


■®.3asss.«*s 


INHABITANTS— VAEDBD  ETHNICAL  AND  LINGUISTIC  ELEMENTS. 


47 


from  the  glaciers  prevails.  The  Tatars  of  the  hot  valleys  harvest  their  maize  in 
May,  send  their  families  and  herds  to  the  hills,  and  soon  join  them  themselves, 
returning  to  the  plains  in  time  for  the  autumn  vintage.  Some  of  the  insalubrious 
districts  remain  uninhabited  except  by  a  few  of  the  peasantry  engaged  in  irrigating 
the  maize  and  rice  fields.  Still  the  population  is  densest,  not  in  the  healthy  region 
of  the  advanced  spurs,  but  in  the  valleys  watered  by  the  large  rivers  and  traversed 
by  the  main  highways.  Here  the  population  may  easily  be  doubled  as  soon  as  the 
now  forsaken  irrigating  canals  are  reopened,  thus  bringing  under  cultivaction  all 
the  valleys  of  the  Araxis  and  Kura.  According  to  the  old  chronicles  Trans- 
caucasia was  formerly  six  times  more  populous  than  at  present.  When  the 
Mongolian  prince,  Batu  Ehan,  seized  the  land  in  the  thirteenth  century  he 
compelled  every  tenth  adult  male  to  serve  in  his  armies,  thus  raising  a  force  of 
800,000  men.  This  would  imply  a  population  of  16,000,000,  probably  about  the 
same  number  as  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  oommerciel  relations  had  fallen  off  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  highways  leading  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Caspian,  formerly 
followed  by  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Genoese,  had  been  .completely  abandoned.  In 
1823,  for  the  first  time  probably  for  centuries,  merchandise  was  transported  from 
Redout-Ealeh  to  Baku,  and  this  was  considered  a  memorable  event.  Even  now  the 
communications  between  the  two  slopes  of  the  main  range  are  beset  with  difficulties. 
It  is  still  untraversed  by  a  line  of  railway,  and  till  recently  the  two  divisions  of 
Caucasia  were  connected  by  one  carriage  road  only.  This  route,  frequently  out 
of  repair,  and  occasionally  even  destroyed  by  avalanches  and  detritus,  runs  east  of 
Mount  Eazbek  through  the  gorges  of  the  Darial,  at  all  times  so  important  in  the 
records  of  migration  and  conquest.  Known  to  the  ancients  as  the  "  Gate  of  the 
Caucasus,"  this  route  forms  in  reality  a  rocky  approach,  whose  issues  were  defended 
by  strongholds,  now  replaced  by  the  fortified  stations  of  the  Russians. 

East  of  the  range  the  narrow  strip  of  coast  commanded  on  the  one  hand  by  the 
escarpments  of  the  Caucasus,  limited  on  the  other  by  the  waters  of  the  Caspian, 
offered  a  second  and  easier  highway  to  the  invading  or  migrating  tribes  advancing 
from  Asia  to  Europe,  or  from  Europe  to  Asia.  But  this  route  might  here  and 
there  be  blocked,  and  one  of  the  passes  at  the  extremity  of  a  ridge  in  Daghestan 
was  barred,  like  the  Darial  Gorge,  by  a  derbent,  or  *•  fortified  gate,"  whence  the 
name  of  the  town  commanding  this  part  of  the  coast.  The  Euxine  seaboard 
skirting  the  Western  Caucasus  seems  since  the  Roman  epoch  never  to  have  Horved 
as  an  historical  route.  But  at  that  time  the  two  divisions  of  the  kingdom  of 
Mithridates  were  connected  by  a  road  skirting  the  coast,  and  at  several  points 
milestones  are  still  standing,  which  the  Abkhasians  look  on  as  "  Mry  altars." 
But  this  road  has  been  deserted  since  the  Byzantine  epoch.  For  centuries  this 
coast-  line,  some  250  miles  long,  has  been  beset  by  too  many  natural  obstacles,  and 
guarded  by  tribes  of  too  fierce  a  character,  to  serve  as  a  military  route,  more 
especially  as  the  sea  was  always  open  to  Greeks,  Genoese,  Turks,  and  Russians  to 
prosecute  their  commercial  or  warlike  enterprises  with  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  Genoese  roads,  of  which  traces  have  been  discovered,  did  not  follow  the  coast. 


K 


n 


•ri'iiw--  -■    (-■■  ri  iMi^'Wiiiiii'i 


..^1L    1/11-^fl^J^I 


miiu^euaudMa*iiitj»SMi«^^t'Miieii1^ 


:?s^is 


48 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


but  crossed   the  hilla,  thus  connecting   the  inland  districts  with   the  Euxine 
seaports. 

But  these  great  highways  were  not  forced  without  a  struggle,  and  every  fresh 
invasion  scattered  fresh  fragments  of  nations  amongst  the  surrounding  upland 
valleys.  Thus  the  Caucasus  has  become,  in  the  language  of  Abulfeda,  "The 
Mountain  of  Languages,"  an  expression  still  current  in  Persia.  Strabo  tells  us 
that  the  Greek  traders  frequenting  the  port  of  Dioscurias,  on  the  Euxine,  met  there 
no  less  than  seventy  peoples,  all  speaking  distinct  languages,  and  Pliny  adds  that 
in  his  time  one  hundred  and  thirty  di£Perent  idioms  were  current  in  the  same  place. 
At  present  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Caucasus  are  still  estimated  at  seventy. 
But  Uslar,  first  of  Caucasian  philologists,  points  out  that  every  local  variety  is 
regarded  as  a  distinct  language  by  traders  and  travellers,  and  that  in  reality  the 
numerous  Caucasian  dialects  may  be  grouped  in  a  small  number  of  families.  Thus 
the  thirty  of  Daghestan  are  reducible  to  five  radically  distinct.  Many  were  formerly 
spoken  by  powerful  and  widely  diffused  peoples,  now  repsesented  only  by  a  few 
remnants  lost  amongst  the  hills,  and  whom  a  geologist  has  compared  to  erratic 
boulders,  the  scattered  fragments  of  now  vanished  mountains. 

The  Caucasus,  which  stands  out  so  boldly  against  the  boundless  and  monotonous 
Russian  steppes,  contrasts  no  less  strikingly  in  its  varied  peoples,  races,  and 
languages  with  the  vast  Slav  world  stretching  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Frozen 
Ocean.  Nevertheless  the  Bussians  are  now  slowly  penetrating  into  the  valleys  on 
both  slopes  of  the  main  range,  where  they  already  number  about  1,400,000,  or 
nearly  one-fourth  of  the  whole  population.  They  are  in  a  decided  majority  in  the 
districts  bordering  on  Russia  proper ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  province  of  Kuban  and 
the  government  of  Stavropol.  Even  in  Transcaucasia  they  form  one  of  the  chief 
ethnical  elements,  especially  in  the  towns  and  military  stations,  and  here  and  there 
their  Cossack  or  nonconformist  settlements  give  a  great  local  preponderance  to 
the  Slav  race.  Whilst  n^any  native  tribes  are  disappearing  either  by  extermina- 
tion or  forced  or  voluntary  exile,  whilst  others  are  slowly  diminishing  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  with  the.  Russian  invaders,  the  latter  are  steadily  increasing 
in  the  north  by  ceaseless  encroachments  on  the  ethnical  frontier-lines,  in  the  south 
by  scattered  colonies  continually  expanding,  and  thus  approaching  each  other  and 
absorbing  the  intervening  spaces.* 

Russian  Conquests — Main  Physica    Divisions. 

The  long  and  laborious  conquent,  of  the  Caucasus,  which  took  about  two  hundred 
years,  is  now  a  &miliar  topic.    lu  the  north  the  Russians  at  first  confined  them- 

•  Population  of  Caucasia  according  to  races : — 


Russians 

Georgians 

Tatars  and  Turks  . 

Armonians 

Lezghians  and  other  Highlanders . 

Persians,  Tats,  and  Talishos  . 

Other  raoea 


Estimated  Fopnistion. 

18S8.  1880. 

840,000  1,410,000 

830,000  l,lfi0,000 

825.000  1,330,000 

620,000  720,000 

1,400,000  1,060,000 

76,000  120,000 

86,000  90,000 


-r-TT-r- 


RUSSIAN  CONQUESTS— MAIN  PHYSICAL  DIVISIONS. 


40 


selves  to  a  line  of  fortified  Btations,  where  the  Cossacks  kept  constant  guard,  ready 
at  the  first  signal  to  leap  into  the  saddle.  The  Transcaucasian  provinces  were 
originally  nothing  but  foreign  lands  possessing  no  cohesion  with  the  rest  of  the 
empire,  but  the  pressure  of  the  dominant  race  gpradually  increased.  All  the 
lowland  tribes  were  finally  subdued,  while  those  of  the  uplands  were  compelled 
from  year  to  year  to  oon^i'act  the  limits  of  their  warlike  incursions.  The  Russians 
not  only  commanded  both  seaboards,  enabling  them  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  their 
allies  or  subjects  in  Mingrelia,  Imeria,  and  Georgia,  but  they  were  from  the  first 
in  possession  of  the  breach  presented  by  the  Caucasus  between  the  Terek  and 
Aragva  valleys.  In  1769  the  Darial  Pass  was  crossed  by  400  Russians,  and  in 
1784,  1795,  1796,  and  1799  they  again  utilised  this  route.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  when  Georgia  became  an  integral  part  of  the  empire,  a 
military  route  connecting  Transcaucasia  with  the  north  was  constructed  along  the 
Terek  and  Aragva  valleys,  whereby  Caucasia  was  henceforth  divided  into  two 
distinct  fragments.  Pushkin  describes  the  risks  still  incurred  in  1829  by  travellers, 
traders,  and  others  on  this  highway.  The  daily  progress  under  armed  escort  from 
station  to  station  was  little  more  thnn  10  miles.  This  first  route  was  succeeded  by 
another  over  the  Mamisson  Pass,  between  the  Terek  and  Rion  valleys,  and  by  others 
through  the  lateral  valleys,  cutting  off  the  forests  in  which  the  highlanders  lurked 
to  fall  upon  the  Russian  foe.  "  I  should  like,"  said  Shamyl,  "  to  anoint  with  holy 
oil  the  trees  of  my  forest,  and  mingle  fragrant  honey  with  the  mud  of  ray  high- 
ways, for  in  these  trees  ard  this  mud  lies  my  strength."  But  although  the  bogs 
are  far  from  having  disappeared,  the  upland  forests  are  no  longer  inaccessible,  and 
their  inhabitants  have  been  subdued.  In  a  song  by  Lermontov  the  Kazbek  is 
represented  as  rising  in  its  majesty,  and  looking  with  scorn  on  the  puny  swarms 
approaching  from  the  northern  plains  to  scale  it.  But  when  it  sees  them  armed 
with  pickaxe,  shovel,  and  hatchet,  grubbing  in  the  soil  and  felling  the  trees,  it 
trembles  to  its  base,  for  it  now  understands  that  the  day  of  thraldom  is  at 
hand. 

Caucasia  consists  of  a  number  of  distinct  physical  and  ethnical  regions,  which 
must  be  described  apart,  although  they  are  becoming  daily  more  united  by  the 
bonds  of  common  interests.  All  the  Western  Caucasus,  tapering  towards  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  forms,  with  the  Euban  basin  and  neighbouring  steppes,  one  of  these 
natural  regions ;  another  comprises  the  Central  Caucasus,  the  home  of  so  many 
different  tribes ;  while  a  third  embraces  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  whose  inhabitants 
are  sometimes  collectively  known  as  Gortzi,  or  "  Highlanders."  The  Terek  basin, 
the  plains  and  lakes  of  the  Euma,  the  half-drained  bed  of  a  former  sea,  offer  a 
marked  contrast  to  this  highland  region.  In  the  south  the  Rion  and  Chorukh 
basins,  partly  rescued  from  the  Turks,  are  inhabited  by  people  of  one  stock,  and 
constitute  a  fairly  well-defined  ethnical  province.  But  in  the  east  the  districts 
watered  by  the  £ura  offer  no  such  racial  unity,  for  this  region  is  shared  by 
both  C^rgians  and  Tatars.  Still  it  forms  at  least  a  distinct  geographical  province, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  Araxis  valley,  which  is  occupied  by  Tatars 
and  Armenians  in  common. 
4 


:;? 


<«iiili 


jiuiiife 


ataMMMtMaM 


mmtmy 


Mumm'M'mtttma.i.itiii 


80  ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 

II.— WESTERN  CAUCASUS:   KUBAN  BASIN. 

ABKHA8IAN8,  CIRCASSIANS,  COSSACKS  OF  THE  BLACK  SEA. 

West  of  the  highlands  culminating  with  Mount  Elbruz,  the  Caucasus  becomes  a 
coast  range,  falling  in  abrupt  escarpments  towards  the  Black  Sea.  The  slope  is 
continued  to  a  great  depth  under  the  surface,  for  even  close  to  the  shore  the 
sounding-line  reveals  a  depth  of  over  12,000  feet.  The  first  section  of  the  coast 
range  west  of  Elbruz  retains  a  great  elevation,  and  is  commanded  by  snowy  crests 
10,000  to  12,000  feet  high.  Here  also,  as  in  the  Central  Caucasus,  the  main  ridge 
is  flanked  by  parallel  chains,  which  with  the  transverse  ridges  form  long  depres- 
sions, and  invariably  present  their  steep  sides  towards  the  middle  chain,  their 
gentler  slopes  towards  the  sea.  The  tracks  across  the  rang^  ascend  the  valleys 
parallel  with  it  until  they  reach  the  passes,  and  thus  easily  skirt  the  peaks.  Near 
Mount  Elbruz  the  range  rises  above  the  snow-line.  Here  are  the  Juman-tau,  the 
Marukh,  and  in  the  centre  the  magnificent  Oshten,  or  Oshtek,  beyond  which  the 

Fig.  22.— Thb  Wbstbkn  Caucabvo  bbbn  from  on  Capb  Kodob. 
Aoeording  to  Dubois  de  Montpomix. 


crests  diminish  rapidly  in  elevation  towards  the  north- west.  The  last  point  taking 
the  name  of  mountain  is  the  Idokopaz,  south-east  of  the  port  of  Novo-Rossiisk, 
after  which  there  are  nothing  but  hills,  whose  base  merges  with  the  alluvia  of  the 
Taman  peninsula.*  The  range  is  crossed  by  few  and  little-frequented  tracks,  and 
even  the  military  station  of  Sukhum-Ealeh  is  unconnected  by  any  direct  strategic 
route  with  the  Kuban  valley.  Pending  the  completion  in  1883  of  the  carriagpe 
road,  travellers  are  obliged  to  follow  the  coast  across   the  sandy  and    shingly 

beach. 

» 

River  Ststems — Kuban  Basin. 

Although  the  coast  climate  is  very  moist,  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Euxine  are 
too  short  to  be  very  copious.     They  are  mostly  mere  torrents,  which  carry  off  the 


*  Chief  elevations  in  the  Westem  CaucptiuB :  — 

Feet. 
Oshten  ..;....  9,606 

Marukh  Pass          ...         .        .         11,660 
Sancharo  Pass 8,000 


Nashar  Pass  (near  Mount  Elbrus) 

Psegashko  Pass 

Idokopas         .... 


aOBnw 

-r*sra 


;sij^(is:.- . 


>ij'l;'^'*S*'a'"'»' 


BIVEB  SYSTEMS— KUBAN  BASIN. 


51 


ecomes  a 
slope  is 
liore  tbe 
the  coast 
wy  crests 
ftin  ridge 
g  depres- 
lin,  their 
le  valleys 
ts.     Near 
a-tau,  the 
which  the 


tint  taking 
iRoasiisk, 
ivia  of  the 
rafiks,  and 
st  strategic 
le  carriage 
shingly 


Euxine  are 
irry  off  the 


9,774 
6,360 
2,460 


rain-water  falling  od  the  uplands,  fiut  a  few  rivers  in  the  southern  valleys,  such  as 
the  Kodar,  Bzib,  and  Mzimta,  acquire  a  certain  importance,  thanks  to  the  paral- 
lelism of  the  main  chain  and  side  ridges  enclosing  their  upper  courses.  Most  of 
these  upland  valleys  bear  the  traces  of  old  lakes,  which  have  been  drained  either 
by  the  torrents  or  by  underground  streams  making  their  way  through  caverns 
excavated  in  the  Jurassic  limestone  rocks.  Thus  the  Michish,  represented  on  most 
maps  as  an  independent  river,  is  really  a  branch  of  the  Bzib,  passing  for  2  miles 
under  the  Fskhuv  Mountain,  and  escaping  through  an  outlet  near  the  coast.  The 
Pitzunda  River,  running  close  to  the  Bzib,  presents  a  phenomenon  of  a  different 
order,  for  it  seems  to  have  changed  its  course  within  the  historic  period  from  the 
south  to  the  north  of  Pitzunda. 

The  Abkhasian  streams  are  of  little  importance  except  for  irrigation  purposes 
in  the  lovely  gardens  and  orchards  on  the  coast.  Here  the  palm  is  associated  with 
European  plants,  beneath  whose  shade  wind  avenues  of  the  rose  and  jasmine.  But 
most  of  the  streams  flowing  from  the  hills  now  form  swumps  at  the  outlet  of  their 
valleys,  where  they  poison  the  atmosphere  and  decimate  the  people.  Hence  the 
natives  generally  fix  their  homes  far  from  the  unhealthy  coast  lands,  either  in  the 
forests  or  on  the  bare  plateaux.  As  soon  as  the  climate  has  been  improved  by 
drainage  and  clearing  the  ground  of  its  rank  vegetation,  this  part  of  the  Euxine 
seaboard,  some  240  miles  long,  will  become  a  second  Crimea  for  the  Russians. 
Still  the  Abkhasian  coast,  while  warmer  and  less  subject  to  fogs  than  the  Crimean, 
has  the  disadvantage  of  being  less  sheltered  except  on  the  south  side  of  the  lateral 
3.     The  average  high  temperature  of  the  water  contributes  greatly  to  raise 


Tl 


that  of  the  land,  which  till  the  end  of  November  stands  as  high  as  58°  or  59°  Fahr., 
varying  at  Sukhum-Ealeh  in  winter  from  45°  to  46°  Fahr.  The  south-west  gales 
blow  with  great  violence  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  during  their  prevalence 
navigation  is  very  dangerous  on  a  coast  destitute  of  good  harbours  of  refuge.  The 
Abkhasian  seaboard  is  completely  sheltered  from  the  cold  north-east  blasts  which 
sweep  the  Caspian  and  Euma  steppes.  But  at  its  northern  extremity  Western 
Caucasia  is  not  sufficiently  elevated  to  arrest  this  bora  of  the  Euxine,  as  it  has  been 
called  by  the  Italian  and  Greek  sailors  frequenting  these  waters.  On  January  12th, 
1848,  the  vessels  riding  at  anchor  off  Novo-Rossiisk  were  driven  seawards  or 
stranded,  and  one  of  them  sank  with  all  its  crew,  borne  down  by  the  weight  of  the 
dense  spray  suddenly  freezing  in  the  rigging  and  on  deck. 

The  northern  slope  of  the  coast  range  belongs  to  the  Kuban  basin.  This  river, 
the  Euman  of  the  Nogai  Tatars,  and  Eubin  of  the  Abkhasians,  is  fed  by  the  Elbruz 
glaciers,  and  receives  all  the  torrents  and  streams  of  the  Western  Caucasian  valleys, 
except  a  few  rivulets  lost  in  the  steppe  before  reaching  the  main  stream.  Swollen 
three  times  during  the  year  by  the  spring  rains,  the  melting  of  the  snows  in 
summer,  and  the  autumn  downpours,  it  often  assumes  the  proportions  of  a  large 
river  from  700  to  over  1,200  feet  wide,  and  upwards  of  10  feet  deep.  But  ut  low 
water  in  August  and  September  it  is  nowhere  more  than  4  feet  deep,  and  in  some 
years  the  northern  arm  of  its  delta  runs  dry.  All  attempts  have  hitherto  failed  to 
render  it  permanently  navigable,  although  since  1873  the  steamers  from  Eertch 


^ 


I 


^.^ 


w>iM>maijii*itaumiiimmimK 


I 


TAMAN  PENINSULA. 


68 


consists  of  alluvial  deposits  made  in  the  inner  busin  of  a  "  limun,"  or  lagoon, 
separated  by  an  older  strip  of  sand  from  the  Sea  of  Azov.  The  soil  held  in  solution 
by  the  Kuban  being  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  480,  these  deposits  would  have 
rapidly  filled  the  liman  were  they  not  carried  away  by  the  current  partly  to  the 
Sea  of  Azov,  aud  partly  directly  to  the  Euxino. 

Taman  Peninsula. 

The  lower  stream  has  often  shifted  its  bed,  land  islands  and  channels  have  so 
frequently  changed  place  that  the  descriptions  of  the  old  writers  are  no  longer 
intelligible.  So  recently  as  the  fifteenth  century  the  chief  discharge  was  into  the 
Sea  of  Azov,  and  since  that  time  it  has  oscillated  between  the  two  branches,  every 
fresh  inundation  modifying  the  currents.  The  Taman  peninsula  is  everywhere 
studded  with  marshes  and  eriks,  or  false  rivers,  the  remains  of  former  freshets,  and 
with  river  beds  and  banks  showing  in  their  alluvial  strata  the  successive  levels  of 
the  stream.  Although  about  24  miles  broad,  the  whole  peninsula  is  frequently 
transformed  to  its  former  insular  condition  by  the  lukes  and  side  channels  of  the 
main  branch.  But  though  thus  surrounded  by  water,  this  is  not  a  lowland 
district,  for  it  consists  of  five  parallel  chains  of  hills,  occasionally  rising  480  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  separated  one  from  the  other  by  alluvial  tracts,  which  were 
formerly  inlets,  and  are  still  partly  covered  with  lakes. 

The  mud  volcanoes  of  the  Taman  peninsula  seem  to  have  been  at  one  time  far 
more  active  than  at  present.  They  run  exactly  in  the  line  of  the  axis  or  con- 
tinuation of  the  parallel  ridges,  and  it  was  in  the  same  line  that  a  volcanic  islet 
was  erupted  in  1799  near  the  town  of  TemrCkk.  This  mud  islet,  which  was 
about  1,330  feet  in  circumference,  with  an  elevation  of  13  feet  above  the  sea, 
soon  disappeared,  but  was  replaced  in  1814  by  a  second  cone,  which  remained 
some  time  above  the  surface.  These  mud  hills  of  the  Taman  peninsula  are 
amongst  the  most  remarkable  on  the  globe,  for  they  present  the  complete  succes- 
sion of  phenomena  from  the  simple  oozing  of  mud  to  distinct  volcanic  eruptions. 
The  TemrCkk  islet  is  said  to  have  vomited  smoke  and  flames  in  1799,  and  the 
Euku-Oba,  or  "  Blue  Fill,"  7  milea  north-west  of  Taman,  opened  its  crater  in 
1794,  ejecting  flames  aid  fragments  of  frozen  earth  to  a  distance  of  over  half  a 
mile.  Other  volcanic  cones  oast  up  stones,  accompanied  by  argillaceous  muds, 
seaweed,  roots  of  rushes  and  other  aquatic  plants,  showing  that  they  evidently 
communicated  with  the  bed  of  the  limans  and  sea.  Formerly  numerous  frag- 
ments of  Greek  and  Scythian  pottery  were  found  amongst  the  erupted  matter, 
and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  cones.  In  explanation  of  this  fact  Pallas 
suggests  that  the  ancients  may  have  been  accustomed  to  throw  in  vases  and  other 
objects  as  offerings  to  the  volcanoes. 

The  naphtha  springs  of  the  peninsula  and  north  side  of  Western  Caucasia 
also  run  in  the  line  of  the  mud  cones.  The  tertiary  lands  whose  clays  and  marls 
contain  this  valuable  substance  occupy  an  upheaved  area  of  at  least  620  square 
miles,  and  are  also  continued  under  the  limans.     Lake  Temr(lk  itself  contains  a 


mirrii'ii  iinrti 


54 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


small  quantity,  which,  however,  does  not  prevent  the  pike,  perch,  prawns,  and 
other  Hsh  from  living  in  its  waters.  Although  wells  have  been  sunk  only  in  the 
most  promising  sites,  the  results  have  been  so  far  quite  as  satisfactory  as  might  be 
expected.  The  works  were  begun  in  1  66  in  the  Euda-ko,  or  "Naphtha 
Volley,"  on  a  piece  of  ground  presented  by  the  Czar  to  one  of  his  generals. 
The  first  well  yielded  about  2,400  gallons  daily,  but  most  of  this  mineral  oil  was 
lost,  the  reservoir  having  been  swept  away  by  sudden  rains.  The  well  itself 
soon  ran  dry,  but  six  others  were  opened  in  1870,  which  jointly  yielded  62,000 
tons  a  year.     After  the  boring  the  jets  of  naphtha  often  rose  to  a  height  of 

50  feet  above  the  ground.  Were  the 
district  properly  worked  and  con- 
nected by  rail  with  the  Anapa  coast 
and  Kuban  basin,  it  might  produce 
700,000,000  gallons  of  distilled  oil 
yearly. 


Fig.  24.— Thb  Kuku>Oba  Mud  Voloako. 
Acoording  to  PkIIiui.    Bode  1  :  8a,0(ia 


..v^i 


Inhauitants — The  Cherkgsses. 

Few  regions  of  the  Old  World  have 
shifted  their  populations  more  fre- 
quently than  Western  Caucasia  and 
the  Euban  basin.  Since  the  middle 
of  the  century  war«,  massacres,  and 
exile  have  caused  the  disappearance 
of  tribes  and  whole  nations  from  the 
valleya  limited  eastwards  by  the 
Elbruz,  where  they  have  been  replaced 
by  other  races.  The  course  of  history 
has  been  abruptly  arrested ;  traditions, 
languages,  dialects,  have  irrevocably 
perished,   nothing   remaining  in  the 


il,6S0Tatt 


land  except  geographical  names  more 
or  less  distorted  in  the  untrained  mouth 
of  strangers. 
In  the  last  century  the  steppes  of  Oircassia  were  still  mostly  peopled  by  the 
Cherkesses,  who  even  owned  grazing  lands  north  of  the  Euma,  and  procured  their 
salt  from  the  lakes  in  the  Manich  depression.  In  1859  they  numbered  about 
600,000  in  Western  Caucasia,  and  even  in  1864,  after  the  wars  ending  in  the 
Russian  conquest,  they  were  still  estimated  at  300,000.  But  now  they  have 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  nationality  in  the  country,  and  in  all  Caucasia  they 
will  soon  be  represented  by  a  few  individuals  only.  The  Abkhasians  also  of  the 
Euxine  seaboard  and  southern  valleys  have  mostly  disappeared,  although  nomi- 
nally subjected  to  Bussian  rule  since  1810,  and  treated  far  more  leniently  than 
the  Cherkesses.     They  were  reduced  from  about  150,000  in   1864  to  50,000  in 


*E&ii 


LU. 


■V'.?  ■jU'^■  H-t1V-'^  ;■<r25tTil.^.«T^?■iT^  ^^il«'y:s^  •Sis-?M'«srtA?i'*^r^;s^ 


INHABITANTS— THE  CHERKESSE8. 


BS 


wns,  and 
ly  in  the 
inigbt  be 
Naphtha 
generals, 
il  oil  was 
roll  itself 
d  62,000 
beight  of 
Were  the 
md    con- 
apa  coast 
;   produce 
itilled   oil 


K  ESSES. 

'"orld  have 
more    fre- 
icasia  and 
le  middle 
icres,  and 
ppearance 
from  the 
by    the 
Q  replaced 
of  history 
traditions, 
rrevocably 
ig  in  the 
imes  more 
ned  mbutb 

ed  by  the 
ured  their 
sred  about 
ng  in  the 
they  have 
icasia  they 
also  of  the 
ugh  nomi- 
ently  than 
50,000  in 


1877,  and  whole  vnlloys  wore  completely  deserted  when  over  20,000  emigrated 
in  mass  after  the  struggle  between  the  Russians  and  Turks  for  the  possession  of 
Sttkhum-Eul«-h  during  the  late  war.  Their  place  bus  been  partially  Hupplicd  by 
Russians,  and  the  sites  of  their  former  habitutions  are  now  known  only  by  romantic 
graveyards  overgrown  with  the  wild  plum,  apple,  pear,  and  vine. 

Vanquished  by  the  armies  of  Nicholas,  the  Adigheh,  or  Cherkessos  of  the 
northern  slopes  and  Upper  Kuban  valleys,  preferred  exile  to  permanent  subjec- 
tion to  the  Russian  yoke,  76,000  alone  accepting  the  conditions  o£fered  them  by 
the  Russians.  Happy  to  be  rid  of  such  enemies,  the  Government  hastened  to 
facilitate  their  departure,  and  their  exodus  ended  in  wholesale  transportation.  A 
proclamation  issued  in  1864,  after  the  last  battle,  ordered  all  the  Adigheh  "  to 
quit  their  valleys  "  within  a  month's  time  under  pain  of  being  treated  as  pri8or".rs 
of  war.  The  order  was  obeyed,  and  over  four-fifths  of  the  people  were  driven  at 
the  point  of  the  sword  from  valley  to  valley  until  they  found  refuge  in  Anatolia, 
Cyprus,  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  other  parts  of  Turkey.  Thus  were  260,000 
transported  by  sea  to  the  temporary  dep6ts  at  Trebizond,  Samsun,  and  Sinope 
during  the  first  six  months  of  1864,  and  according  to  the  ofiioial  returns  398,000 
Cherkesses  emigrated  between  1858  and  1864.  It  is  easy  to  understand  what  the 
8u£feriugs  and  mortality  must  have  been  of  these  refugees,  crowded  on  board  smuU 
craft,  or  exposed  in  wretched  hovels  to  hunger,  cold,  and  hardships  of  every  sort. 
In  many  places  more  than  half  had  perished  of  starvation  or  disease  a  few  months 
after  quitting  their  homes.  And  even  on  reaching  the  districts  assigned  to  them, 
they  found  themselves  surrounded  by  hostile  populations,  of  different  race,  speech, 
religion,  and  customs.  They  themselves  assumed  the  air  of  conquerors,  con- 
tinuing their  warlike  or  predatory  habits,  and  seizing  with  the  sword  the  fruits  of 
the  plough.  The  exile  of  the  Cherkesses  was  disastrous  alike  to  thorn  and  to  those 
with  whom  they  were  thrown. 

Although  but  few  Cherkesses  survive  in  the  Caucasus,  they  have  so  long  been 
regarded  as  typical  of  the  Caucasian  tribes  generally,  and  they  have  exercised  so 
much  influence  on  those  who  have  not  yet  emigrated,  that  they  require  to  be 
studied  as  they  existed  before  the  f-xodus  of  1864.  At  that  time  their  determined 
resistance  to  the  Russian  invuier  had  earned  for  tjhem  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  most  heroic  peoples  on  the  globe.  Their  chivalrous  traditions,  the 
patriarchal  simplicity  of  their  habits,  their  physical  beauty  and  symmetry  of  form, 
rendered  them  unquestionably  the  foremost  race  in  the  Caucasus,  so  that  their 
name  came  to  be  often  applied  in  a  general  way  to  all  the  highland  tribes. 
Unfortunately  they  lived  only  for  war,  and  the  very  word  Cherkess  was  usually 
explained  to  mean  "  Brigands,"  "  Banditti,"  or  "  Highwaymen,"  although  it 
more  probably  derives  from  the  Kerketea  of  Strabo.  Strangers  find  extreme 
difficulty  in  pronouncing  their  rude,  and  guttural  language,  and  in  their  warlike 
expeditions  they  are  said  to  have  made  use  of  a  peculiar  dialect. 

The  Cherkesses  belong  probably  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Georgians,  Lezgbians, 
Chechenzes,  and  other  mixed  or  non- Aryan  tribes  of  Caucasia.  Mostly  very 
handsome,  they  are  tall,  slim,  and  broad-shouldered,  with  oval  features,  light 


A'WiwuiMtUMWkJNMiiMM 


imti^iiiu 


iava9r».ijittA.Txsm 


inaiMWIiit  Wrtr  MK^^sAiWtf afciwi.li  aJ 


mmmmsammtmm 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


oonplexion,  bright  eya,  abundant  hair,  mostly  black,  but  oooaalonally  alao 
cheatuut  and  fair.  Both  sexes  consider  obesity  and  other  physical  defects  as 
disgraceful,  and  those  who  are  so  afflicted  abstain  from  appearing  at  the  public 
feasts  and  popular  gatherings.  Regarding  beauty  as  the  privilege  of  their  race, 
they  seldom  intermarried  with  aliens.  Their  dress,  of  a  remarkably  elegant  type, 
is  admirably  suited  to  these  erect  and  pliant  figures,  and  has  accordingly  become  a 
sort  of  national  costume  for  all  the  Caucasians,  including  even  the  Russian  Cossacks 
und  the  peaceful  Jews,  who  are  sometimes  found  wearing  the  cherkeska,  with  its 
curtouch  pouch,  in  their  case  "  more  ornamental  than  useful." 

Like  the  Albanians  of  the  Pindus  highlands,  with  whom  they  present  many 
points  of  resemblance,  the  Cherkesses  regard  the  vendetta  as  the  supreme  law. 
filood  demands  blood,  and  the  murderer  must  die,  unless  he  purchase  redemption, 
or  succeed  in  kidnapping  a  child  from  the  family  of  his  enemy,  in  order  to  bring 
it  up  as  his  own,  and  then  restore  it  to  the  paternal  home.  Family  feuds  lasted 
for  generations  ;  yet,  unlike  his  Svanian  neighbour,  the  Cherkess  scorned  to  lurk 
in  stone  houses,  but,  trusting  to  his  strong  arm,  resided  only  in  slightly  constructed 
wooden  huts.  Vengeance,  however,  was  never  exacted  in  the  presence  of  women, 
sacred  beings,  who  might  with  a  gesture  arrest  the  hand  of  the  slayer,  and  who 
yet  belonged  themselves  to  fathers  or  husbands  claiming  the  right  to  kill  them 
with  impunity.  According  to  the  old  custom,  the  young  man  seized  by  force  hiq 
intended  bride.  The  daughter  of  the  Cherkess  knew  beforehand  that  she  must 
quit  the  paternal  home  either  b}'  a  real  or  feigned  abduction,  or  else  be  sold  in 
foreign  lands ;  yet  such  is  the  force  of  habit,  that  the  thought  of  exile  and  the  life 
of  the  harem  seldom  cau  ed  her  any  dread.  Traditionally,  however,  they  con- 
fidently expected  that  their  beauty,  good  manners,  and  poetic  language  would 
insure  to  them  the  position  of  legitimate  wives  of  distinguished  persons.  The 
boys,  on  the  other  hand,  were  generally  brought  up,  not  by  their  parents,  but  by 
an  atalik,  or  "  teacher,"  chosen  especially  for  his  physical  and  moral  qualities,  his 
courage,  politeness,  eloquence,  skill  in  arms  and  horsemanship.  When  his 
education  was  over  the  young  man  returned  to  his  home,  but  never  ceased  to 
regard  the  atalik  as  a  true  father.  Thanks  to  the  care  thus  taken  in  their 
education,  the  Cherkesses  claimed  to  have  become  "  the  most  polite  people  in  the 
world." 

Although  proud  of  their  national  freedom,  they  were  not  all  equal  amongst 
themselves.  Yet,  while  forming  three  castes  of  princes,  of  nobles  reduced  by 
intestine  feuds,  and  the  simple  peasantry,  all  were  grouped  in  fledah,  at  "  brother- 
hoods," and  it  was  these  associations  of  men  devoted  to  each  other  unto  death  that 
rendered  their  resistance  so  formidable  to  the  Russians.  The  authority  of  the 
nobles  prevailed  mostly  in  the  plains,  where  they  hod  in  some  places  succeeded  in 
establishing  a  quasi-feudal  system.  But  their  peasantry  ^ed  to  the  highland 
Cherkesses  for  protection.  Hence  the  incessant  wars,  resulting  in  the  defeat  of 
the  nobles,  many  of  whom  adopted  the  fatal  policy  of  applying  to  strangers  for 
aid.  Below  the  three  classes  of  freemen  there  were  the  slaves,  consisting  exclu- 
sively of  refugees  and  prisoners  of  war.     The  will  of  the  freemen  expressed  in  the 


)nally  also 
defects  a> 
the  public 
their  race, 
Bgant  type, 
y  become  a 
in  Cossackt 
:a,  with  ita 

laent  rauny 
sreme  law. 
edemption, 
er  to  bring 
mdn  lasted 
led  to  lurk 
sonstruoted 
of  women, 
r,  and  who 

kill  them 
)y  force  hiq 

she  must 
be  sold  in 
»nd  the  life 
p,  they  con- 
lage  would 
'sons.  The 
nts,  but  by 
ualities,  his 
When  his 
r  ceased  to 
m  in  their 
ople  in  the 

al  amongst 
reduced  by 
f  "  brother- 
>  death  that 
)rity  of  the 
ucceeded  in 
e  highland 
B  defeat  of 
rangers  for 
ting  exclu- 
Bssed  in  the 


"1 


THE  ABKIIASTANS  AND  COflSAOKS.  91 

puMio  gatherings  hud  the  furoo  of  law,  und  the  princoa  and  nnblbn  conttitutod  tho 
(•xocutive.  The  prioatR,  though  ranking  with  tho  htrdH,  hud  hut  little  iuHuoncr, 
for,  owing  to  the  confusions  of  creedn,  the  CherkeMcs  wuro  nt  oncu  pii^nnn, 
rhristiuns,  and  Mohammedans.  As  puguns  thoy  worithip|)od  Shibleh,  gtMl  uf 
thunder,  war,  und  juNtico,  and  to  him  uftur  tho  victory  wore  sucriKccd  tho  fuiroitt 
of  the  tlock.  Thvy  venerated  the  tree  blasted  by  lightning,  beneath  which  the 
criminal  found  a  aufe  refuge.  The  gods  of  tho  air,  water,  woodlands,  fruit  troon, 
and  herds,  uU  unimut.'d  by  the  breath  of  tho  Oreat  Spirit,  hud  also  their  speciiil 
worrihip,  and  received  uffurings,  if  only  a  few  drops  solemnly  poured  out'  from  the 
goblet.  To  soothe  tho  stormy  sea,  and  induce  it  to  spare  tho  mariner,  mother, 
wife,  or  betrothed  committed  her  votive  offerings  to  the  mountain  torrent,  by 
which  they  were  borne  to  the  Euxine,  whose  response  was  the  soughing  of  tho 
winds  and  the  banking  up  of  the  clouds. 

Such  was  tho  religion  of  the  ancient  Cherkesses ;  but  till  the  luttor  hulf  of  tho 
uighteenth  century  the  nobles  mostly  claimed  to  be  Christians,  und  worshipped  in 
the  ohupols,  whoso  ruins  are  still  met  here  and  there  on  the  hill-tops.  But  the 
Sheikh  Mansi^r,  whom  the  Russians  afterwards  sent  to  die  in  tho  island  of 
Solovetz,  in  the  White  Sea,  made  nearly  all  his  countrymen  Sunnito  Moham- 
medans. The  influence  of  the  Crimean  khuns  worked  in  the  same  direction,  and  the 
faith  of  Islam  became  more  and  more  intensified  according  aa  hatred  of  the 
Christian  Muscovite  invaders  increased.  Nevertheless  certain  Moslem  practices, 
cHpeciuUy  polygamy,  were  not  generally  introduced,  and  the  old  family  life  held 
its  ground.  '  In  religious  zeul  neither  the  Cherkesses  nor  other  western  high- 
landers  are  to  be  compared  with  the  Kura-chai,  or  "  Black  River  "  Tatars  of  the 
southern  Kuban  valleys,  west  of  Mount  Elbruz,  who  are  strict  Mohammedans, 
engaged  in  trade,  and  as  intermediaries  between  the  northern  and  southern 
Caucasian  tribes. 


Thk  Ahkhasiaks  and  Cossacks. 

The  Ahkhasians,  who  still  retain  in  a  slightly  modified  form  the  name  of 
Abazes,  by  which  they  were  known  to  the  Greeks,  call  themselves  Absua,  or 
"  People."  Before  the  great  emigraHons  they  occu|iied  nearly  all  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Caucasua  between  the  Ingdr  and  Bzlb  valleys,  and  at  certain  points 
encroached  on  tho  Cherkess  territory  on  the  opposite  slope.  Their  speech 
resembles  that  of  the  Adigheh,  hut  they  di£fer  g^atly  from  them  in  appearance 
and  customs.  The  Absua  are  shorter,  of  browner  complexion  and  llucker  hair 
than  the  Cherkesses,  and  their  features  are  mostly  irreg^ar,  with  a  hursh,  wild 
expression.  Hence  slaves  of  this  race  commanded  no  more  than  hnlf  the  price  of 
their  Circassian  neighbours.  Though  of  less  chivalrous  appearance,  like  them 
they  preferred  to  live  by  the  sword,  or  scour  the  sea  as  corsairs.  Before  the 
Kuxine  had  become  a  "  Russian  lake,"  their  long  galleys,  impelled  by  oar  or  sail, 
and  with  crews  of  from  one  hundred  to  three  hundred  men,  ventured  along  all  tho 
shores  of  Anatolia,  the  Crimea,  and  European  Turkey.  Many  also  took  service  or 
became  slaves  in  Egypt,  where  they  were  numerously  represented  amongst  the 


,■;! 


mimvliitt^  I Mim<n  liiww 


68 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Mamelukes,  and  where  not  a  few  celebrities  were  natives  of  some  upland  Abkhasian 
valley.  Like  the  Cherkesses,  they  formed  warlike  confederacies  with  their  princes, 
nobles,  and  freemen,  leaving  to  slaves  the  hardships  of  field  operations.  Some 
were  still  unacquainted  with  money  before  the  Russian  rule,  exchanges  being 
usually  effected  by  a  cow,  whose  calves  represented  the  interest.  It  thus  some- 
times happened  that  after  a  few  years  a  small  loan  had  to  be  repaid  by  a  whole 
herd.  But  in  1867  this  primitive  mode  of  usury  was  replaced  by  that  which  is  in 
vogue  amungst  "  civilised  "  nations.  Like  the  Cherkessians  also,  they  were  still 
pagans  in  thought,  while  retaining  the  traces  of  the  old  Christian  worship  in  their 
Moslem  creed.  Thus  they  respected  churches  and  the  cross,  eat  pork,  and 
brought  to  their  temples  votive  offerings  of  arms,  coats  of  mail,  or  garments. 
Even  now  a  chapel,  traditionally  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  St.  Paul  on  an 

offshoot  of  the  Marukh,  is  one  of  their 
Fig.  26.— Abkhasian  Type.  chief  places  of  pilgrimage.     But  the 

most  revered  temple  was  still  the  forest, 
where  they  loved  to  pronounce  their 
solemn  vows,  and  suspend  their  offer- 
ings on  the  branches  of  the  sacred  oak. 
Here  were  also  formerly  placed  the 
coffins  of  their  dead,  in  the  belief  that 
the  gaseous  explosions  would  cause  the 
demons  to  respect  their  repose.  They  pay 
extreme  devotion  to  the  departed,  and 
their  burial-places  are  far  better  cared 
for  than  the  dwellings  of  the  living. 

Several  thousand  Abkhasians  still 
occupy  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Southern 
Caucasus,  whereas  the  Adigheh  have 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  nationality 
on  the  opposite  slopes.  Here  the 
Eara-cha'i  alone  have  succeeded  in 
hitherto  resisting  the  advancing  Muscovite  element.  Elsewhere  the  Russians  are 
encroaching  incessantly  on  the  domain  of  the  now  subdued  highlanders.  The 
natives  of  the  Caucasus  formerly  looked  towards  the  south  as  the  source  of 
civilisation,  and  they  received  mainly  from  Georgia  their  arms,  costly  stuffs,  and 
letters.  Novi  they  are  fain  to  turn  towards  the  north,  whence  come  the  ukases, 
the  armies,  and  the  colonists  destined  one  day  to  absorb  them.  Great  Russians, 
Little  Russians,  Cossacks  of  both  branches,  take  part  in  this  migratory  movement, 
to  which  the  Government  has  imparted  a  distinctly  military  character  by  organ- 
izing the  settlers  in  companies,  battalions,  and  regiments.  All  Western  Caucasia 
may  be  said  to  be  already  Russian.  Bohemian  colonists  also,  who  have  received 
allotments  in  Circassia,  are  gradually  amalgamating  with  the  conquering  race,  and 
the  number  of  Slav  immigrants  in  the  Adigheh  territory  has  already  long 
surpassed  that  of  the  natives. 


^'il.:JM     ^'di^SSSSSKS 


.■•■' 


THE  ABKHASIANS  AND  COSSACKS. 


69 


A-bkhasian 
(ir  princes, 
ns.     Some 
iges  being 
thus  some- 
jy  a  whole 
which  is  in 
'  were  still 
lip  in  their 
pork,  and 
garments. 
?aul  on  an 
one  of  their 
I.    But  the 
1  the  forest, 
ounce  their 
their  ofEer- 
sacred  oak. 
placed  the 
)  belief  that 
Id  cause  the 
se.  Theypay 
eparted,  and 
better  cared 
he  living, 
hasians  still 
the  Southern 
cligheh  have 
t  nationality 
Here   the 
acceeded    in 
Russians  are 
nders.     The 
le  source  of 
Ly  stuffs,  and 
the  ukases, 
tat  Russians, 
y  movement, 
ter  by  organ- 
»rn  Caucasia 
lave  received 
ing  race,  and 
already  long 


The  plains  of  the  Lower  Kuban  and  Taman  peninsula  have  been  more  subject 
than  most  regions  to  successive  changes  of  population,  unaccompanied  by  any 
appreciable  mingling  of  races.  The  affinities  can  no  longer  be  determined  of  the 
builders  of  the  dolmens  scattered  over  the  peninsula  and  neighbouring  landR,  but 
elsewhere  unknown  in  Caucasia.  These  dolmens  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
other  countries  by  the  circular  opening  in  the  anterior  slab,  large  enough  to  allow 
of  a  child's  head  being  passed  through.  The  history  of  the  Euban  valley  does 
not  embrace  these  monuments  of  the  age  of  iron,  for  it  reaches  back  scarcely  more 
than  ten  centuries,  to  a  time  when  this  region  was  occupied  by  the  Khazars  and 
Polovtzi,  a  remnant  of  whom  were  the  Eumans,  who  settled  in  Hungary. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  the  Russian  colony  of  Tmutarakan  had 
already  been  established  in  the  Taman  district,  where  they  had  formed  relations 

Fig.  26.— CoMAOK  Sbntinbl. 


with  other  Russian  settlers  in  the  Crimea.  The  chrciicles  describe  their  straggles 
with  the  Tasses  and  Kos6gs,  predecessors  of  the-  Cherkesses,  and  an  inscribed 
stone  found  near  Taman,  and  now  in  the  Hermitage  Museum,  St.  Petersburg, 
bears  witness  to  the  advanced  state  of  civilisation  of  the  early  Russian  settlers  in 
this  region.  But  they  were  not  numerous  enough  to  hold  their  ground  in  the 
midst  of  hostile  populations,  and  the  country  was  afterwards  occupied  by  Tatar 
tribes  under  Mongol  princes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  other 
Russians  made  their  appearance,  not  as  enemies,  but  as  refugees,  in  this  region. 
These  were  the  Nekrawttzi  Cossacks,  who  preferred  the  rule  of  the  Crimean  Ehan  to 
that  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  who  were  afterwards  joined  by  numerous  Raskolniks 
from  various  parts  of  the  empire.  The  country  was  thus  soon  repeopled  by  Russians, 
who  cultivated  the  soil,  established  fisheries  on  the  rivers  and  lagoons,  and 


^ 


'. 


60 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


introduced  the  fine  Ukranian  cattle  since  propagated  in  the  Transcaucasian 
provinces.  But  these  industrious  settlers,  falling  under  the  Czar's  displeasure, 
were  compelled  to  seek  refuge  first  amongst  the  Cherkesses,  and  afterwards  in 
Asiatic  and  European  Turkey.  Most  of  them  became  ultimately  absorbed  in  the 
surrounding  Mc'lem  populations.  They  were  succeeded  by  some  two  thousand 
Nogui  Tatar  families  from  the  Crimea,  who  were  in  their  turn  removed  in  mass 
by  the  Russian  conquerors  to  the  steppes  west  of  the.Don. 

Henceforth  the  country  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  empire,  and  was 
disposed  of  at  the  pleasure  of  Catherine  and  her  all-powerful  minister,  Potomkin. 
The  unfortunate  Lower  Dnieper  Cossacks,  after  many  viciusitudes,  were  trans- 
ferred, in  1793,  to  the  marshy  wastes  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kuban.  Numbering 
17,000  fighting-men,  they  were  at  first  well  received  by  the  Cherkesses,  but  soon 
changed  from  friends  to  foes  and  conquerors.  The  war  of  conquest  was  a  war  of 
surprises.  Redoubts,  watch-towers,  and  fortified  stanitzas  were  established  at  all 
strategical  points  along  the  Euban,  and  to  guard  against  the  enemy  lurking  in  its 
sedgy  banks  there  were  formed  those  formidable  plastuni  which  became  the  terror 
of  the  Cherkess  outposts  in  the  protracted  border  warfare.  During  these 
conflicts  the  Cossacks  became  gradually  assimilated  in  manners,  habits,  and  dress 
to  the  highland  Caucasiauo,  from  whom  they  could  not  always  be  easily  distin- 
guished. 

Hand  in  hand  with  this  hostile  struggle  of  some  seventy  years,  the  Cossacks 
maintained  another  against  the  outward  surrounding,  which  is  still  far  from 
concluded.  At  their  arrival  towns,  villages,  canals,  highways,  everything  had 
disappeared.  The  process  of  resettlement  also  progressed  vory  slowly  in  steppe 
lands,  partly  destitute  of,  partly  covered  by  water.  In  the  Euban  delta,  where 
fever  is  endemic,  the  rate  of  mortality  is  very  high,  in  some  years  often  greatly 
exceeding  that  of  the  births.  On  an  average  one-third  of  the  children  die  in  the 
first  year,  and  half  the  generation  has  disappeared  between  the  third  and  fifth 
years. 

'  Topography. 

Here  there  are  no  large  towns.  Emigration  has  carried  off  most  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  constant  wars  have  laid  waste  tha  lands,  the  absence  of  roads 
prevents  the  transport  of  produce  to  thf)  coast,  and  the  coast  itself  is  still 
unhealthy,  and  nearly  destitute  of  sheltered  havens.  Thus  are  neutralised  the 
great  advantages  of  a  region  which  is,  nevertheless,  yet  destined  to  become  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  in  the  Old  World,  Even  Svkhum-Kakh,  guarding  its 
southern  approach,  although  chief  town  of  a  military  distriut,  and  notwithstanding 
its  deep  and  safe  harbour,  is  still  an  insignificant  place.  Yet  it  is  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Hcllr^nic  town  dedicated  by  the  Milesians,  some  thirty-two 
centuries  ago,  to  the  Dioscuri,  and  afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  Sebastopol. 
The  ruins  of  a  Greek  city,  with  its  streets,  open  spaces,  and  the  foundations  of  its 
buildings,  are  still  partly  visible  at  a  depth  of  several  yards  in  the  Sukhum-Ealeh 
waters  ;  the  remains  of  cunab,  roads,  and  auoient  structures  may  be  traced  in  the 


.  ■lP'fl7*W**'W;' 


r-Hl^tWmyfftgliiiiiiaiffM 


=*W«!CS 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


01 


neighbourhood  ;  aud  the  debris  of  Greek  monuments  were  utilised  by  the  Turks  to 
rebuild,  in  1787,  the  fortress  of  Sukhum,  after  it  had  been  destroyed  with  the  town 
in  1777.  The  imports  and  exports  of  the  place  have  never  in  the  best  years 
amounted  tu  £40,000  ;  but  the  dolphin  fishery  is  productive,  and  in  1872  as  many 
as  3,800  were  taken  in  the  harbcur  ulone. 

The  village  of  Pitzunda,  the  Fythius  of  the  Byzantines,  was  also  at  one  time 
an  important  town,  as  is  evident  from  the  ruins  in  the  neighbourhood.  A 
Byzantine  church  restored  by  the  Bussians  is  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Justinian  in  551.  It  was  to  the  monastery  of  this  place  that  the  exiled  St. 
Chrysostom  withdrew  when  overtaken  by  death  in  407.  It  afterwards  became 
the  chief  Genoese  trading  station  on  this  coast,  and  from  it  most  of  the  Italian 
traders  and  missionaries    set  out,  who  have  left  in   the  Western  Caucasus  so 


Fig.  27. — Vallby  or  the  BzIb. 
ftnaa  the  Hap  of  the  Ruasiaii  Siafl.    Scale  1 :  860,000. 


ISMilM. 


many  traces  of  their  presence — churches,  watch-towers,  coins,  arms.  Many  of  the 
latter,  inscribed  with  Latin  or  French  legends,  were  still  met  with  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  present  century  in  these  highlands. 

Beyond  Pitzunda  follow  the  old  forts  of  Gagri,  Adler  or  Ardiller  (Arduvaoh), 
and  others.  Farther  on  is  the  deep  and  well-sheltered  roadstead  of  Ttcapae,  at 
piesent  a  mere  hamlet,  but  destined  probably  to  become  the  chief  tradinr'-place 
on  this  seaboard.  Meantime,  Novo-Eoaaiiak,  or  SAjdk,  is  the  first  town  on  the 
coast  near  the  extremity  of  the  Caucasus.  It  does,  a  considerable  trade,  although 
the  roadsteaid,  like  the  neighbouring  Bay  of  Gelenjik,  is  exposed  to  the  north-east 
gales.  The  old  Turkish  town  of  Ampa  lies  on  a  still  more  dangerous  spot. 
Thrice  taken  by  the  Russians,  it  was  temporarily  suppressed  in  1860  in  favour  of 
Temr&k,  administrative  capital  of  the  T«unau  peninsula.    At  that  time  Temr(lk 


X-/ 


68 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


was  a  simple  Cossack  stanifcza  on  a  hill  250  itet  high,  in  the  centre  of  the  isthmus 
stretching  between  two  lagoons  connected  with  the  Euban.  In  its  vicinity  are 
the  chief  mud  volcanoes  of  the  Taraan  peninsula,  forming  five  distinct  groups 
of  about  u  hundred  altogether.  For  some  yours  past  the  mud  has  been  applied  to 
the  treatment  of  rheumatic  complaints.  The  village  of  Taman,  which  gives  its 
name  to  the  peninsula,  lies  near  the  strait  facing  Eertch  and  Yeni-Kaleh,  and  a 
little  south-west  of  the  fortress  of  Phanagoria,  which  stands  on  the  site  of  the 
Greek  city  of  that  name.  ^ 

The  stunitzas  founded  by  the  Cossacks  in  the  districts  watered  by  the  Euban 
and  its  tributaries  have  over  the  coast  villages  the  advantage  of  lying  at  the 
junctions  of  the  natural  routes  across  the  steppes.  Several  have  grown  into  real 
towns,  although  the  houses  still  remain  scattered  over  a  large  area.     In  the 


Fig.  28.— The  Taman  Pbninsvla. 
From  the  Map  of  the  RnsBian  Staff.    Soale  1  -.  1,100,000. 


0  to  16  Fe«t 


16  to  as  Feet 


88  Feet  aiK)  ir>>nffda. 
19  Mae*. 


province  of  Euban  alone  there  are  no  less  than  146,  each  with  upwards  of  2,000 
inhabitants,  a  vast  number  considering  the  short  period  since  the  colonisation 
began.  In  1872  the  population  of  the  Euban  territory  rose  from  672,000  to 
733,000,  and,  as  the  normal  excess  of  births  over  deaths  was  only  6,000  or  7,000, 
the  immigration  could  not  have  been  less  than  54,000.  But  such  a  rapid  move- 
ment, directed  without  system  towards  marshy  lands,  necessarily  entails  fatal 
consequences  on  many  of  the  new  arrivals,  more  especially  as  the  best  tracts  are 
already  occupied  by  high  officials  and  members  of  the  imperial  family.  Between 
1860  and  1870  over  325,000  acres  were  thus  disposed  of  in  the  province  of  Euban 
and  government  of  Stavropol. 

The  Cossacks  do  not  distribute  the  land  in  separate  holdings.     "  Together  we 
conquered  it,"  they  say,  "together  we  have  defended  it;  it  belongs  to  all  of  us." 


isthmus 
inity  are 
;  groups 
pplied  to 
gives  its 
eh,  and  a 
ite  of  the 

le  Kuban 

ig  at  the 

into  real 

,     In  the 


•N 


50^ 


ds  of  2,000 
colonisation 
672,000  to 
00  or  7,000, 
rapid  move- 
entails  fatal 
at  tracts  are 
Between 
Be  of  Kuban 

Together  we 
Ko  all  of  us." 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


«8 


The  commune  decides  every  year  how  the  several  districts  are  to  be  cultivated, 
and  market-garden  plots  alone  are  held  as  private  property.  Still  the  officers, 
being  no  longer  elected  by  their  Cossack  comrades,  have  received  with  their 
commission  parcels  of  land,  or  khutors,  intended  to  enhance  their  prestige.  The 
example  of  the  superior  officers  was  soon  followed  by  other  dignitaries,  and  the 
stanitzas  thus  became  surrounded  by  khutors,  from  which  the  herds  of  the  com- 
monalty were  excluded.  In  1842  the  Government  proceeded  with  the  regular 
distribution  of  the  land  according  to  the  rank  of  the  holders — 4,090  acres  for 

Pig.  20. — Vallbtb  of  Euubion  ik  the  Kvban  Basin. 
From  the  Map  of  Uie  BuuImi  Staff.    Scale  1  :  700,000. 


tilUum. 


generals,  1,090  for  superior  officers,  645  for  subaltem^^,  83  for  simple  Cossacks. 
The  allotments  of  the  soldiers,  constituting  the  communal  dojiain,  were  thus  cut 
up  into  small  fragments,  and  the  peasantry  protested  in  vain  ngainst  a  distribution 
so  entirely  opposed  to  their  interests.  Of  late  years  the  ShalopAts  and  other 
sectarian  communities  have  acquired  a  great  development  in  this  region,  the 
habits  of  co-operation  giving  them  exceptional  strength,  and  enabling  them  to 
^succeed  where  others  fail. 

The  most  populous  villages  are  foxmd  in  the  fertile  v&lleys  formed  by  erosion 
in  the  limestone  terrace  facing  the  CoiTtcae^us.     The  most  important  of  the  stanitzas 


M 


04 


ASIATIC  EUS8IA. 


lying  at  the  very  foot  of  the  Caucasian  spurs  is  Maikop,  formerly  a  first-class 
strategic  point,  now  a  chief  mart  for  the  produce  of  the  whole  country.  In  the 
Kuban  valley  are  also  the  trading  towns  of  Batalpashinskaya ;  Nikolayevskaga, 
near  the  Kurakent  coal  mines ;  Ladorakaya;  and  Yekaterinudar.  The  last  named,  now 
capital  of  the  province  of  Kuban,  does  a  considerable  trade,  and  at  its  September 
ftiirs,  frequented  by  25,000  of  the  peasantry,  the  exchanges  amount  to  about 
2,000,000  roubles.  Yeink,  founded  since  1848,  has  had  a  rapid  development, 
thanks  to  its  free  trade  and  productive  fisheries,  and  although  its  progress  has  been 
less  marked  since  its  privileges  have  ceased,  it  still  remains  the  most  populous  town 
on  the  Caucasian  seaboard. 

Stavropol,  capital  of  the  government  of  like  name,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
2,000  feet  on  one  of  the  rtdvunced  terraces  flanking  the  foot  of  the  Caucasus. 
Founded  as  a  mere  fort  in  1776,  it  long  remained  without  any  importance  except 
as  a  strategical  positic  a  on  the  line  of  the  ten  fortresses  guarding  the  plains  of 
Ciscaucasia  between  the  Don  delta  and  the  town  of  Mozdok.  But  thanks  to  the 
fertile  lariiis  {>%  r  hich  it  is  surrounded,  it  has  now  become  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing place;  in  Russia.  North  of  it  stretch  a  number  of  populoM  villagfe»  in 
♦'if  Yeg'orlik  and  Sredniy-Yegorlik  valleys,  founded  chiefly  by  peusaniry  from  the 
vi!.;)tre  of  Kussia ;  hence  forming  not  stanilzaa,  but  seloa,  a  circumstance  whi,?h 
<  'ip).^i  ..  th(,  liJffiarence  of  terminations  presented  by  the  names  of  villages  in  the 
]\'Kbi*i.;  '*.;'!  reg'orlik  basins. 


^i*^i'K'; 


TIL— CENTRAL  CAUCASUS. 


KUMA  AND  TEREK  BASINS. 


Between  Mounts  Elbruz  and  Kazbek  the  main  range  rises  for  a  distance  of 
10b  miles  above  the  suow-line.  At  certain  intervals  side  ridges,  with  the  summits 
of  the  range,  form  huge  massoR  towering  like  glittering  citadels  of  ice  above  the 
surrounding  highlands.  Thi  Elbruz,  with  its  counterforts,  constitutes  the  most 
imposing  of  these  masses  In  the  Caucasus.  It  is  the  "  Holy  Mountain  "  of  the 
Cherkesses,  on  whose  f  ^iowy  peak  is  enthroned  tbe  "  Jjord  of  the  World,  King 
of  Spirits."  The  Ad^ oh,  Kashtan-tau,  and  Dikh-tau  also  form  a  sort  of  promontory 
projecting  beyopc'i  the  main  range,  and  succeeded  farther  east  by  a  similar 
group  consisting  of  the  Adai-kokb,  Tzea  kikh,  and  neig.hbouriug  mountains. 
Immediately  east  of  this  group  tho  rihain  is  brok^  \  by  the  deep  gap  through 
which  flows  the  Ar-don ;  but  the  gorge  is  blocked  by  a  ridge  running  parallel 
with  the  main  axis,  and  culminating  with  Mount  Zikari,  In  the  same  way 
the  Zilga-kokh  stands  at  the  southern  entrance  of  the  depression  formed  by 
the  torrents  flowing  between  the  masses  culminating  respectively  with  the  Tepli 
and  Kazbek.  The  latter,  which  is  the  Mkinvari  of  the  Oeorgians,  and  Urs-kokh, 
or  "  White  Mountain,"  of  the  Ossetes,  is  still  more  venerated  than  Mount  Elbruz, 
thauas  probably  to  its  position  near  the  gate  of  the  Caucasus,  now  known  as  the 


'j^Wf'' 


# 


ii-st-class 
In  the 
t/evakaga, 
ued,  now 
eptember 
to  about 
)lopment, 
has  been 
tous  town 

ivation  of 
Daucusus. 
ce  except 

plains  of 
iks  to  the 
;  flourish- 
Uag&<i  in 

from  the 
ce  whi,"h 
[[68  in  the 


istance  of 
e  summits 
above  the 

the  most 
i"  of  the 
rid,  King 
fomontory 

a  similar 
nountains. 
p  through 
ig  parallel 
same  way 
brmed  by 

the  Tepli 
TJrs-kokh, 
nt  Elbruz, 
>wn  as  the 


RIVER  SYSTEMS— KUMA  BASIN. 


6S 


Darial  Pass.  Here  is  the  celebrated  grotto,  whence  the  hermits  could  ascend,  by 
means  of  an  iron  chain,  to  the  "  Cradle  of  Bethlehem  "  and  "  Abraham's  Tent," 
an  11  le  Kazbek  peak  is  variously  known  to  the  native  Christians.* 

River  Systems — Kuma  Basin. 

The  counterforts  and  terraces  falling  from  the  snowy  crest  of  the  (Juucasus 
form  the  various  chains  of  the  "  Black  Mountains,"  beyond  which  thev  develop 

Fig.  30.— PASSANAfrR,  OW  THR  TlKLW- VLADIKAVKAZ  RoUTB. 


into  a  vast  semicircle  round  the  Kabarda  plains,  terminating  northwards  with 
the  isolated  mass  of  the  Besh-tau,     Here  the  streams  converge  towards  the  centro 


•  Mean  height  of  the  Ciauoaaus  between  the  Elbruz  (18,820  feet)  and  Adai-kokh  (16,485  feet). 
12,670  feet.     Chief  peaks  :— 

Feet. 

10,430 

12,840 


Zikari   . 
Zilga-kokh 
Tepli     . 


14.000 


Mamisson  Pass 
Erestovaya  Gora 
Besh-taa 


Feet. 
9,640 
7,642 
4,670 


M 


A8UT10  BUflSIA. 


of  the  amphitheatre,  like  the  Alpine  torrents  collected  in  the  plains  of  Piedmont, 
and.  thus  is  formed  the  Terek,  the  Po  of  the  Caucasus,  flowing  thence  in  a  swift 
and  copious  stream  towards  the  Caapian.  Still  the  waters  descending  from  the 
more  advanced  spurs  of  the  Caucasus  du  not  join  the  Terek,  hut  drain  through 
the  Ealuils  and  Kuma  north  and  north-east  wards  to  the  steppes, 

The  Ealuda  is  a  true  steppe  river.  With  the  melting  of  the  snows  in  spring 
it  overflows  its  banks  far  and  wide;  in  summer  its  stream  contracts  more  and 
more  as  it  recedes  from  the  hills,  and  at  last  runs  quite  dry  before   reaching 


Fig.  31.— Ths  ELBBtrs  Qaovr, 
Trom  the  Map  of  th*  Boajan  BtaS.    tloak  1 :  480,000. 


501 


m 


4S'I0" 


CoP 


AB'AO 


the  Manich  depression.  It  also  presents  the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  a  double 
discharge  in  the  direction  of  the  Euxine  and  Caspian.  Entering  the  Manich 
depression  at  the  water-parting,  its  floods,  arrested  and  divided  into  two  streams 
by  a  small  eminence,  are  diverted  west  to  the  Manich  of  the  Don,  east  to  that 
which  flows  to  the  Euma  delta.  Steep  banks  enclose  a  bed  2  to  3  miles  wide, 
bearing  witness  to  its  iormer  importance.  But  in  this  space,  large  enough  to  con- 
tain the  waters  of  the  Nile  or  Rhone,  nothing  now  flows  except  a  sluggish  stream 
winding  its  way  from  marsh  to  marsh  through  its  sedgy  channel. 


-^--  iii»»»Mii 


RIVER  SYSTEMS -KUMA  BASIN. 


67 


The  Kuma  basin  ia  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  Kaluils,  and  the  streams 
oy  which  it  is  watered  flow  from  more  elevated  ground,  some  of  them  from  moun- 
tains  covered  with  snow  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  On  issuing  from  ita 
upper  valley  the  Kuma  is  already  a  copious  river ;  but  after  receiving  its  last 
regular  aflBuent,  160  miles  from  the  Caspian,  it  gradually  contracts  as  it  winds 
through  the  steppe.  A  portion  of  its  waters  is  evaporated,  and  the  rest  is  diverted 
right  and  left  to  the  pastures  of  the  Nogai  Tatars  and  Kalmuks.  It  often  happens 
that  about  60  miles  above  its  former  mouth  the  last  drop  is  turned  aside  by  the 
dams  of  the  natives.  At  one  time  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  Kuma  basin  was 
much  greater  than  at  present,  and  a  delta  began  at  the  point  where  the  river  now 

Pig.  32.— RAHinOATION  OP  THB   KaLA(»8. 

From  the  Map  of  the  RuMian  Staff.    Seale  1  :  610,000 


45*50 


44»eo 


Kurgana. 


,  IS  MUM. 


runs  dry.  The  northern  branch  flowed  to  the  Western  Manich,  whose  bed  is  now 
replaced  by  the  lakes  and  tarns  of  the  H(iid(ik,  strung  together  like  pearls  on  a 
necklace.  The  two  other  branches  of  the  Kuma,  also  indicated  by  fens,  pools, 
and  channels,  run  nearly  parallel  towards  a  bay  in  .the  Caspian  still  known  as  the 
Kumskiy  Proran,  or  "Mouth  of  the  Kuma."  Exceptionally  high  floods  occa- 
sionally sweep  away  the  dams  constructed  by  the  Nogai  Tatars,  and  the  lower  beds 
are  then  temporarily  flushed,  as  in  1879,  when  the  yellow  waters  of  the  Kuma 
again  reached  the  Caspian. 

Neither  the  Kuma  nor  the  Kala&g  discharges  water  sufHoient  to  feed  a  Fonto- 
Caspian  canal,  and  even  if  such  a  projeot  wore  carried  out,  Serebrakovskaya,  tie 


:3 


-_^ 


68 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


intended  port  of  the  Kuina,  would  be  inuccossiblo  to  vessels  drawing  more  than 
2  feet  uf  wuter,  while  thoae  drawing  over  4  feet  could  not  approach  wit'iln  4  nitles 
of  the  place. 

The  Tekbk. 

The  Terek  is  not  one  of  those  rivers  which,  like  the  Manich  and  Kuma,  run 
out  before  reaching  the  sea.  Its  chief  sources  rise  iti  a  cirque  about  8,300  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  it  is  already  a  large  stream  before  issuing  from  the  region  of 


;: 


Fig.  33.  — DiLTA  AND  FiAonBD  Dihtricts  of  thb  Lowbu  Tkuek. 
According  tn  Litvinov.    Hcnlo  1  :  1,000,000. 


E^oFG.  46'eO 


47'00- 


OldUdaoftbcTerdh. 


Flooded  Landi. 


•'»  ^ 

(Corgaoi.  BnntiiigoftheDyke.    Terek  Delta  in  1841. 


snows  andv  upknd  pastures.  After  skirting  the  Kazbek  group  on  the  south  and 
west,  it  flows  from  basin  to  basin  through  a  series  of  gorges  down  to  the  plains 
below  Vladikavkaz.  At  the  foot  of  a  vast  declivity  filling  the  bed  of  an  old  lake 
it  collects  the  waters  of  the  Qusel-don,  Fiag-don,  Ar-don,  and  several  other  rapid 
streams,  beyond  which  it  is  joined  by  the  XJrukh,  and  its  largest  tributary  the 
Malka,  with  its  affluents  the  Oherek  and  Baksu.  Above  the  Malka  junction  it 
already  discharges  17,6C9  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  during  its  further  course 
through  the  steppe  to  the  Caspian  it  is  joined  by  the  Sunja,  another  large  and 


THE  TEREK. 


V\g.  84.— Tk*  Tihbk  Floods  or  1863. 
From  the  M*p  of  the  Ituui;in  Htaff.    Boale  1  :  600,000. 


^#« 


o-Vi, 


rapid  river  flowing  t.li rough  the  country  of  the  Chechenzen,  and  fed  by  luimuroun 
sulphur  streams.  One  of  these  is  thu  Molchihi,  which  is  formed  by  the  junction 
of  five  copious  springs,  so  hot  that  sevurul  miles  lower  down  it  is  still  unpotuble. 

Below  the  Sunja,  notwithstanding  the  losses  caused  by  evaporation  and  irri- 
gation, the  Torek  is  still  copious  enough  to  form  a  vast  delta,  with  a  largo  number 
of  permanent  or  intermittent  branchea  frequently  shifting  with  the  floods,  and 
changing  their  relative  importance 
from  century  to  century.  One  of 
these  is  the  "  Old  Terek,"  formerly 
the  most  abundant,  but  now  sur- 
passed in  volume  by  the  "  New 
Terek."  The  delta  oomprises  a 
coast-line  of  about  70  miles,  and  it 
seems  to  have  been  formerly  con- 
nected on  the  one  hand  with  the 
Euma,  on  the  other  with  the  Sulak 
by  some  now  partly  obliterated 
channels.  West  of  thu  present 
delta  are  still  to  be  seen  the  old 
shores  of  the  Caspian,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  parallel  lines  of  elongated 
sand  dunes,  or  bugri,  exactly  similar 
to  those  of  the  Volga  deltii,  and  ' 
doubtless  formed  by  the  subsidence 
of  the  water  at  the  time  when  the 
Caspian  became  separated  from  the 
Euxine.  According  to  Baer  the 
alluvia  of  the  Terek  are  encroaching 
on  the  Caspian  even  more  rapidly 
than  those  of  the  Volga.  Several 
inlets  have  already  been  choked  up, 
and  fishing  stations  which  in  1825 
stood  on  the  coast  were,  thirty  years 
later  on,  nearly  10  miles  from  the 
sea.  The  whole  coast-line  between 
the  Kuma  and  Terek  has  advanced 
from  1,000  to  2,000  yards  since 
1841 ;  but  all  these  new  and  badly 
drained  tracts  are  still  very  unhealthy.  During  the  months  of  July  and  August 
the  labourers  and  gardeners  complain  of  swollen  heads,  and  the  marsh  fever 
subjects  them  to  hallucinations  of  all  sorts. 

The  stream  of  the  Terek  is  amply  sufficient  to  contribute  its  share  towards  the 
navigable  canal  with  which  Danilov  proposes  to  connect  the  Euxine  and  Caspian. 
But  pending  this  somewhat  remote  contingency,  its  waters  and  those  of  its  tribu- 


:;^;^£i-^ 


v«t 


iS 


oPG.  45*10 


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Old  Beds  of  the  Terek. 


,isMnM. 


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i 


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70 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


tarioA  aro  utilised  in  irrififutin}^  tho  horderiiiff  ntuppe  lands.  Tho  Rristo-  junnl, 
fed  by  tlut  Mulkit,  truvoraos  the  nortlioni  pluinn,  joining  the  Torek  utV  u  coune 
of  140  miloa.  Further  north  tho  KtirHkiy  Cunul,  also  Howing  fnun  !.e  Mulku, 
turnn  the  wheels  uf  nineteen  railis,  and  during  the  floods  forms  a  stroum  Wi  miles 
long.  A  third,  running  north  of  the  Sunja  junction,  irriguton  over  2/>0,()00  ucres. 
If  skilfully  utilisefl,  the  waters  of  this  river  system,  which  abound  in  fertilising 
matter,  might  extend  fur  north  and  north-cant  the  rich  Kuburdu  basin,  which 
promises  one  day  to  become  a  magnificent  agricultural  region. 

Inhabitants — Thk  Ka hards. 

Tho  Kabardx,  or  Kaburdins,  who  call  themselves  Kubertti:  occupy  nearly  all 
tho  northern  slope  of  the  Oentrul  Oaucasus  between  the  Klbruz  und  Kuzbek. 
They  are  ethnicriPy  closely  related  to  the  Cherkessos ;  like  thom,  a  fine  race,  fondur 
of  wars  and  stril.)  thun  of  peaceful  habits,  and  distiuguished  from  thom  only  by 
their  harsh  speech  full  uf  gutturals  and  sibilants.  Their  princes  claim  Arub 
descent,  though  the  difference  which  some  observers  have  detected  between  them 
and  their  subjects  is  probably  due  to  outward  circumstances  and  their  occasional 
alliiincos  with  foreign  families.  The  Eabards  seem  to  have  come  originally  from 
the  north-west,  probubly  even  from  the  Orimeo,  whence  they  have  been  gradually 
driven  towards  the  Terek,  first  by  the  Nogai  Tatars,  and  afterwards  by  the 
Russians.  They  have  retainfH^  something  of  their  former  nomad  life,  and  are  oven 
now  far  more  devoted  to  the  !  reeding  of  hors.s  and  sheep  than  to  agriculture.  The 
land  is  still  held  iit  common,  the  woods  and  pastures  remain  undivided,  und  no 
one  has  any  claim  except  to  the  plot  ullo('  by  himself.  Such  plots,  when  left 
uncultivated,  revert  immediately  to  the  f^f  r-nur  Perhaps  more  than  elsewhere 
in  Caucasia  daring  robbery  is  held  in  i  ;.>>«»  but  on  the  condition  of  its  being 
committed  awuy  from  the  village  and  '  -  ">,  and  provided  that  the  robber  escape 
detection.  In  the  latter  case  he  woi  '  le  exposed  to  the  taunts  and  jeers  of  the 
community.  Notwithstanding  'he  Russian  laws,  it  is  also  still  considered  highly 
honourable  for  the  young  man  t6  carry  off  his  bride.  Some  days  before  the 
nuptials  he  steals  into  the  chamber  where  she  await«  him,  and  whence  they  escape 
together.  On  returning  to  sue  for  pardon,  he  may  calculate  beforehand  on  the 
approval  of  all  who  still  respoct  the  old  usages. 

The  Eabards  properly  so  called  number  about  32,000.  At  one  time  they  were 
the  leading  nation  in  Ciscaucasia  ;  but  owing  to  their  exposed  geographical  posi- 
tion, they  were  the  first  to  lose  their  independence.  The  Russians  easily  pene- 
trated  through  the  Terek  valley  into  the  heart  of  their  domain.  Forts  erected 
at  intervals  along  the  river  divided  the  plains  into  two  distinct  regions — Great 
Eabarda  on  the  west,  and  Little  Eabarda  on  the  east.  Between  the  two  runs  the 
great  military  route  over  the  Caucasus,  and  here  the  Russians  consequently  strove, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  establish  their  power  on  a  solid  footing.  As  early  as  1763 
gome  of  the  Eabards,  outwardly  Christians,  withdrew  to  Russian  territory, 
settling  in  the  steppe  along  the  middle  course  of  the  Terek.     At  the  beginning 


mtj^mmm: 


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u  coune 
I  iVIaIku, 
96  intlua 
00  ucre«. 
artiliHing 
[J,  which 


learly  all 
Kuzbek. 
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I  only  by 
im  Arab 
3en  them 
Ksoasional 
ally  from 
gradually 
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ber  escape 
lers  of  the 
ed  highly 
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L  territory, 
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f  Vt 


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''AiUCKfiWaVUf^owft^WHVIffM 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


Photographic 

Sdfflices 

Corporation 


23  WBT  MAM  STMIT 

WnSTfR,N.Y.  14510 
(716)873-4503 


% 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


Canadian  Inatltuta  for  Historical  Rfllcroraproductlona  /  Inttitut  Canadian  da  microraproductiona  hiatoriquas 


THE  0SSE8  AND  NOOAI  TATARS. 


71 


of  the  present  century  upwards  of  40,000,  flying  from  Russian  rule,  sought  a 
refuge  amongst  the  Euban  Tatars,  who  welcomed  and  gave  them  lands,  which 
are  still  held  by  the  descendants  of  those  "White  Kabards  "  But  the  bulk  of 
the  nation  remained  in  the  Upper  Terek  basin,  and  their  young  men  were  fain 
to  accept  service  in  the  imperial  armies.  Amongst  them  were  first  recruited 
those  magnificent  "  Cherkesses,"  as  they  are  called,  who  figure  so  conspicuously 
on  all  state  occasions.  Returning  to  their  homes,  they  have  ceased  to  be  Kabards, 
and  take  pride  not  in  their  ancestral  freedom,  but  in  their  present  thraldom. 
The  ancient  usages  also  become  slowly  modified  by  constant  intercourse  with  the 
ruling  race,  while  their  national  unity  is  broken  by  the  intrusion  of  foreign 
elements.  Isolated  villages  are  already  occupied  by  Tatars,  Uruspievtzes, 
Balkars,  Nogais,  grouped  in  democratic  communities  administered  by  the  elders. 
The  country  is  also  traversed  by  Jewish  usurers  in  search  of  fresh  victims,  while 
groups  of  Germans  are  settled  here  and  there,  generally  on  the  more  fertile  lands. 
The  "  Scotch  "  colony  north  of  Patigorsk  has  even  been  already  completely  assi- 
milated to  these  Teutonic  settlers.  On  the  other  hand,  the  towns,  growing  daily 
in  size,  have  become  exclusively  Russian,  and  the  district  north  of  the  Malka 
has  been  entirely  Slavonised  by  the  Cossacks,  who  beg^n  to  make  their  appearance 
in  this  region  during  the  reign  of  Ivan  the  Terrible. 


The  Osses  and  Nooai  Tatars. 

The  Osses,  more  commonly  but  less  correctly  known  as  Ossotes,  are  ab 
numerous  in  the  Terek  basin  as  the  Kabards,  but  they  have  scarcely  yet  ven- 
tured on  the  plains,  confining  themselves  mainly  to  the  upland  valleys  between 
Mounts  Adai-kokh  and  Kazbek,  west  and  east.  Two-fifths,  however,  of  this 
nation  dwell  not -on  the  northern,  but  on  the  southern  slopes,  in  the  valleys 
draining  to  the  Rion  and  Kura,  and  even  on  a  portion  of  the  Trialetes  Hills, 
south  of  the  Kura  plains.  They  are  estimated  at  upwards  of  110,000  altogether, 
thus  forming  one  of  the  most  important  nations  in  Caucasia.  But  their  fame  is 
due  not  so  much  to  their  power  as  to  the  various  theories  that  have  been  broached 
touching  their  origin  and  affinities.  Some  have  regarded  them  as  Alans ;  others 
as  the  purest  representatives  of  the  Aryans  in  the  Caucasus,  akin  either  to  the 
Teutons  or  to  the  Iranians ;  while  Vivien  de  Saint-Martin  suggests  that  they  may 
belong  to  the  race  of  the  Ases,  like  those  who  migrated  to  Scandinavia.  Lastly, 
Pfaff  thinks  that  they  are  at  least  partly  of  Semite  stock.  But,  judging  from  the 
great  variety  of  types  and  features,  ranging  from  the  ideal  beautiful  to  the  down- 
right ugly,  they  would  seem  to  be  a  very  mixed  people,  including  Oeorgian, 
Armenian,  Kubard,  and  other  elements.  In  the  Digor  district,  on  the  north 
slope,  several  noble  families  are  undoubtedly  of  Tatar  origin,  whilst  others  in  the 
southern  valley  of  the  Livash-don  are  of  Georgian  stock.  Apart  from  numerous 
exceptions,  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  decidedly  inferior  in  physical  appearance 
to  the  other  races  of  the  Caucasus.  Their  features  are  generally  angular,  their 
forms  heavy,  and  they  utterly  lack  that  pleasant  expression,  that  noble  air  and 


I 


72 


ASIA.TIO  RUSSIA. 


graceful  carriage,  by  which  the  Cherkesses  and  Eabards  are  distinguished.  The 
fair  type  is  more  common  than  the  brown,  and  some  are  met  with  blue  eyes  like 
the  Scandinavians,  while  others  resemble  the  Jewish  dealers  in  their  black  or 
brown  eyes,  and  even  in  their  wheedling  voice. 

But  whatever  be  their  origin,  their  speech  belongs  unquestionably  to  the  Aryan 
familj'.  Their  national  name  is  Iron,  and  their  country  Ironiston,  words  sug- 
gesting the  Iran  of  Persia.  The  Digor  dialect  has  a  large  mixture  of  Tatar  and 
Cherkess  elements,  but  the  pure  speech  still  current  in  the  upland  valleys,  while 
ruder  than  that  of  the  lowlands,  abounds  in  Aryan  roots.  In  their  manners  and 
customs  the  Osses  seem  also  to  betray  their  relationship  with  the  Western  niitions. 
They  differ  from  the  other  Caucasians  in  their  use  of  the  bed,  table,  and  chair ; 
they  salute  in  the  European  fashion,  embracing  and  shaking  hands  as  in  the 
West ;  lastly,  they  brew  from  barley,  and  drink  their  beer  from  tankards  exactly 
like  those  of  the  North  German  peasantry.  In  the  upper  valleys,  where  wood 
is  scarce,  they  live  in  stone  towers  of  great  age ;  but  lower  down  they  build 
little  wooden  houses  like  the  Alpine  barns,  shingle-roofed  and  weighted  with  heavy 
stones. 

On  the  whole  the  Osses  do  not  reflect  much  credit  on  the  Aryan  race. 
Physically  inferior  to  their  highland  neighbours,  they  cannot  compare  with 
them  in  pride,  dignity,  or  courage,  although  Freshfield  calls  them  the  "  Gentle- 
men of  the  Caucasus."  Like  their  neighbours,  they  have  always  been  ready  to 
offer  themselves  to  the  highest  bidder,  taking  service  under  the  Byzantines, 
Greeks,  or  Persians,  and  returning  to  their  homes  to  spend  in  revelry  the  fruits 
of  their  plundering  expeditions.  They  had  been  so  debased  by  this  mercenary 
trade  that  they  became  confirmed  marauders,  worshipping  Sadbareg,  god  of 
brigandage,  who  rides  a  black  horse,  accompanying  and  guiding  the  freebooters 
on  their  predatory  incursions.  But  though  still  ready  for  murder  and  pillage 
when  no  danger  is  run,  they  took  care  not  to  defend  their  liberty  against  the 
Bussians  at  the  risk  of  their  lives.  Although  masters  of  the  central  valleys,  and 
consequently  of  the  most  important  strategical  points  in  the  Caucasus,  they  left 
the  Cberkesses  in  the  west  and  the  Lezghians  of  Daghestan  to  fight  and  perish 
separately.  Instead  of  occupying  the  foremost  rank  in  the  wars  against  the 
aggressor,  they  waited  till  victory  hod  decided  in  favour  of  the  Russians  to  make 
up  their  minds.  Poverty  had  made  them  the  prey  of  every  foreign  speculator, 
and  to  put  an  end  to  all  further  disputes  touching  the  ownership  of  the  land,  the 
Russian  Government  declared  all  the  lowlands  State  property,  and  removed 
thither  the  "unsafe"  hillmen.  Most  of  the  Osses  used  to  call  themselves 
Mohammedans,  but  now  they  pretend  to  be  Christians,  and  revere  St.  Nicholas 
no  less  devoutly  than  the  prophet  Elias.  Besides,  they  had  already  changed 
their'  religion  three  times  during  the  ten  last  centuries,  and  in  spite  of  their 
present  Christianity  they  practise  polygamy,  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the 
first  wife  treats  the  children  of  the  others  as  slaves.  Pagan  practices  even 
reappear  beneath  the  official  religion  and  the  remains  of  .the  Moslem  creed.  During 
Holy  Week  they  make  offerings  of  bread-and-butter  on  the  altars  of  the  sacred 


flWiTtlMiilM'ftrii-i 


[iguished.  The 
blue  eyes  like 
their  black  or 

ly  to  the  Aryan 
on,  words  sug- 
re  of  Tatar  and 
d  valleys,  while 
3ir  manners  and 
Western  nations, 
ible,  and  chair ; 
ands  as  in  the 
ankards  exactly 
ijs,  where  wood 
own  they  build 
hted  with  heavy 

le  Aryan  race, 
compare  with 
tn  the  "  Gentle- 
8  been  ready  to 
;he  By/antines, 
Bvelry  the  fruits 

this  mercenary 
(ibareg,  god  of 
■  the  freebooters 
der  and  pillage 
srty  against  the 
tral  valleys,  and 
iicasus,  they  left 
fight  and  perish 
'ars  agai^8t  the 
Russians  to  make, 
'eign  speculator, 
of  the  land,  the 
r,   and  removed 

call  themselves 
ere  St.  Nicholas 
ilready  changed 
Q  spite  of  their 
le  fact  that  the 
1  practices  even 
1  creed.  During 
irs  of  the  sacred 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


ft 


^•:^:;^^: 


c'fa 


s^i 

^k.^ 


^:5#-^ 


'       '--  7..- 


^i^V^ 


1-  ','''7', 


» 


groves,  in  the  grottoes,  in  tbe  former  Christian  shrines,  and  then  devour  tho  sheep 
victims  of  the  sacrifice.  Their  most  revered  monuments  are  the  aappads,  or  ancient 
gravets  octagonal  structures  from  12  to  16  feut  high,  terminating  in  a  pyramidal 
roof  pierced  with  holes.  In  some  Oss  and  Gherkess  villages  tho  sappads  are 
numerous  enough  to  form  veritable  cemeteries ;  but  since  the  middle  of  the 
century  no  new  ones  have  been  allowed  to  be  built,  because  of  the  gases  escaping 
from  them  and  poisoning  the  atmosphere. 

Of  the  non-Caucasian  peoples  the  most  numerous  in  the  Euma  and  Terek 
basins  are  the  Nogai  Tatars,  who  roam  mostly  over  the  eastern  steppes,  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  and  brackish  lakes  filled  by  the  winter  rains,  dried  up 
under  the  summer  suns  and  winds.  Akin  to  those  still  met  here  and  there  on 
the  banks  of  the  Euban,  and  partly  descended  from  the  old  masters  of  the 
Crimea,  the  Nogais  are  true  Asiatics.  Like  their  poor  neighbours  the  Stavropol 
and  Astrakhan  Ealmuks,  they  dwell  in  felt  tents,  and  when  removing  to  fresh 
pastures  they  place  their  children  in  the  panniers  carried  by  the  camels  on  whose 
hump  the  women  are  perched,  and  in  this  order  the  caravan  crosses  tbe  desert 
wastes.  Thus  are  the  familiar  scenes  of  Central  Asia  repeated  on  the  western 
shores  of  the  Caspian,  though  this  Asiatic  region  is  being  gradually  contracted, 
according  as  the  Mongoloid  populations  are  being  driven  back  by  the  Russians. 
During  the  last  fifty  years  the  Nogais  of  the  Caucasus  have  fallen  from  70,000  to 
half  that  number.  In  features,  stature,  and  carriage  most  of  them  have  become 
Mongolians,  assuming  by  mixture  the  flat  face,  broad  nose,  prominent  cheek 
bones,  small  and  oblique  eyes,  high  brow,  and  scant  beard  of  the  Ealmuks. 
They  are  of  a  gentle  and  kindly  disposition,  but  wedded  to  their  old  usages, 
haters  of  all  change,  and  resisting  Slav  influences  except  along  the  river  banks, 
where  tillage  and  the  fishcriea  bring  them  into  constant  contact  with  the  Russians, 
and  where  poverty  obliges  them  to  hire  themselves  out  to  the  Armenians  and 
Cossacks.  With  the  sad  temperament  of  all  Mongolians,  they  derive  their 
national  name,  with  a  sort  of  melancholy  irony,  from  a  word  meaning  "  Thou  shalt 
be  wretched." 

Some  thousands  of  Turkomans  also  live  in  t^e  neighbourhood  of  Eizlar. 
According  to  a  tradition,  based  apparently  on  a  faint  reminiscence  of  submarine 
geology,  these  Turkomans  crossed  over  on  dry  land  from  the  Erasnovodsk  headland 
to  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron. 


Topography. 

Patigorsk  (in  Russian  "  Five  Hills "),  the  largest  town  in  the  Euma  basin, 

lies  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  Mashuka,  an  advanced  spur  of  the  Besh-tau  group. 

This  five-crested  porphyry  cone  rising  in  the  middle  of  the  plain  was  at  all  times 

a  rallying-point  for  the  steppe  nomads.     Hence  Patigorsk  occupies  one  of  the 

spots  in  the  Caucasus  most  frequented  by  divers  tribes,  Eabards,  Nogais,  Cossacks, 

and  others,  and  it  has  now  become  a  rendezvous  for  the  Russians  of  all  the 

surrounding  provinces,  and  even  for  strangers  from  the  rest  of  Europe,     Patigorsk 

is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  thermal  stations  whose  abundant  sulphur  springs  are  held  in 
6 


%  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

■,■.,• 

tho  highest  repute,  aad  is  more  frequented  than  uU  the  rest  of  the  hundred  watering- 
phioes  in  Cuucusia,  with  their  seven  hundred  different  mineral  springs,  as  enume- 
rated by  Oliodzko.  Within  a  radius  of  24  miles  the  Putigorsk  medicinal  waters 
comprise  a  complete  scries  of  such  as  are  recommended  by  modern  therapeutics. 
The  twenty  springs  in  Putigorsk  itself,  with  a  temperoture  varying  from  85"  to 
110°  Fuhr.,  and  yielding  on  the  average  2  J  gallons  per  second,  are  typical  sulphur 
springs.  About  12  miles  to  the  north-east  the  station  of  Jekanovodak — that  is, 
"  Iron  Water  " — indicates  by  its  very  name  the  nature  of  its  twenty  springs,  which 


Fig.  36.— Patiooksk  and  thb  Region  of  Thermal  Watwm. 

From  Ibe  Mop  of  the  Riuaian  Staff.    Boal*  1  :  e00,000. 

44 

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19  Mflcl. 


differ  greatly  in  temperature  and  the  amount  of  their  carbonic  acid,  while  varying 
in  the  quantity  of  their  discharge,  which  is  a£Eeoted  by  the  earthquakes.  Near  the 
village  of  Yesentuki,  west  of  Patigorsk,  there  are  also  twenty  springs,  but  cold, 
alkaline,  and  containing  iodine  and  bromine.  In  the  hills  to  the  south-west  occurs 
the  magnificent  spring  known  to  the  Cherkesses  as  the  Narzan,  or  "  Drink  of 
Heroes,"  and  now  distinguished  by  the  less  poetic  but  more  accurate  name 
Kislovodsk,  or  "  Acidulated  Water."  This  spring,  whose  properties  are  unrivalled, 
yields  over  376,000  gallons  of  water,  and  liberates  190,000  cubic  feet  of  carbonic 
acid  daily.     The  approach  to  the  sacred  spring  was  formerly  defended  by  a  wall 


l.._ 


'  MllJl 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


7ft 


idred  wutering- 
ngs,  as  onume- 
edicinal  waters 
n.  therapeutics, 
ig  from  85°  to 
typical  sulphur 
wodak — that  is, 
r  springs,  which 


10 


y5- 


d,  while  varying 
uakes.  Near  the 
iprings,  but  cold, 
louth-west  occurs 
:n,  or  "  Drink  of 
)  accurate  name 
[es  are  unrivalled, 
feet  of  carbonic 
fended  by  a  wall 


several  miles  long,  flanked  by  grottoes  and  by  totnbs,  the  truces  of  which  are  still 
visible.  Other  sources  that  have  not  yet  been  utilised  contain  chlorine,  magnesia, 
murine  suit,  while  the  lakes  and  pools  left  in  the  steppes  after  the  subsidence  of 
the  sea  have  their  saline  muds  filled  with  microscopic  alga},  like  the  limuns  of  the 
Euxine. 

Ptttigorsk  covers  a  large  space  in  the  valley  of  the  Podkumok,  a  southeni 
affluent  of  the  Euma.  It  stands  at  a  mean  altitude  of  1,680  feet  above  the 
unhealthy  atmosphere  of  the  plains,  and  its  climate  is  further  improved  by  extensive 
promenades,  parks,  and  gardens.  Fine  hotels,  houses,  arcades,  and  elegant  shops 
well  stocked  with  Russian,  English,  French,  and  Oriental  wares,  give  it  the  aspect 
of  a  European  watering-place,  though  dating  only  from  the  year  1830.  At  the 
end  of  the  last  century  invalids  came  to  take  the  waters  "  under  the  fire  of  the 
Oherkesses."  The  Russian  lords  arrived  with  retinues  of  some  hundred  cavaliers 
and  retainers,  long  lines  of  equipages,  tents,  and  supplies,  during  the  treatment 
encamping  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  spring. 

OeorgyevHk,  north-east  of  Patigorsk  and  in  the  stime  river  basin,  was  the 
capital  of  Ciscaucasia  till  1824.  When  the  administration  was  removed  to 
Stavropol,  it  fell  to  the  rank  of  a  simple  village,  but  has  since  recovered  its 
importance  as  the  agricultural  centre  of  the  Euma  basin,  and  as  a  station  of  the 
Caucasian  railway.  Its  prosperity  has  also  been  promoted  by  some  German 
colonies  in  the  neighbourhood.  Farther  down,  on  the  Kuma  and  its  western 
affluents,  there  are  merely  a  few  Cossack  stanitzas,  some  of  which,  such  as 
Otknzndie,  Alexamlrovikaija,  Blagodarndie,  Praskoveya,  have  become  towns  and 
important  agricultural  centres.  East  of  Praskoveya  formerly  stood  the  famous 
city  of  Majar,  or  Majari,  on  both  banks  of  the  Euma.  The  coincidence  of  names 
has  induced  some  writers  to  suppose  that  Majar  was  a  capital  of  the  Hungarian 
Magyars.  But  the  word,  which  is  of  Tftrki  origin,  meaning  "paloce,"  "edifice," 
seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  one  of  the  four  chief  cities  of  the  Ehazar  Empire. 
The  Eipchak  Tatars  were  settled  here,  and  various  recently  discovered  documents 
show  that  it  was  still  a  flourishing  place  in  the  fourteenth  century,  much 
frequented  by  Russian  traders.  In  the  time  of  Pallas  there  were  still  standing 
thirty-two  buildings  in  good  repair;  now  the.;,  is  nothing  to  be  seen  but  the 
remains  of  towers  and  heaps  of  rubbish  covering  i  vast  space.  The  few  inscrip- 
tions that  occur  refer  all  of  them  to  the  Moslem  Tatars,  and  the  medals  that  have 
been  dug  up  had  all  been  struck  at  Sarai,  on  the  Volga.  Numerous  kurgans  are 
scattered  about,  and  the  Armenian  village  of  Svutoi-Erest  has  sprung  up  in  the 
midst  of  the  ruins. 

The  capital  of  Eabarda  end  the  chief  place  in  the  Terek  basin  is  Vladikavkaz, 
known  to  the  Osses  as  Eapka'i,  or  "  Gate  of  the  Hills."  It  lies,  in  fact,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Black  Mountains,  guarding  the  entrance  to  the  deep  gorges  through  which 
the  Terek  escapes.  Standing  about  2,300  feet  above  sea-level  at  a  point 
commanding  the  military  route  through  Central  Caucasia,  it  enjoyed  paramount 
strategical  importance  during  all  the  wars  of  the  Caucasus,  and  since  the  reduction 
of  the  hillmen  it  has  become  a  large  commercial  emporium.     Yet  the  military 


1i  .  .       ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

and  official  elomonts  uru  Htill  predotiiinunt,  and  in  1874  thu  male  wos  more  than 
double  1)10  fomiilo  population. 

Till  recently    tlie  inilittiry  route  from  Vladikuvkii/.    across   the   Caucasus  to 

Flg.36.-THKV.,A.,iKAVKAr..AKANi)uKoiT«Tifli8   wus  cxposed   to  destruction   from   the 

TiiHouoH  TiiK  'i'KiiKK  VAi.r.Rv.  HngFy  wutors  of  the  Terek,  while  avalanches 

From  the  Miip nf  ttip  UiiMlaaHtttff.   MciiIb  I  ;  840.000.  „n    _^„„,     .„  >     J„i_:»..„     ..„   ^a.        „„_    ;»      .*    xu 

^__^_1________^„__^,^^_^      01  snow  and   detritus   swept   over  it   at  tbe 

issues  of  tlie  mountain  torrents.  £von  now 
it  is  constantly  threatened  to  be  overwhelmed 
by  the  Devdoraki  glacier,  and  is  generally 
blocked  for  seventeen  days  in  the  year  for  a 
space  of  8  or  9  miles.  Hence  heavy  engineer- 
ing works  will  have  to  be  carried  out,  should 
the  project  be  persitttud  in  of  running  a  line 
of  railway  through  the  Terek  valley  and  under 
the  Caucasus  from  Vladikavkaz  to  Tiflis.  The 
prosperity  of  Yladikuvku/  and  other  towns  on 
both  slopes  of  the  main  range  largely  depends 
on  the  ultimate  choice  that  may  be  made  of  the 
several  alternative  lines  that  have  been  pro- 
posed. It  is  probiible,  however,  that,  before 
attacking  it  directly,  the  main  range  will  be 
skirted  at  its  eastern  extremity  by  a  line  con- 
necting the  towns  of  Petrovsk,  Derbent,  and 
Baku. 

Tekaterinograd,  on  the  Terek  below  Vladi- 
kavkaz, a  former  outpost  of  the  Oherkesses, 
still  occupies  a  vital  position  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Malka.  Here  Potomkin  founded  one 
of  the  chain  of  Russian  fortresses  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  seven  years  later  on  it  was 
chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  Muscovite  posses- 
sions in  this  region.  But  it  lost  this  position 
in  1790,  since  when  it  has  remained  a  simple 
Cossack  stanitza.  The  political  and  commer- 
cial centre  of  the  district  is  Mozdok,  or  "  Black 
Wood,"  founded  in  1769  by  a  chief  of  Little 
Eabarda  driven  by  the  fortunes  of  war  into 
exile.  From  the  first  it  was  a  haven  of  refuge 
for  fugitive  Eabards,  Osses,  Chechenzes,  Arme- 
__—  6  MUe».  nians,  and  Georgians  from  Transcaucasia.     Till 

lecently  the  Armenians  formed  by  far  the  most  numerous  element,  and  thanks  to 
them  Mozdok  had  become  the  chief  trading-place  in  Ciscaucasia.  •  The  Russian 
Government  had  even  favoured  it  by  diverting  towards  it  the  military  route 
between  Stavropol  and  Tiflis ;  but  since  the  completion  of  the  railway  it  has  lost 


I  ii "'  "ill  Bill  ^tU'immmtmmmmHtmimm 


Mn*;RS'Bp*«api 


TOl'OOttAWiy. 


rus  more  than 

D  CuuoasuB  to 
ion  from  the 
ilo  uvalaiiehea 
iver  it  at  the 
Evon  now 
B  overwhelmed 

is  generally 
the  year  fur  a 
eavy  engineer- 
iod  out,  should 
running  a  line 
lUey  and  under 
to  Tiflis.  The 
other  towns  on 
argely  depends 
be  made  of  the 
lave  been  pro- 
er,  that,  before 
L  range  will  be 
by  a  line  con- 

Derbent,  and 

ik  below  Vladi- 
ihe  Oherkesses, 
,r  the  confluence 
in  founded  one 
rtresses  in  the 
iter  on  it  was 
luscovite  posses- 
ost  this  position 
mained  a  simple 
il  and  commer- 
zdok,  or  "  Black 

chief  of  Little 
tes  of  war  into 
haven  of  refuge 
echenzes,  Arme- 
tscaucasia.  Till 
t,  and  thanks  to 
,.  •  The  Russian 

military  route 
ilway  it  has  loet 


iho  udviintageH  thereby  a(M]uirod.  Iloncoforth  its  proupcrity  must  dcpond 
exclusively  on  ilH  position  uh  thu  natural  rullyiii^-|H)iiit  of  tho  nurruiuuiiiig 
|)opulatiuns,  and  uh  tho  entrepot  of  thu  agricultural  Huttlumuntx  on  tlio  Middlo 
Torek. 

Qrozniy,  which  has  grown   up  round  the  fortroHH  of  (iroznuyu,  is  now  tho 

Fig.  37.— Tmb  TKHui.ofl-MTA  Orovp, 
Worn  iha  Map  of  the  RiuMUm  Htnff.    8o«le  1  :  'JflA,O0O. 


natural  capital  of  all  the  Sunja  valley,  probably  the  most  fertile  in  Ciscaucnsia. 
Its  mineral  waters,  known  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  are  mu<-h 
frequented,  but  the  neighbouring  naphtha  well»  have  no  great  commercial  value. 


'-■!iJ.g!!"-'- 


78 


AHIATTO  RUSSIA. 


Of  the  iminoroufl  towtiH  and  villugoa  aoiittorou  ovor  the  Groznty  plain  and 
aurroiiiidiii^  liilU  thu  muNt  iiii|>ortiiiit  uro  lfruii-3f'it'(fin,  und  furthur  ouiit  the 
Mtmlutn  tuwn  uf  Ak-nai,  in  ii  wull-wuturod  diHtriut  l«id  uut  in  gurduuH. 

h'iz/iir,  of  which  mention  occum  no  oiuly  u*"  ll'l  i>,  wa«  uImo  a  pluoe  of  rofugo 
for  fugitivoN,  oapeoiully  ArnioniunH,  who  graduully  monopolizod  tho  h)uul  triidu. 
It  Ih  huppily  nituatcd  ut  thu  houd  of  the  Toruk  dultu  for  truftic  und  horticulturu, 
I  ho  t'ivur  und  its  brunohuH  Mupplying  ull  tho  watur  needed  for  irrigating  purpoacH. 
In  lH(il  there  were  in  this  diatriut  over  1,250  flourishing  gardens,  supplying  the 
liuBsiun  markets  with  ull  sorts  of  spring  fruit*  and  vegetublea.  Kizlar  is  likewise 
noted  for  its  vineyards,  the  produce  of  which,  exported  from  the  neighbouring 
port  of  Briunsk,  or  Hriansko'ie,  is  used  by  tho  Russians  in  the  manufacture  uf 
"jwrt,"  "sherry,"  "madeira,"  and  other  famous  southern  wines.  About 
l,2oU,000  gallon*  are  yearly  sold  at  the  Nijni-Novgorod  fair. 


IV.— EASTERN  CAUCASIA. 

DAGHE8TAN. 

Ai.THni'nii  boasting  of  no  summits  rivalling  Mounts  Elbruz  and  Kazbek,  the 
general  relief  of  the  eastern  is  far  more  considerable  than  that  of  the  central 
sootion  of  the  Caucasus.  The  depressions  between  the  peak*  are  relatively  very 
high,  while  the  lateral  ridges  give  to  this  division  an  expansion  of  2°  of  latitude 
north  and  south.  Here  the  different  altitude*  and  dispositions  of  the  groups 
impart  fur  greater  variety  to  the  scene,  and  in  many  valley*  *nowy  or  wooded 
heights  rise  all  along  the  line  of  the  horizon.  The  rugged  and  tangled  masses 
long  afforded  a  shelter  to  the  native*  against  the  Russian*,  who  were  unable  to 
penetrate  into  the  upper  valleys  except  through  the  winding  bed*  of  the  mountain 
torrents  or  across  unknown  tracks,  where  they  were  exposed  to  the  ambuscades 
and  sudden  attack*  of  the  lurking  foe. 

Mount  Borbalo,  source  of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Terek,  Sulak,  Euma,  and 
Aliizan,  is  usually  regarded  as  the  western  limit  of  Daghestan.  Hero  the  Andi, 
or  principal  side  ridge,  branches  from  the  main  range,  forming  with  it  the 
triangular  *pace  of  the  Easi'em  Cauoa*u8.  This  region  presents  somewhat  the 
aspect  of  a  vast  plateau  scooped  into  valleys,  the  higher  of  which  nowhere  fall 
more  than  about  3,000  feet  belo  the  surrounding  crests.  Abi*h  regard*  the 
whole  of  Daghe*tan  a*  a  syst^ii  ■  f  sedimentary,  Jurassic,  cretaceous,  and  tertiary 
rock*  overlapping  each  other,  and  whose  fold*  have  been  rent  and  intersected  by 
crevassos.  The  culminating  point  of  this  system  is  the  Tebulos-mta,  rising  to  a 
height  of  14,990  feet  in  the  Andi  ridge.  Several  other  mfa,  or  "  peaks,"  in  the 
same  chain  exceed  13,000  feet,  whereas  those  of  the  central  range  vary  from 
9,750  to  about  11,370  feet.  Still  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  reached  by  several, 
such  as  the  Sari-dagh,  Vitziri,  Bazardiiiz,  Tkhfan-dagh,  Baba-dagh,  on  the  main 
range,  and  the  Alakhiln-dagh,  Shalbt^z-dagh,  Shah-dagh,  or  Eastern  Elbruz,  and 
Eizil'Euya,  in  the  northern  side  ridge*.     East  of  the  Baba-dagh  the  mountain* 


icriiilir  iirniiMMiiwartiiM 


iiittaiUimimmim'ilggf 


Ml  "HtllPI 


INIIAIUTANTH- THH  CIIKOHKN/KS. 


iy   pluin   and 
-thur   uuHt   the 

)luoe  of  rofugn 

10  louul  triidu. 

1  hortiuulturo, 

ttiiig  purpuBUH. 

Hupplying  thu 

xlur  ia  likewise 

neighbuuring 

nunufacture  uf 

wines.      About 


fall  rapidly  towards  the  Ciispian,  sinking  to  mere  hilU  in  the  Apxlioron  p4«ninsiilu. 
Nearly   itil    these    mountuins    uru    still    known    by    their    T(lrki   or    Uoorgiun 


d  Kazbek,  the 

of  the  central 

relatively  very 

2°  of  latitude 

of  the  groups 

owy  or  wooded 
tangled  masses 
were  unable  to 

)f  the  mountain 

the  ambuscades 


names. 


RiVKK   SVHTKMS. 


A  fow  of  the  torrents  rining  in  the  iuIvuikmhI  npurs  of  Daghostnn  flow  to  the 
Sunju,  the  chief  mmthcrn  iitHuont  of  the  T«ri<k  ;  but  numt  of  tlicNit  wat<>rH  ure 
colloctwl  by  flu'  Huluk,  fomu'd  by  the  four  torrtnitn  wliicli  iK'ur  tlu*  Tiitiir  inline 
of  Koi-MU.  Like  tlie  Torek  and  Ar-don,  the  Suluk  enicrgfH  through  iimgniHci'iit 
gorges  on  the  plaiiiN,  trending  thence  euHtward  to  the  (yaN])ian.  Like  them,  uIho, 
it  is  gradually  encroaching  on  the  sea,  and  during  the  H(hm1h  foniiH  a  teni]H)rary 
delta,  whose  waters  are  partly  mingled  with  those  of  the  Terek  in  the  vast  liuy  of 
Agrakhan,  which  is  rather  a  lugoon  than  a  marine  inlet.  In  the  ho|)e  of  deepening 
its  channel,  Peter  the  Great  diverted  to  it  a  (lennaneut  stream  from  the  Huluk,  but, 
like  so  many  similar  projects  undertaken  by  that  czar,  the  attempt  proved  aliortive ; 
the  dykes  were  swept  away  by  the  floods,  and  the  navigable  canal  choked  by  the 
mud.  More  successful  have  been  the  irrigation  rills  fonne<l  some  years  ago,  and 
bringing  under  cultivation  160,000  acres  about  the  Lower  Sulak. 

Of  the  streams  flowing  to  the  Caspian  south  of  the  Sulak,  the  Samur  alone 
asNumos  the  proportion  of  a  river.  On  emerging  from  the  mountains  it  ramitics 
into  several  branches,  which  are  continually  shifting  their  beds  in  the  midst  of  the 
Nonds  and  shingle.  The  Samur,  and  all  the  torrents  travert  ing  the  Kuba  district, 
may  be  said  to  form  a  common  delta,  intermingling  their  waters,  and  jointly 
encroaching  on  the  Caspian.  Like  the  fumi  and  flHuiare  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Apennines,  these  streams  are  constantly  changing  their  beds,  leaving  here  and 
there  old  channels,  false  rivers,  and  stagnant  pools  no  longer  traversed  by  running 
waters.  Hence  the  Lower  Samur  district,  whoso  hydrographic  system  is  not  yet 
fully  developed,  ia  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  in  the  Caucasus. 


lak,  Euroa,  and 
Here  the  Andi, 
ng  with  it  the 

somewhat  the, 
sh  nowhere  fall 
sli  regards  the 
iU8,  and  tertiary 
I  intersected  by 
mta,  rising  to  a 
"  peaks,"  in  the 
,ngc  vary  from 
ched  by  several, 
;h,  on  the  main 
irn  Elbruz,  and 

the  mountains 


Inhabitants — The  Chechenzes. 

In  1868,  at  the  close  of  the  wars  that  had  laid  waste  the  Caucasian  valleys,  the 
Russian  Government  took  a  census  of  the  highland  population,  which  was  found  to 
number  908,000.  In  1872  it  was  estimated  at  996,000,  of  whom  nearly  one-half, 
or  about  478,000,  were  in  Daghestan  alone.  The  Chechenzes  and  Lezghians  of  the 
northern  slope  lietween  Kabarda  and  the  Caspian  form  at  present  an  aggregate 


*  Chief  altitude!  of  the  Eititern  Caucasns :  — 
Main  Ring*. 


Borbalo 

Sari-dagh 

Vitztri  . 

Bazardiftz 

Tkhfandagh 

Baba-dagh    . 

AteHh-gah  (Apsheron) 


Feet. 
11.120 
12,180 
12,030 
14,930 
13,970 
12,100 
910 


TebuloS'inta 
Kachu  . 
Dikloe-mta    . 

Alakhiin-dBgh 
Shah-dagh 
Shalb&z-dagh 
Kusil-Kaya   . 


Andi  Ridge. 


Ettttern  Highland*. 


Feet. 
14,000 
14,220 
13,930 

12,930 
14,160 
14,100 
12,420 


80 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


of  at  least  670,000  souls.  This  population  is  made  up  of  several  races  differing 
in  origin,  religion,  manners,  and  speech,  though  it  is  now  ascertained  that  most 
of  the  idioms  here  current  are  merely  varieties  of  a  common  stock  language.  One 
of  them  is  restricted  to  the  single  village  of  Iniikh,  consisting  of  some  thirty  houses, 


Fig.  38. — Mouths  of  thi  Tirbk  and  Lower  Svlak. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Rnniui  Staff.    Scale  1 :  710,000. 


""f^^S"^ 


o;«oo* 


0to65teet.        66  Feet  and  npwaidi. 

.  18  HUe*. 

in  South-west  Daghestan,  and  none  of  them  possess  any  literature  except  the 
Avar,  which  boasts  of  a  few  documents  written  in  the  Arabic  character. 

Amongst  the  peoples  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus  the  Chechens,  or  Chechenzes, 
estimated  at  about  140,000,  are  divided  into  some  twenty  different  groups,  each 
with  a  distinct  lang^ge.     Known  to  the  Lezghians  by  the  name  of  Misjeghi,  and  to 


uAuJiw't* 


III  I  I  « iwiiiiiiii' fiiwi iMliili 


INHABITANTS -THE  CHE0HENZE8. 


81 


il  faces  di£Fermg 
lined  that  most 

llanguage.  One 
le  thirty  houses, 


ture  except  the 

icter. 

,  or  Chechenzes, 

int  groupS;  each 

Misjeghi,  and  to 


the  Georgians  as  Kists,  the  Chechenzes  occupy  the  whole  of  West  Daghestan,  east 
of  the  Osses  and  Eabards,  and  even  descend  from  the  advanced  spurs  down  to  the 
plains.  Their  territory  is  traversed  by  the  Simja,  which  divides  it  into  "  Little 
Chechniya,"  the  lowland  district,  and  "Great  Chechniya,"  the  highland  region. 
Both  the  lowlanders  and  the  hillmen  fought  desperately  against  the  Russians  in 
the  last  century  under  Da(id  Beg  and  Omar  Ehan,  in  the  present  under  Ehazi- 
Mollah  and  Shamyl.  Sunuite  Mohanmiedans  of  a  more  fanatical  type  than  the 
Cherkesses  and  Abkhazians  of  the  west,  they  fought  with  the  devotion  inspired  by 
religious  enthusiasm,  combined  with  a  love  of  freedom  and  a  warlike  spirit.     Yet 

Fig.  89. — Tbi  Kvha  Pmtbiot. 
FmintlMlCtpoftheBiinUnBte&    Bode  1 :  840,000. 


■-^ 


UMUag. 


they  were  fain  to  yield  at  last,  and  since  1859  Chechniya,  the  most  fertile  and 
salubrious  region  in  Caucasia,  has  been  completely  subdued.  In  1819  the  fortress 
of  Groznaya,  now  grown  into  the  city  of  Grosniy,  had  been  bmlt  by  the  invaders 
on  the  banks  of  the  Simja  between  the  two  Chechenz  territories,  and  its  "  threats," 
as  the  name  implies,  were  not  in  vain.  Like  the  Cherkesses,  most  of  the  highland 
Chechenzes  were  compelled  to  forsake  their  ancestral  homes,  and  those  who  refused 
to  settle  in  the  plains  migrated  to  Turkish  Armenia  in  convoys  of  one  hundred  to 
two  hundred  &anilies,  escorted  by  Russian  guards.  Here  fresh  misfortunes  awaited 
them.  After  sanguinary  struggles  with  their  new  neighbours  for  the  possession  of  the 


!<■>>>  tin  aj.  J  aH 


-'4^^ 


82 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


land,  they  were  several  times  removed,  and  the  (Savoyards  of  each  fresh  place  of 
exile  retained  numbers  of  the  emigrants. 
'  The  Chechenzes  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Cherkesses,  and,  like  them, 
are  haughty,  well  proportioned,  active,  fond  of  rich  garments,  which  they  wear 
with  an  easy  grace.  Most  of  them  have  an  aquiline  nose,  and  a  restless,  almost 
sinister  glance ;  yet  they  are  generous,  and  always  maintain  a  certain  dignity  of 
speech  and  carriage :  they  kill,  but  never  insult.  The  women  of  the  better  classes 
wear  an  elegant  robe  revealing  the  figure,  and  wide  silken  trousers  of  a  pink  colour. 
Yellow  sandals,  silver  bracelets,  and  a  piece  of  cloth  falling  over  their  shoulders 
and  partly  concealing  the  hair,  complete  their  attire.  The  Chechenz  dwellings  are 
nearly  all  veritable  hovels,  cold,  dank,  and  gloomy,  some  dug  out  of  the  ground, 
others  formed  of  interwoven  branches,  or  of  stones  rudely  thrown  together.  A 
group  of  such  dwellings  forms  one  of  those  a&b  often  seen  perched  on  some  steep 
bluff,  like  erratic  boulders  arrested  on  the  brink  of  the  precipice.  Before  the 
Russian  conquest  most  of  the  people  lived  in  republican  communes,  governing 
themselves  by  popular  gatherings  like  those  of  the  primitive  Swiss  Cantons. 
Other  communities  were  subject  to  hereditary  khans,  whose  power  dated  from  the 
time  of  the  Moslem  invasion.  But  all  alike  obeyed  the  adat,  or  unwritten  code  of 
the  common  law. 

Although  much  dreaded  by  the  lowlanders  as  brigands  and  marauders,  the 
Daghestan  hillmen,  and  especially  the  Chechenzes,  more,  perhaps,  than  any  other 
warlike  people,  revealed  the  most  brilliant  qualities  of  freemen,  at  least  during  the 
final  struggle  with  the  Russians.  "  We  are  all  equal,"  they  were  fond  of  repeat- 
ing, and  in  point  of  fact  there  wer°i  no  slaves  amongst  them  except  prisoners  of 
war  or  their  descendants.  But  these  often  married  the  daughters  of  their  masters, 
and  thus  became  members  of  the  family  and  the  equals  of  all.  The  Chechenzes 
carried  their  pride  to  a  pitch  of  fanaticism,  but  their  hospitality  was  boundless, 
although  associated  with  eccentrie  practices.  The  traveller  is  often  met  by  a  band 
of  horsemen  swooping  wildly  down  tram  the  camping  ground,  firing  salvoes  over 
his  head,  then  suddenly  stopping  within  ten  or  fifteen  paces,  and  saluting  him  with 
a  profound  "  Salam  aleikum ! "  In  such  a  sooiely  justice  was  necessarily  regulated 
by  the  law  of  life  for  life,  and,  notwithstanding  the  Russian  code,  this  law  is  still 
the  only  one  that  is  respected.  Murder,  pillage,  robbery  with  violence,  can  be 
expiat«d  only  by  death,  unless  the  offender  allow  his  hair  to  grow,'  a^d  the  injured 
party  consent  to  shave  it  with  his  own  hands,  and  make  him  take  the  oath  of 
brotherhood  on  the  Koran.  It  also  happens  that  the  law  of  vendetta  is  at  times 
suspended  by  some  great  feasts.  When  a  hillraan  discovers  that  his  horse  has 
disappeared,  he  sets  out  in  search  of  it,  fully  equipped,  wrapped  in  one  of  those 
white  woollen  shrouds  which  serve  as  winding-sheets,  and  provided  with  a  piece 
of  money  to  pay  the  priest  who  has  to  utter  the  prayers  for  the  dead.  The  robber 
mostly  gets  rid  of  his  booty  by- selling  it  in  some  remote  clan,  but  at  the  sight  of 
the  rightful  owner  armed  for  a  deadly  fight  the  purchaser  restores  the  animal, 
takes  over  the  shroud  and  money,  and  presents  himself  before  the  vendor.  Should 
he  happen  to  be  the  robber,  the  priest  is  called  in,  and  they  fight  it  out.    But  if 


THE  LEZGHIANS,  TATS,  AND  TATARS. 


88 


resh  place  of 

d,  like  them, 
!h  they  wear 
Btless,  aknost 
in  dignity  of 
better  classes 
i  pink  colour, 
teir  shoulders 
dwellings  are 
the  ground, 
together.  A 
)n  some  steep 
Before  the 
is,  governing 
riss  Cantons, 
ited  from  the 
ritten  code  of 

arauders,  the 
an  any  other 
st  during  the 
nd  of  repeat- 
t  prisoners  of 
their  masters, 
le  Chechenzes 
ras  boundless, 
let  by  a  band 
^  salvoes  over 
ang  him  with 
rily  regulated 
lis  law  is  still 
lenoe,  can  be 
i  the  injured 
I  the  oath  of 
ta  is  at  times 
bis  horse  has 
one  of  those 
with  a  piece 
The  robber 
t  the  sight  of 
« the  animal, 
dor.  Should 
i  out.    But  if 


the  vendor  has  himself  been  deceived,  he  sets  out  in  his  turn  with  the  dread 
emblems  of  mortal  strife,  and  thus  death  at  last  hounds  down  its  quarry,  unlq^s 
the  horse-stealer  happens  to  be  a  stranger  from  over  the  hills. 

Another  custom  peculiar  to  the  Iii<rush  tribe  illustrates  their  strong  belief  in  an 
after-life.  When  one  of  the  betrothed  dies  on  the  wedding-eve,  the  ceremony  is 
performed  all  the  same,  and  the  dead  is  joined  with  the  living  in  a  union  to 
be  ratified  in  heaven,  the  father  never  failing  to  pay  the  stipulated  dowry. 
Christianity  still  retains  a  certain  hold  on  the  Chechenzes,  although  all  have 
adopted  the  Sunnite  creed  except  those  of  Braguni,  on  the  Sunja.  Three  churches 
built  on  a  hill  near  Kistin  in  honour  of  SS.  George,  Marina,  and  the  Virgin  are 
still  much-frequented  places  of  pilgrimage,  where  rams  are  offered  in  sacrifice  at 
certain  times.     These  buildings  are  choked  with  animal  remains. 

The  Lezohians,  Tats,  and  Tatars. 

Most  of  the  peoples  occupying  the  valleys  east  of  the  Chechenzes  are  grouped 
under  the  collective  name  of  Lezghi,  or  Lezghians.  The  term  has  been  explained 
to  mean  "  Brigands,"  or  "  Marauders,"  in  Tatar,  although  it  seems  more  probable 
to  be,  an  old  national  name,  for  the  Georgians  and  Armenians  have  from  time 
immemorial  applied  the  form  Lekhi,  or  Lekaik,  to  this  nation.  The  number  of 
Lezghian  tribes,  constantly  changing  with  wars  and  migrations,  is  estimated  at  from 
fifty  to  fifty-five,  although  £omarov,  keeping  to  the  main  divisions,  indicates  the 
domain  of  twenty-seven  tribes  only  in  his  ethnological  map  of  Daghestan.  All 
these  have  distinct  dialects  marked  by  guttural  sounds  extremely  difficult  of 
utterance  by  the  European  mouth.  They  have  been  g^uped  by  XJslar  and 
Schiefner  in  a  number  of  linguistic  divisions,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  language 
of  the  Avars  in  West  Daghestan,  and  the  Dargo  and  Kura  in  the  east.  Most  of 
the  tribes  being  thus  imable  to  cbnverse  together,  intercourse  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  a  third  language — ^Arabic  usually -in  the  west,  and  the  Tfirki  dialect  of 
Azerbeijon  in  the  east.  Of  all  the  Lezghian  nations  the  most  renowned  are  the 
Avars,  bordering  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Chechenz  domain,  and  comprising 
over  one-fifth  of  the  whole  population.  Most  writers  think  they  may  probably  be 
the  kinsmen  of  the  Avars  who- founded  on  the  Danube  a  large  empire,  overthrown 
by  Charlemagne.  But  according  to  Komarov  Avar  is  of  recent  origin,  meaning  in 
the  Lowhmd  Tftrki  "  Fugitive,"  or  "  Vagrant."    . 

Daghestan  has  too  little  arable  land  to  enable  its  half-million  of  Lezghian 
population  to  live  on  agriculture  and  stock-breeding.  Tet  they  are  skilled  tillers 
of  the  land,  their  walled  and  well-watered  plots  supplying  good  com,  fruits,  and 
vegetables.  Still  they  had  to  depend  on  emigration  and  plunder  to  make  good 
the  deficiency  of  the  local  supplies.  Settled  on  both  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  they 
were  able  to  swoop  down  on  the  Terek  and  Sulak  plains  in  the  north,  or  on  the 
fertile  southern  region  of  Georgia.  No  less  daring,  and  even  more  steadfast  than 
the  Chechenzes,  they  had  the  disadvantage  of  being  broken  up  into  a  great  number 
of  free  tribes  often  at  feud  with  each  other,  while  the  flower  of  their  youth  were 


84 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Fig.  40— NooAi  Youth. 


accustomed,  like  the  Swiss  and  Albanians  in  former  times,  to  hire  themselves  out 
as  mercenaries  to  all  the  surrounding  kinglets.  In  their  warfare  they  displayed 
more  savagery  than  the  Cherkesses,  and,  milike  them,  carried  off  as  a  trophy  the 
right  hand  of  their  captives  when  forced  to  abandon  them. 

The  Lezghians  never  fought  in  concert  till  during  the  final  struggles  against 
the  Bussians  in  defence  of  their  hearths  and  altars.  All  are  Mohammedans  except 
the  Dido  of  the  Upper  Koisu  valley  in  Andi,  who  have  the  reputation  of  being 
devil  worshippers,  because  they  endeavour  to  conjure  the  evil  one  by  sacrifices. 
Although  much  given  to  wine-drinking,  tobacco  smokers,  and  observers  of  tradi- 
tional Christian  and  pagan  rites,  the  Lezghians  are  none  the  less  zealous  Sunnites, 

and  it  was  owing  to  their  ardent  faith 
alone  that  they  were  able  for  many  years 
to  forget  their  tribal  and  family  rivalries, 
and  make  common  cause  in  the  ghamvat, 
or  holy  war  against  the  infidel.  Rally- 
ing with  the  Gheohenzes  round  their 
fellow-countryman  Khazi-Mollah,  and 
afterwards  round  his  ward  Shamyl 
(Samuel),  of  the  Koisu-bu  tribe, ,  they 
drove  the  Russians  more  than  once  back 
to  the  plains,  often  compelling  them  to 
abandon  their  more  advanced  military 
settlements  and  isolated  garrisons  in  the 
hills.  Their  strength  lay  mainly  in  the 
spirit  of  freedom  by  which  they  were 
inspired,  and  which  was  kept  alive  by 
the  deeds  of  their  legendary  hero  Haji- 
Murad,  renowned  in  the  wars  waged 
against  the  khans  of  the  Avars.  But 
when  the  aristocracy  of  the  naiba,  or 
governors,  was  gradually  restored,  the 
people,  becoming  enslaved  to  their 
chiefs,  ceased  to  struggle  with  the  same 
vigour  against  the  Russians.  Surrounded  on  three  sides  by  an  ever-narrowing 
iron  circle  of  forts  and  military  columns,  and  seeing  their  territory  out  up  by  great 
military  routes,  they  were  fain  to  yield  after  half  their  numbers  had  perished  from 
disease,  hunger,  and  the  sword.  When  Shamyl  surrendered  in  1869  his  followers 
had  dwindled  to  about  four  hundred  armed  men. 

I 

.  After  the  conquest  the  old  family  jealousies  revived,  and  the  Lezghian  districts 
are  now  the  chief  scene  of  sanguinary  strife  and  murder.  About  one  in  every  three 
hundred  of  the  population  is  either  killed  or  wounded  during  the  year,  and  the 
circle  of  Ea'itago-Tabasseran,  west  of  Derbent,  has  the  melancholy  distinction  of 
harbouring  more  assassins  than  any  other  district  in  the  empire.  Yet  in  their 
neighbourhood  dwell  the  peacefid   Ukhbukahes,  or  Kubichi,  who  are    chiefly 


'  ■MWWWUKWUWJIiliMWIWUW  H>-li<Wi'Hli!j)WWWVTim'''tWuWMWil  '■IfflitCMI 


THE  LEZGHIANS,  TATS,  AND  TATAHS. 


80 


tmselves  out 

»y  displayed 

trophy  the 

gles  against 
)dans  except 
on  of  being 
ty  sacrifices, 
srs  of  tradi- 
us  Sunnites, 
ardent  faith 
many  years 
lily  rivalries, 
he  ghazavat, 
del.     Rally- 
round  their 
ifollah,    and 
ird    Shamyl 
tribe, .  they 
in  once  back 
iing  them  to 
ced  military 
rrisona  in  the 
nainly  in  the 
h  they  were 
:ept  alive  by 
y  hero  Haji- 
wars  waged 
4.var8.     But 
ihe  ndib%,  or 
restored,  the 
d    to    their 
ith  the  same 
sr-narrowing 
;  up  by  great 
erished  from 
his  followers 

iiian  districts 
n  every  three 
ear,  and  the 
listinction  of 
fet  in  their 
are    chiefly 


engaged  in  forging  arms  for  the  surrounding  hillmen.  Indispensable  to  all,  their 
ueutrality  is  alike  respected  by  all.  This  industrious  tribe  claims  European 
descent,  but  their  national  name  of  Frenghi,  orFrenki — that  is,  Franks — is  justified 
neither  by  their  features  nor  their  speech,  which  is  a  Dargo  dialect.  In  any  case 
they  are  a  very  small  community,  consisting  in  1867  of  scarcely  2,000,  dwelling  in 
400  houses.  Some  of  the  magal,  '  r  tribal  confederacies,  acquired  a  considerable 
degree  of  prosperity,  thanks  to  their  common  solidarity  and  individual  freedom. 


Fig.  41.— Mount  aOmB. 

1        -'...  ■  n 

-        ^ 

J^'-   ^-^^:^ffite^*==r:-;i 

'^r                     ."     ^       '  :^^,     -V      '^"      "-.":           '          Jls 

"  """    -■""."""::""'                        ...     ■  -v^^:z^--".-      ■' 

^^^-^=.^g^ 

ws^mm^^^,^^,_~__-. 

E=^ — ^===^=r— _-=^5^^^— 

mgai^.=g;^--^ 

-^        -^^^^^- 

1. 

"'„ 

■■■  ■■.-  y%\ . 

-'-^- 

^^l—^- 

'',  III. 

I 

^fe 

'^  ■%■ 

^^''' 

,    M^- 

M^  A 

vfi^ 

- 

■' 

n-T—, - 

'"*         -irrrT' 

V 

■  1  iffnHHI^HHI 

Such  was  that  of  the  five  Dargo  clans,  whose  popular  gattherings,  which  resembled 
the  Swiss  /atuhgemehiden,  were  held  in  a  plain  near  Akhusha.  This  magal  received 
refugees  from  all  nations,  and  their  territory  was  the  most  densely  peopled  in  all 
Daghestan. 

The  Caspian  seaboard,  forming  the  historical  highway  of  migration  and  conquest 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  was  naturally  occupied  by  a  motley  population,  in  which 
were  represented  all  the  races  who  had  made  use  of  this  mifitary  and  commercial  route. 


86 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Hence  Mongolians,  Semites,  Aryans,  and  Tatars  are  now  found  crowded  together 
in  this  narrow  strip  of  coast.  The  Nogai  Tatars  have  fixed  their  tents  in  the 
northern  steppe  bordered  by  the  Sulak.  The  tract  stretching  thence  to  Derbent 
is  occupied  chiefly  by  the  Eumik  Tatars,  numbering  over  50,000,  and  many 
Armenian  traders.  Other  Tatars,  akin  to  those  of  Transcaucasia,  dwell  farther 
south  in  the  Euba  district.  The  lingua  franca  of  all  these  races  is  the  T6rki 
dialect  of  Azerbeijan,  although  the  Persians,  Tats,  or  Tajiks,  about  Derbent 
and  between  Euba  and  the  Gulf  of  Baku,  still  preserve  their  language  and  usages 
since  the  time  of  the  Sassanides,  when  they  settled  here.  With  them  evidently 
came  the  Jews,  who  also  speak  Persian,  while  their  women  wear  the  Iranian  garb. 
But  their  Persian  dialect  is  mixed  with  many  old  Hebrew  and  Chaldean  terms, 
and  according  to  some  authorities  those  of  Euba,  Baku,  and  Shemakha  are  descended 
from  the  Israelites,  who  were  removed  to  Persia  after  the  first  destruction  of  the 
Temple  by  Salmanazar  over  two  thousand  five  hundred  years  ago.  The  names  of  their' 
children  are  those  in  vogue  during  the  time  of  the  judges,  and  which  have  elsewhere 
been  obsolete  for  the  last  twenty-five  centuries.  Most  of  the  Caucasian  Jews,  however, 
have  become  much  mingled  with,  and  even  absorbed  by,  the  Osses,  Georgians,  and 
especially  the  Tatars,  and  many  villages  known  by  the  name  of  J(it-kend,  or 
"  Jewish  Town,"  are  now  excliisively  occupied  by  communities  claiming  to  be  of 
Tatar  stock. 

Topography. 

In  the  highland  districts  there  are  no  towns,  though  the  Leaghian  a'Als  have 
often  been  crowded  by  thousands  attracted  by  local  festivities,  or  rallying  round 
their  warrior  chiefs.  Khunzak,  formerly  capital  of  the  Avar  Ehans,  is  now  a 
mere  ruin,  on  a  bluff  commanding  a  tributary  of  the  Eoisu,  and  itself  conmianded 
by  the  guns  of  a  Russian  fort.  Ohimri,  above  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers 
Eoisu,  retains  nothing  but  a  reminiscence  of  the  national  wars,  for  here  died 
Ehazi-MoUah,  and  here  Shamyl  was  bom.  Vedeno,  on  a  lofty  terrace  within 
the  Chechniya  territory,  is  an  important  village  overlooked  by  a  Buasian  fort, 
which  stands  on  the  site  of  l^hamyl's  former  citadel.  Near  it  is  Mount  GAnib, 
whose  upper  terrace,  40  square  miles  in  extent,  served  as  the  last  refuge  of  the 
Lezghian  prophet  and  prince. 

Tetnir-Khan-Shura,  in  the  Eimitk  Tatar  country,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
1,540  feet  in  a  valley  opening  towards  the  Caspian.  The  lake,  or  tarn,  whence  its 
name,  is  now  drained,  although  fever  is  here  still  endemic.  The  port  of  all  this 
district  is  Petrovsk,  during  the  wars  a  place  of  some  strategic  importance,  and  with 
one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  Caspian,  sheltered  from  the  west  and  south  winds, 
and  affording  good  anchorage  in  30  feet  of  water  withiu  800  yards  of  the  shore. 
Though  of  recent  origin,  Petrovsk  has  already  supplanted  its  southern  rival,  Tarki, 
or  Tarku,  which,  with  a  Tatar  population  of  nearly  12,000  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  is  now  a  mere  village  dependent  on  Temir-Ehan-Shura. 

The  narrow  defile  between  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Tabasseran  range  and 
the  coast  is  guarded  by  the  city  of  Derbent,  or  Berbend,  traditionally  founded 


»i>*tiii<i. 


SBbAl'W'^W 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


87 


'ded  together 

tents  in  the 

le  to  Derbent 

0,  and  many 

dwell  farther 

is  the  Tdrki 

M>ut  Berbent 

ge  and  usages 

lem  evidently 

Iranian  garb. 

aldean  terms, 

are  descended 

ruction  of  the 

names  of  their' 

lave  elsewhere 

ews,  however, 

Georgians,  and 

J(it-kend,  or 

ning  to  he  of 


lian  aiHa  have 
rallying  round 
ana,  is  now  a 
If  commanded 
he  two  rivers 
for  here  died 
terrace  within 
Russian  fort, 
Mount  GAnib, 
refuge  of  the 

I  elevation  of 
m,  whence  its 
>rt  of  all  this 
tnce,  and  with 
1  south  winds, 
I  of  the  shore. 
1  rival,  Tarki, 
[inning  of  the 

Ein  range  and 
lally  founded 


either  by  the  Medes  or  by  Alexander  the  Great,  but  more  probably  by  one  of  the 
Sassanidea  about  the  close  of  the  fifth  century.  This  unique  town  and  fortress  is 
enclosed  between  two  long  parallel  walls  running  from  the  hills  to  the  sea,  flanked 
by  towers  and  inscribed  sepulchral  stones.  Within  this  inclined  parallelogram 
the  houses  and  bazaar  form  in  reality  but  one  lino  of  buildings  somewhat  under 
2  miles  long.  As  implied  by  its  Persian  name,  Derbent  is  merely  a  large  forti- 
fied gateway,  whence  also  its  various  Tatar  and  Arabic  names.  All  the  mediaeval 
travellers  describe  its  walls  as  advancing  far  into  the  sea ;  but  nothing  is-  now 
visible  of  this  marine  rampart,  which  may  be  due  to  a  local  upheaval.     Between 

Fig.  42 — DcHBiNT. 

Scale  1  :  (00,000. 


Thmm  of  Old  Wall,  ■oonrding  to  EiohwtU. 

ihe  town  and  the  present  coast-line  there  stretches  a  broad  strip  of  land  which 
was  formerly  perhaps  under  water.  West  of  Narin-Kaleh,  the  citadel  com- 
manding it  on  the  west,  the  wall,  here  also  flanked  with  towers,  follows  the  crest 
of  the  hills  in  the  direction  of  some  distant  peak.  According  to  the  natives  this 
wall  formerly  crossed  the  wholt  range  from  sea  to  sea,  and  in  any  case  it  guarded 
all  the  lowlands  at  the  foot  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus,  for  traces  of  it  are  still  met 
at  A  distance  of  18  miles  from  Derbent.  There  are  few  more  industrious  places 
in  Russia  than  this  Persian  town,  although  its  population  is  said  to  have  fallen 
from  26,000  in  1826  to  little  over  half  that  number  in  1873.  In  the  district  are 
1,500  well- watered  garden  plots,  yielding  wine,  saffron,  cotton,  tobacco,  madder, 


WiiiM-t 


■'iW&iM&'«-'*^^'iii^^ 


88  ASIATIC  BUS8U. 

and  fruits  of  all  kinds.  Borne  naphtha  wolls  and  quarriea  of  bituminous  schists  are 
worked  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Less  picturesquely  situated  than  Derbent,  Kuba  resembles  it  in  its  population 
and  pursuits,  its  inhabitants  consisting  chiefly  of  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiuh  sect 
engaged  in  gardening,  and  of  some  thousand  Jews  occupied  with  trade.  The 
climate  is  so  unhealthy  that  an  attempt  was  made  in  1825  to  remove  the  town  to 
a  more  salubrious  site  some  10  miles  farther  north-west.  But  the  people  refused 
to  fdlow  the  Russian  officials,  who  were  fain  to  return  to  the  old  town,  where, 
however,  they  reside  only  in  winter. 

In  the  Samur  valley  the  chief  town  is  Akhti,  standing  at  the  junction  of  two 
torrents  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains. 


v.— THE  INGUR,  RION,  AND  CHORUKH  BASINS. 

MINUKELTA,  TMERITIA,  SVANIA,  LAZISTAK. 

This  Transcaucasian  region,  recently  enlarged  by  a  slice  of  territory  from  Turkey, 
has  long  been  politically  attached  to  Europe.  The  Greeks  had  thrown  a  himdred  and 
twenty  bridges  over  the  Phasis,  and  constructed  a  fine  carriage  road  across  the  moun- 
tains between  the  town  of  Sarapanes,  the  present  Sharopon,  and  the  Kura  valley. 
To  the  Greeks  and  Romans  succeeded  the  Genoese,  and  even  when  the  Turks  seized 
the  seaboard  they  did  so  as  masters  of  Constantinople  and  heirs  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  European  influence  has  also  made  itself  felt  in  religious  matters,  most 
of  the  inhabitants  having  been  Christians  since  the  first  centuries  of  the  Church, 
whereas  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Moslem  faith  have  prevailed  elsewhere 
in  Caucasia.  Nevertheless  the  Ing&r  and  Rion  basins  have  long  kept  aloof 
from  the  general  movement  of  modem  culture,  and  some  districts  are  still  in  a 
barbarous  state. 

This  region,  the  Colchis  of  the  ancients,  is  equalled  by  few  places  for  the 
splendour  of  its  vegetation,  its  natural  fertility  and  resources  of  every  sort.  Tet 
it  is  but  scantily  peopled,  with  scarcely  one-half  of  tlie  relative  population  of 
France.  The  IngAr  and  Rion  basins  are  both  of  them  sharply  limited  by  the 
Caucasus,  Anti-Caucasus,  and  intermediate  Mesk  range.  From  Abkhasia  to 
Lazistan  the  hills  form  a  complete  semicircle,  whose  lowest  point,  except  near 
the  coast,  is  at  the  Surom  depression,  3,040  feet  above  sea-level.  This  vast 
semicircle  is  divided  by  ridges  rtmning  parallel  with  the  Great  Caucasus  into 
secondary  segments,  some  of  which  are  completely  isolated,  and  form  little  worlds 
apart. 

The  Upper  Ingiir  valley,  which  has  b6come  administratively  the  district  of 
Free  Svania,  forms  one  of  these  distinct  regio^s,  and  is  typical  of  those  elongated 
troughs  lying  between  two  parallel  crests  at  an  altitude  of  about  6,300  feet,  and 
skirted  north  and  south  by  snowy  ridges.  Here  the  glaciers  of  the  Truiber  have 
carried  their  advanced  moraines  to  within  2  miles  of  the  Svan  village  of  Jabeshi, 
in  the  commune  of  Mujal,  and  the  village  itself,  like  so  many  others,  is  built  on 


iWiilrW 


«<BW«'.|«fi^tfi.MWMWMW?agg'*''P' 


MINOBELIA,  IMEBITIA,  SVANLA,  LAZISTAN. 


88 


)U8  schists  are 

its  population 
he  Shiuh  sect 
trade.  The 
the  town  to 
Mjople  refused 
town,  where, 

notion  of  two 


[8. 

from  Turkey, 
a  hundred  and 
ross  the  moun- 
e  Eura  valley. 
le  Turks  seized 
the  Byzantine 
I  matters,  most 
of  the  Church, 
tiled  elsewhere 
>ng  kept  aloof 
I  are  still  in  a 

places  for  the 
^ery  sort.  Yet 
population  of 
limited  by  the 
I  Abkhasia  to 
it,  except  near 
jI.  This  vast 
Caucasus  into 
m  little  worlds 

the  district  of 
hose  elongated 
6,300  feet,  and 
B  Truiber  haye 
ige  of  Jabeshi, 
iTB,  is  buUt  on 


the  detritus  of  moraines  deposited  by  the  old  glaciers.  The  glacial  torrents 
forming  the  Ingfir  arc  collected  in  the  depression  of  Free  Svania,  which  is 
enclosed  by  a  transverse  barrier  running  south  of  Mount  Elbruz.  Ilonce  the 
Inf^dr  escapes  from  its  upper  valley  through  a  narrow  and  deep  rocky  defile,  in 
which  it  flows  south-west  and  south  for  a  distance  of  48  miles.  From  15  to  30 
feet  broad,  and  commanded  by  granitic  or  schist  escarpments  600  to  1,200  feet 
high,  this  gorge  presents,  nevertheless,  a  succession  of  smiling  landscapes,  thanks 
to  the  bushy  vegetation  of  the  river  banks  and  to  the  little  mounds  of  rooky  debris 
at  the  mouths  of  the  tributary  streamlets.    Previous  to  the  military  expedition  of 

Fig.  43.— Mouth  op  tmi  Bion. 
Boal*  1 :  ¥»,«». 


4I<40- 


48'         L.otC 


1858  no  route  had  penetrated  through  this  gorge,  and  Svania  communicated  with 
the  Mingrelian  plains  only  by  a  dangerous  mountain  path. 

The  gorges  of  the  Rion  and  its  head-streams  lack  the  sublimity  .of  those  of  the 
IngAr,  although  all  of  them  present  some  delightful  views.  The  Rion  and 
Tskhenis,  the  two  chief  rivers  of  this  basin,  both  rise  amidst  (he  snows  of  the 
Pasis-mta,  a  word  almost  identical  with  that  of  Phasis,  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
river  now  known  by  the  Qeorgian  name  of  Rion,  or  Rioni.  Separated  at  their 
source  by  the  Garibolo  ridge,  the  two  streams  diverge  more  and  more,  ihe 
Tskhenis  watering  the  Svania  of  the  Dadians  and  Mingrelia,  while  the  Rion  flows 
through  Radsha  and  Imeritia.  From  the  eastern  valleys  comes  the  Evirila,  which, 
T 


!W4tH  ■V.^Bg 


timmimS^MiSim^^'i''^l^Sin'^^'i^^''^^^^^^^^^!^^^'SiS^s:S, 


KMMM 


90 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


after  joining  thn  Khani  from  tho  south,  united  with  tho  Rion  in  tho  fertile  plain 
stretching  south  of  KutuiH.  Hero  l)uginH  the  old  inlet,  which  has  been  gradually 
filled  in  by  tho  alluvia  of  these  mountain  torrents.  Where  tho  liion  becomes 
navigable  it  is  skirted  by  broad  swampy  tracts,  mostly  concealed  by  their  dense 
aquatic  vegetation,  and  in  places  even  by  thickets  and  forests.  But  few  oxiNinsos 
of  still  water  remain  to  recall  the  time  when  all  this  district  was  covered  by 
the  sea. 

Nevertheless,  near  tho  coast  there  remains  a  remnant  of  the  old  inlet,  still 
known  by  tho  Greek  name  of  PaloxMtom,  or  "  Old  Mouth,"  and  which  is  supposed 
to  have  formerly  received  the  waters  of  the  Phosis.  In  the  last  century  it  seems 
to  have  communicated  by  a  navigable  channel  with  the  sea,  and  its  fauna  is  still 
partly  marine,  although  the  water  is  no  longer  even  brackish.  It  is  in  some  places 
over  60  feet  deep,  and  is  separated  from  the  Euxine  by  a  straight  strip  of  dunes, 
which  the  Rion  has  pierced,  its  alluvia,  like  those  of  the  Ing(ir  and  other  Mingrelian 
coast  streams,  gradually  encroaching  beyond  it  seawards.  According  to  Strabo 
the  Rion  and  its  tributary,  the  Evirila,  were  navigable  to  Sarapanes,  90  miles 
from  the  present  mouth,  whereas  boats  now  stop  at  Orpiri,  which  is  about  one- 
third  of  that  distance,  and  during  low  water,  from  July  to  December,  there  are 
scarcely  more  than  20  inches  in  the  channel. 

The  mountains  forming  the  watershed  between  the  Rion  and  Eura  basins, 
towards  the  east  and  south-east,  are  continued  uninterruptedly  by  the  Suram  Hills 
westwards  to  the  Lazistan  coast  range.  These  mountains,  imposing  even  in  the  pre- 
sence of  the  Great  Caucasus,  rise  above  the  forest  zone  to  the  region  of  pastures, 
some  reaching  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet,  but  all  falling  short  of  the  snow-line. 
Westwards  the  Ajara,  or  Akhaltzikh  range,  which  is  the  last  section  of  the  chain, 
skirts  the  Euxine  at  a  distance  of  little  over  half  a  mile  from  the  coast.*  Seen 
from  the  sunmiits  of  these  Lazistan  highlands,  which  were  annexed  to  Russia  in 
1878,  the  land  presents  the  aspect  of  a  storm-tossed  sea.  Here  the  highest  point 
is  the  Earch-shall,  south-east  of  Batftm,  which  is  11,430  feet  above  sea-level,  while 
the  mean  elevation  scarcely  exceeds  8,000  feet,  or  about  2,000  feet  above  the 
forest  zone.  Mount  Arsiani  has  all  the  appearance  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and 
lava  streams  have  been  discharged  in  prehistoric  times  from  several  neighbour- 
ing summits.  Their  upper  slopes  are  clothed  with  rich  pastures,  whose  flora  ia 
much  the  same  as  that  of  West  Europe,  while  the  fruit  trees  of  the  valleys  rival 
those  of  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus.  Lazistan  is  an  earthly  paradise, 
where  the  natives  have  generally  shown  a  keen  sense  of  natural  beauty  in  the 
choice  of  ihe  sites  for  their  villageis.  Each  of  these  villages  commands  a  lovely 
prospect  of  flowery  meads,  steep  rocks,  mountain  torrents,  cascades,  clumps  of  trees, 
and  scattered  haiplets. 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Ajara  range : — 

Kepis-tzkaro,  south  of  KutaXB 9,484 

Nageho 8,720 

SagalaUo 8,2M 

ChekhataH  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  3^865 


•imm'imjtm^ 


sTrwmBjeir" 


mmmM:->-»w 


I'ffiir. 


4^ 


CLIMATE— FL(  )IIA  AND  FAUNA. 


01 


ho  fertile  pluin 

boon  gradually 

Iliun  becumoH 

by  tlioir  denao 

it  few  oxpanM)8 

vaa  covered  by 

old  inlet,  still 
liob  is  supposed 
ientury  it  seems 
ts  fauna  is  still 
in  some  places 
strip  of  dunes, 
ther  Mingrelian 
"ding  to  Strabo 
panes,  90  miles 
is  about  one- 
Daber,  there  are 

Euro  basins, 
the  Suram  Hills 
even  in  the  pre- 
ion  of  pastures, 
!  the  snow-line, 
on  of  the  chain, 
le  coast.*  Seen 
ed  to  Russia  in 
e  highest  point 
sea-level,  vrhile 
feet  above  the 
ct  volcano,  and 
eral  neighbour- 
i,  whose  flora  is 
ihe  valleys  rival 
arthly  paradise, 
1  beauty  in  the 
omands  a  lovely 
clumps  of  trees, 


Itet. 
9,48« 
8,720 
8,265 
3,S66 


All  the  waters  flowing  from  tho  Arsiani  Hills  westwardH  roach  the  Chorukh 
oithor  tlirougb  tho  Ajura  or  tho  Imnrshovi.  Tho  main  stroam  rises  south  of 
Trobi/oiul,  and  after  rotteiving  its  firnt  aflluonts  flowH  puruUol  with  tho  cooHt  and 
tho  Up]M<r  Kuphrates  valleys.  In  this  part  of  Asia  Minor  all  tho  hilU,  plutouux, 
unci  valloys  run  uniformly  south-woHt  and  north-east.  But  after  a  courxo  of  about 
IHO  miloH  tho  Chorukh,  now  swollen  by  the  united  waters  of  the  Tortuin  and  Olti, 
oscaiNSH  directly  towards  the  Euxine  through  a  deep  gorge  intersecting  tho  coast 
range.  Doyond  the  defile  it  has  formed  an  alluvial  plain  projecting  beyond  tho 
normal  coust-line,  and  thus  serving  to  shelter  tho  harbour  of  Bat&m  from  the 
west.  Although  little  inferior  in  volume  to  the  Rion,  the  Lower  Chorukh  is  ovon 
loss  navigable  than  the  Mingrelian  river.  This  is  due  to  its  current,  which  is  so 
rapid  that  boats  taking  four  or  five  days  to  ascend  from  Bat(im  to  Artvin  make 
the  return  trip  in  eight  hours. 

Climate — Flora  and  Fauna. 

The  climate  of  Transcaucasia  is  one  of  the  most  favourable  for  vegetation  in 
the  temperate  zone.  Here  plants  are  intermingled  in  the  greatest  variety,  and 
assume  their  loveliest  forms.  Thanks  to  the  abundant  rainfall  and  to  the  barrier 
opposed  by  the  Great  Caucasus  to  the  parching  north-east  winds,  the  various  forest 
and  cultivated  species  attain  a  greater  elevation  than  in  most  other  places  enjoying 
the  same  mean  temperature.  Thus  the  walnut  flourishes  at  6,500  feet  in  Svania, 
where  the  white  mulberry  and  the  vine  are  found  at  elevations  of  3,000  and  even 
3,400  feet,  while  in  the  Upper  Rion  valley  the  cotton-tree  is  met  as  high  as 
2,110  feet.  In  general  tbe  vegetation  of  West  Transcaucasia  resembles  that  of 
Central  Europe  and  the  French  Atlantic  seaboard  rather  than  that  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean shores,  although  in  many  respects  the  Mingrelian  flora  seems  to  belong  to 
both  zones.  The  indigo  plant  grows  by  the  aide  of  the  cotton-tree  on  the  banks 
of  the  Rion,  where  maize  is  the  prevailing  cereal.  The  tea  plant  is  even  said  to 
occur  in  Lazistan,  where  the  camphor-tree  has  bem  acclimatized.  In  the  flowering 
season  the  pomegranate  groves  give  to  this  region  the  aspect  of  a  vast  garden ; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  eucalyptus,  so  useful  for  its  febrifugal  properties,  has 
failed,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  Caucasian  wintera.  The  orange  also,  which 
formerly  flourished  at  Poti,  has  disappeared  irom.  Transcaucasia  since  the  middle 
of  the  last  century.  The  coast  region  is  subject  to  excessive  moisture,  while 
elsewhere  there  is  rather  an  excess  of  dryness.  The  mean  temperature  of  Euta'is 
(68°  Fahr.)  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  of  the  coast  towns,  an  anomaly  due  to 
the  fierce  and 'parching  east  wind  often  prevailing  in  the  Rion  valley.  This  wind 
loses  its  virulence  as  it  proceeds  westwards,  so  that  at  Poti  it  is  no  longer  disagree- 
able, and  ceases  altogether  at  Redut-Ealeh. 

The  magnificent  Mingrelian  and  other  Western  Transcaucasian  forests  have 
been  exposed  to  fearful  ravages,  especially  since  the  finer  timbera  have  been  sought 
after  by  French  and  other  foreign  traders.  The  walnut  has  nearly  disappeared 
from  all  the  accessible  lowland  tracts,  while  the  destruction  of  the  upland  forests 


■wiBiyii-tfii 


'■nm 


M 


ASIATIC  UU88IA. 


ia  slowly  modifying  the  anpeot  of  tho  country.  Yot  but  little  of  the  clonnnl  loml 
iH  brought  uiuUtr  cultivation,  tho  primitive  muth«MlH  of  tillage  ntill  prevail,  and  no 
paiiiN  are  taken  to  improve  the  vino,  whi(rh  in  here  indigenouH.  Umler  the 
univerHul  apathy  many  cultivatofl  tractn  have  iHWfmie  overgrown  with  bra<^kon,  while 
tho  proprietors,  after  an  ubHonce  of  a  few  yearn,  no  longer  recogniiw)  their  fonner 
fannHteudH,  now  concealed  amidst  tho  rank  vegetation. 

Tho  Ing(^r  and  Ilion  basins  are  no  less  noted  for  their  magnificent  fauna  than 
for  thoir  rich  and  varied  flora.  Free  Svuniu,  says  Radde,  *'  owns  tho  finest  cattle 
in  tho  world."  There  are  two  excellent  breeds,  one  nraall  and  sprightly,  tho  other 
strong,  majestic,  and  admirably  proportioned.  This  is  tho  Ukronian  race  intro* 
duoed  by  tho  Giscaucusian  Tatar  traders  into  the  Upper  Ing&r  valley,  where, 
under  new  climatic  conditions,  its  colour  has  become  modified,  often  assuming  the 
shades  and  stripes  of  the  tiger.  The  horse,  although  not  numerous  in  the  upland 
valleys,  is  also  noted  for  his  strength  and  action,  while  the  Svanian  mules  and 
asses  fetch  three  or  four  times  the  price  of  the  lowland  breeds.  The  goat  and 
other  smaller  domestic  animals  are  likewise  disting^hed  for  their  symmetrical 
forms  and'  other  excellent  properties. 

In  the  lowlands  the  marsh  fevers  are  no  less  injurious  to  the  animals  than  to 
man.  Here  the  Mingrelian  peasantry  fail  even  to  rear  poultry,  which  Toropov 
does  not  hesitate  to  attribute  to  tho  malaria. 

Inhabitamth — ^The  Svans  and  Rachianr. 

The  natives  themselves  are  far  from  being  a  pure  race.  Amidst  a  great  variety 
of  types  the  contrast  presented  by  the  fair  and  brown  Mingrelians  is  very  striking. 
Tho  former  are  distinguished  by  a  lofty  brow  and  oval  face,  the  latter  by  broad 
features  and  low  forehead,  though  both  are  alike  handsome  and  of  graceful  car- 
riage. From  the  remotest  times  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine  have  been 
visited  by  friends  and  foes  of  every  race,  many  of  whom  must  have  introduced 
fresh  ethnical  elements.  Arabs,  and  even  negroes,  flying  from  their  Turkish 
masters,  have  contributed  to  increase  the  confusion.  Yet,  however  numerous 
were  the  crossings,  all  have  become  blended  together,  jointly  tending  to  develop 
the  beauty  of  the  original  type.  In  the  Ming^lian  lowlands,  and  especially  on 
the  advanced  spurs  up  to  an  altitude  of  about  3,700  feet,  nearly  all  the  men  are 
handsome.  But  in  the  heart  of  the  highlands,  where  the  struggle  for  existence 
becomes  more  intensified,  the  features,  especially  of  the  women,  are  often  even 
ugly.  Goitre  and  cretinism  are  frequent  amongst  the  Svans,  and  as  we  ascend  the 
Ing(kr  from  the  region  of  maize  to  the  snowy  pastures,  the  change  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  inhabitants  is  analogous  to  that  which  is  observed  by  the  traveller 
passing  from  the  Italian  lakes  to  the  Alpine  gorges  of  the  Yalais. 

The  Svans,  who  occupy  the  Upper  IngAr  and  Tskhenis  valleys,  are  evidently 
a  mixed  race,  although  fundamentally  akin  to  the  Georgians,  to  whom  they  are 
also  allied  ip  speech.  They  were  formerly  a  powerful  nation  mentioned  by  Strabo, 
and  in  the  fifteenth  century  they  still,  held  the  Upper  Rion  valley.     TLs  present 


i.iirjimi  »iiJ'>t<«.im"'-injj»»iiiMaiiHW.1.1M'iliii>iliyi 


[jo  clmrtxl  lund 
prevail,  unci  no 
H.  Under  the 
I  bruckon,  while 
HO  their  former 

cent  fuunu  tliun 
the  finest  cattle 
jfhtly,  the  other 
jiun  race  intro- 

vttUoy,  where, 
m  uHfluniing  the 
M  in  the  upland 
nian  mules  and 

The  goat  and 
eir  symmetrical 

animals  than  to 
which  Toropov 


asanri? 


t  a  great  variety 
is  very  striking, 
latter  by  broad 
of  graceful  car- 
ixine  have  been 
have  introduced 
n  their  Turkish 
iwever  numerous 
iding  to  develop 
tnd  especially  on 
all  the  men  are 
^le  for  existence 
I,  are  often  even 
as  we  ascend  the 
;e  in  the  appear- 
by  the  traveller 

jys,  are  evidently 
(  whom  they  are 
tioned  by  Strabo, 
ay.    TLq  present 


Miiiiai 


INHABITANTS— THE  SVANS  AND  EAOHIANS. 


98 


survivors  seem  to  descend  mainly  from  fugitives  driven  from  the  Mingrelian 
plains  by  oppression  and  the  calamities  of  war.  In  the  secluded  valleys  bor- 
dering on  the  glaciers  they  foimd  a  secure  retreat,  almost  severed  by  physical 
barriers  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  More  accessible  are  those  of  the  Upper 
Tskhenis  basin,  who  have  consequently  had  to  endure  the  hardest  feuda]  rule 
imder  princes  binding  them  to  the  glebe.  This  branch  take  the  name  of  Dadion 
Svans,  from  the  ancient  Georgian  princely  title  of  "  Dadian  "  assumed  by  the 
governing  family.  They  are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  their  Imeritian 
neighbours,  and  their  speech  is  a  pure  Georgian  dialect.  The  Dadishkalian 
Svans,  in  the  western  division  of  the  Upper  Ingflr  basin,  are  also  \mder  a  feudal 
lord  of  Kumik  Tatar  stock ;  but  being  regarded  as  serfs,  they  were  emancipated 
at  the  expense  of  the  Russian  Government  when  serfdom  was  everywhere  oiBcially 
abolished.    The  eastern  communities  of  the  Upper  IngAr  have  long  maintained 


Fig.  44. — TJppRB  iNots  Valley. 
From  tbe  Uap  of  the  BuMtan  BtaO.    Bede  1  :  810,000. 


.ISHitai. 


their  independence,  and  are  still  often  distinguished  by  the  epithet  of  "  Free," 
although  they  took  the  oath  of  obedience  to  Russia  in  1853.  And  in  many 
respects  they  are  still  really  free,  recognising  neither  lord  nor  master,  and  rejecting 
even  the  control  of  the  clergy.  In  the  communal  gatherings  all  have  an  equal 
voice,  and  important  decisions  require  to  be  adopted  unanimously,  the  opposition 
of  a  single  member  causing  the  whole  question  to  be  postponed  until  unanimity 
can  be  secured.  Nor  does  the  commune  interfere  in  personal  quarrels,  which  are 
regulated  by  the  lex  talionis.  Nowhere  else  in  the  Caucasus  are  the  laws  of 
vendetta  more  rigorously  adhered  to,  so  that  few  are  met  who  have  not  killed  their 
man.  All  the  houses  along  the  Upper  Ingdr  are  real  fortresses,  perched  on  rocky 
eminences,  and  commanded  by  square  watch-towers  60  to  80  feet  high.  The  doors 
of  these  keeps  are  on  the  second  or  third  story,  and  can  be  approached  only  by  rude 
ladders  formed  of  the  stems  of  trees. 

Hereditary  animosities  greatly  contribute  to  the  reduction  of  the  population 
pent  up  in  the  bleak  valley  of  Free  Svania,  or  Jabe-Shevi ;  yet  it  is  still  so  dense 


. ■Mt^.jMttetatJi.'.iUiJ  Mkf.aMiJrl'^a'Uhfcanl-JBll/ 


94 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


that  the  people  are  obliged  to  emigrate  to  the  neighbouring  tribes.  In  the  days  of 
their  military  power  their  young  men  left  their  homes  as  conquerors,  often  under- 
taking plundering  expeditions  to  the  plains,  and  even  in  the  fourteenth  century 
they  were  strong  enough  to  bum  the  city  of  Eutais.  Till  recently  the  excessive 
population  was  also  checked  by  the  practice  of  infanticide,  in  which  most  of  the 
girls  perished,  while  in  hard  times  grown-up  children  were  sold  at  prices  varying 
from  £30  to  £50.  The  small  am^>unt  of  trade  carried  on  by  the  tiffies  lower  down 
is  monopolized  by  the  Jews,  who  are  grouped  in  the  village  of  LokhomuU.  These 
Jews  are  distingmshed  from  their  brethren  elsewhere  by  their  warlike- habits.  But 
although  practising  Christian  rites  and  calling  themselves  Svans,  the  hillmen  of  the 
Upper  IngAr  contract  no  alliances  with  them,  and  even  refuse  to  eat  at  their  table. 

All  the  Svans,  estimated  at  over  12,000,  are  classed  amongst  the  Christian  tribes 
of  Caucasia,  and  even  claim  a  sort  of  pre-eminence  amongst  their  co-religionists, 
pretending  that  their  ancestry  were  baptized  by  Christ  himself.  But  their  Chris- 
tianity has  been  developed  in  a  somewhat  original  manner  imder  the  influence  of 
older  rites.  Thus  their  little  chapels,  large  enough  to  acconamodate  about  a  dozen, 
have  crypts  filled  with  the  horns  of  the  chamois  and  wild  goat,  which  are  objects 
of  great  veneration.  The  priests,  or  "  papas,"  form  a  distinct  hereditary  caste, 
though  their  only  privilege  is  exemption  from  the  laws  of  vendetta.  Although  not 
obliged  to  keep  the  lower  part  of  the  face  covered,  the  women  pass  a  bandage  over 
their  mouths  when  singing  national  or  religious  songs,  possibly  to  prevent  the  devil 
from  entering.  All  the  Svans  are  also  bound  to  silence  when  on  the  march,  or 
chanting  sacred  hymns,  for  the  least  word  might  draw  down  the  tempest. 
Analogous  superstitions  occur  amongst  the  Norwegian  fishermen,  the  Buriats,  and 
the  American  hunting  tribes. 

The  district  of  Bacha,  comprising  the  Upper  Rion  valley,  is  larger  and  more 
populous  than  the  western  basins  of  the  Tskhenis  and  Ingfir,  and  has  always 
offered  a  route  to  graziers,  traders,  and  even  warlike  bands  crossing  the  Caucasus 
obliquely  from  the  Georgian  to  the  Terek  lowlands.  Hence  the  Rachians,  who,  like 
most  of  the  people  in  the  government  of  Eutais,  are  of  Georgian  race  and  speech, 
are  more  civilised  than  their  Svanian  neighbours.  But  they  also  are  too  numerous 
for  their  largely  unproductive  territory,  so  that  thousands  are  forced  to  emigrate 
to  the  lowlands,  seldom  returning  without  having  amassed  a  small  fortune.  Most 
of  the  carpenters  and  sawyers  met  with  in  Imeria  and  Mingrelia  are  Ba^hians. 

The  Imeritians,  Minorelians,  and  Lazes. 

The  Georgians  of  the  Upper  Bion  basin  bear  the  general  name  of  Imeritians, 
or  more  properly  Imerians ;  that  is,  "  People  of  the  other  side,"  in  reference  to  the 
Suram  Mountains  separating  them  from  the  bulk  of  the  nation.  The  term  Imereth, 
or  Imeria,  has  been  applied,  with  the  shifting  of  the  border  peoples^  at  times  to  all 
Western  Transcaucasia,  at  times  only  to  its  upper  section,  Mingrelia  being  usually 
reserved  for  the  low-lying  region  comprising  the  alluvial  lands  and  coast  district. 
Thanks  to  their  damp,  miasmatic,  and  enervating  climate,  the  Mingrelians  are 


nnmnmni 


In  the  days  of 
•s,  often  under- 
teenth  century 
y  the  excessive 
Lch  most  of  the 

prices  varying 
bes  lower  down 
bamnli.  These 
Irohahits.  But 
3  hilhnen  of  the 
it  at  their  table. 
Christian  tribes 

co-religionists, 
3ut  their  Chris- 
the  influence  of 
)  about  a  dozen, 
lioh  are  objects 
ereditary  caste, 
Although  not 

a  bandage  over 
revent  the  deAril 
n  the  march,  or 
n  the  tempest. 
;he  Buriats,  and 

larger  and  more 
and  has  always 
ig  the  Caucasus 
chians,  who,  like 
race  and  speech, 
lie  too  numerous 
reed  to  emigrate 
I  fortune.  Most 
re  Rachians. 


'  ifeiw  iM  iOimi  mmm»*tmmj»Mii»i  ■.  .wiinwiwMMiw 


THE  IMEBITIANS,  MINGBELIANS,  AND  LAZES. 


95 


\,\ 


U'< 


[S 


1' 


a 


'"*'* 


moBtly  of  an  indolent  temperament,  while  their  brethren  who  have  migrated  to  the 
dry  district  of  Tiflis  are  noted  for  their  active  habits.  A  repugnance  to  labour  was 
also  naturally  fostered  by  former  devastating  inroads,  incessant  intestine  warfare, 
and  the  complete  thraldom  of  the  peasantry  to  their  nobles.  Here  was  represented 
every  variety  of  serfdom,  and  until  1841  the  priests  themselves  were  classed  as 
serfs.  Even  in  recent  times  the  Mingrelian  princes  were  accustomed  to  apply 
personally  for  their  tribute.  Followed  by  courtiers,  retainers,  falconers,  dogs,  and 
horses,  they  would  swoop  down  on  some  unfortunate  vassal,  living  at  his  expense  as 
long  as  the  provbions  lasted,  then  betaking  themselves  elsewhere,  and  thus  making 
a  round  of  revelry  as  self-invited  guests,  and  leaving  ruin  in  their  wake.  No 
women,  especially  if  well  favoured, 
were  safe  from  these  despots,   who  Fig.  46.— Minorblum  Ladt. 

carried  them  off  and  sold  their  children  .„-  .  i. 

into  slavery.  Although  generally  too 
weak  to  resist,  the  Mingrelians' were 
nevertheless  occasionally  driven  by 
this  oppression  into  revolt,  as  in  1857 
and  1858,  when  they  appealed  to  arms 
for  the  recovery  of  their  captured 
women,  and  to  get  rid  of  the  yoke 
riveted  by  their  masters  round  their 
necks.  But  all  such  efforts  were 
quenched  in  blood,  nor  was  serfdom 
finally  abolished  till  three  years  after 
its  suppression  in  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  But  many  of  its  effects  still 
remain,  and  in  a  teeming  land  the 

Imerians  and  Mingrelians  oontiniie,        '^^^^^SH^RIIS^ .     -"^^9^v«' 
like  the  wretched  Lombard  peasantry, 
to  live  almost  exclusively  on  a  mess  of 

maize  or  millet  resembling  the  polenta  of  Italy.  The  usoal  dress  is  a  tattered  smock 
fastened  by  a  cord  or  strap  to  the  waist,  and  instead  of  a  hat  a  bit  of  cloth  retained 
on  the  head  by  a  string  passed  under  the  chin.  The  Mingrelian  farmstead  consists 
of  a  wretched  hovd  of  wood  or  branches,  surrounded  by  badly  cultivated  maize-fields, 
with  a  few  lean  pigs  or  goats,  and  one  or  two  buffaloes  wallowing  in  the  muddy  pools. 
Although  till  recently  dwelling  beyond  the  political  limits  of  Russian  Trans- 
caucasia, the  Lazes  of  the  Ajara  and  Chorukh  basins  are  none  the  less  akin  in 
speech  and  race  to  the  Mii^^relians  and  Georgians.  Those  still  subject  to  Turkey, 
and  leaching  westwards  beyond  Trebizond,  are  also  of  the  same  stock,  though  more 
or  less  mixed  with  other  elements,  while  beyond  these  limits  many  geographical 
names  show  that  in  remote  times  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  was  largely  peopled 
by  Georgians.  Rosen  has  established  the  near,  relationship  of  the  Laz  and 
Georgian  tongues.  The  language  current  on  the  banks  of  the  Chorukh  differs 
little  from  Mingrelian,  though  that  of  the  west  coast  is  largely  affected  by  Turkish 


A 


"j^^g 


90 


ASIATIO  BU8SU. 


and  Greek  elements.  In  their  customs  also  the  Lazes  resemble  the  Imerians. 
Both  respect  old  ago,  are  extremely  hospitable,  and,  while  fidl  of  curiosity,  still 
maintain  a  dignified  reserve.  Like  most  Caucasians,  they  are  fond  of  display 
and  rich  attire,  nor  do  they  deserve  the  charge  of  indolence  brought  against  them 
by  careless  observers,  for  their  fields  are  well  tilled  and  their  houses  kept  in  good 
order.  The  Laz  women  combine  with  beauty  and  symmetry  of  form  a  rare  repu- 
tation for  courage.  The  Moslem  Lazes  have  emigrated  in  large  numbers  to  Tiirkish 
territory  since  the  annexation  to  Russia  in  1878,  while  the  Christians  will  now 
probably  find  their  way  to  Tiflis  and  the  Russian  ports  on  the  Euxine. 

The  national  character  could  scarcely  fail  to  be  modified  under  the  Turkish 
regime.  Three  centuries  ago  all  the  Lazes  of  the  Upper  Ajara  valleys  were 
Christians,  and  many  villages  still  boast  of  well-preserved  churches  in  the  best 
Byzantine  style  of  architecture.  Certain  communes  did  not  conform  to  the  Moslem 
creed  till  about  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  several,  though  nominally 
followers  of  the  Prophet,  are  still  practically  Christian,  the  two  faiths  often  over- 
lapping to  such  on  extent  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  say  where  the  one  ceases  and 
the  other  begins.  With  their  religion  the  Turks  also  introduced  their  lang^ge 
into  all  the  towns  and  large  villages,  so  that  the  Laz  dialect  ceased  to  be  current 
except  in  the  remote  rural  districts.  The  Armenian  colonies  scattered  over  the 
land  had  also  forgotten  their  mother  tongue  in  favour  of  Turkish,  which  must  now 
in  its  turn  slowly  yield  to  Russian,  just  as  the  Mohammedan  must  give  way  to  the 
Christian  faith. 

Topography, 

The  Rion  valley,  whose  commercial  importance  was  already  recognised  by  the 
prehistoric  Argonauts,  and  where,  thirty  centuries  later  on,  the  Genoese  also  went  in 
search  of  the  "  Golden  Fleece,"  promises  once  more  to  play  a  large  port  in  the 
general  development  of  trade.  For  some  years  past  it  has  been  crossed  in  its  entire 
length  by  a  railway  connecting  Tiflis  with  the  Euxine,  and  this  is  but  a  first 
section  of  the  line  destined,  sooner  or  later,  to  reach  the  Indus.  But  the  site  of  the 
old  Greek  trading  route,  like  that  of  their  chief  emporium  Colchis,  has  long  been 
forgotten.  The  village  of  S/iaropan,  at  the  jimction  of  the  £virila  and  Dzir(ila, 
claims  to  stand  on  the  spot  where  grew  the  famous  grove  penetrated  by  the 
legendary  Jason  in  search  of  the  "  Golden  Fleece."  At  the  gorges  of  the  Ehani, 
south-east  of  Kuta'is,  are  the  extensive  ruins  of  the  former  Turkish  fortress  of 
Bagdad,  whose  Moslem  inhabitants  were  driven  into  exile  in  the  last  century. 
Nevertheless  Bagdad  is  still  a  considerable  village. 

Kuta'is,  the  present  capital  of  the  province,  which  comprises  most  of  Western 
Transcaucasia,  is  happily  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  three  valleys  watered  by 
the  Rion,  Evirila,  and  Ehani,  and  at  the  head  of  the  alluvial  p^.  u.  tretching  thence 
to  the  coasc.  Standing  on  the  first  rising  g^imds  of  the  advanced  spurs  cf  the 
Caucasus,  it  is  well  sheltered  from  the  north  wind,  while  its  gardens  and  parks  are 
abundantly  watered  by  the  Rion,  which  traverses  the  town.  Euta'is,  if  not  the 
traditional  city  of  Medea,  is  at  all  events  a  very  old  place,  for  it  is  mentioned  by 


NiilMil 


mMJJSia^M^JttirM, 


TOPOGBAPHY. 


97 


the  Imerians. 
curiosity,  still 
pnd  of  display 
»  against  them 
ss  kept  in  good 
a  rare  repu- 
3rs  to  Turkish 
Itians  will  now 
pie. 

[er  the  Turkish 
valleys  were 
les  in  the  best 
I  to  the  Moslem 
>ugh  nominally 
iths  often  over- 
one  ceases  and 
their  language 
to  be  current 
ttered  over  the 
rhich  must  now 
give  way  to  tho 


sognised  by  the 
ese  also  went  in 
rge  part  in  the 
sed  in  its  entire 
}  is  but  a  first 
t  the  site  of  the 
,  has  long  been 
a  and  Dzir&la, 
etrated  by  the 
}  of  .the  Ehani, 
dsh  fortress  of 
e  last  century. 

lost  of  Western 
leys  watered  by 
retching  thence 
sd  spurs  of  the 
3  and  parks  are 
tais,  if  not  die 
8  mentioned  by 


Procopius  under  the  name  of  Eotatission,  and  it  constantly  figiires  in  Georgian 
history,  sometimes  even  as  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  always  as  a  noted  strong- 
hold. The  old  town  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rion,  at  the  foot  of  the 
acropolis ;  but  the  modem  lies  mainly  on  the  opposite  bank.  Its  most  remarkable 
monument  is  a  ruined  cathedral  built  by  the  Bag^tides  early  in  the  eleventh 
century  on  the  acropolis.  On  it  have  been  modelled  most  of  the  other  religious 
edifices  in  the  coimtry,  so  that  it  is  rightly  regarded  as  the  most  precious  relic  of 
Georgian  art.  Thanks  to  its  trade  and  local  industry,  chiefly  hat-making,  Eutais 
has  recently  made  rapid  progress,  the  population  rising  from  4,000  to  12,000 

Sig.  46.— KtlTAi't  AMD  THB  RiON  AMU  KtIBILA  JvMOTIOM. 
From  the  Map  of  Um  RoMlan  Stnff.    Soala  1 :  440,00a 


,  ■',  V       .     .  .'•'■ 


.UMilca. 


in  a  few  years.  In  the  district  is  found  a  species  of  jet  used  for  bracelets  and  other 
ornaments;  but  the  rich  Tkvibula  coal-fields,  some  18  miles  to  the  north-east, 
have  been  but  little  worked.  Since  1879  the  manganese  deposits  of  the  Upper 
Kvirila  valley,  estimated  at  several  millions  of  tons,  have  also  attracted  attention. 

Khoni,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Tskhenis  valley,  north-east  of  Eutais,  is  the  market 
town  of  the  Dadian  Svans,  and  lower  down  is  the  large  village  of  Kukuht,  near  the 
junction  of  the  Rion  and  Tskhenis,  in  the  most  densely  peopled  district  of  Caucasia. 

Orpiri,  the  river  port  of  the  Rion,  at  the  junction  of  the  Tskhenis,  is  inhabited 
by  members  of  the  Skoptzi  sect,  who  are  mostly  wealthy,  though  the  trade  of  the 
place  has  fallen  ofi  since  the  opening  of  the  railway.    The  two  seaports  of  JRedoiU- 


?!:fr-^;-''  '^yST^!?t^^^!^!^i^W^'^^- 


TOPOOBAPHY. 


M 


local  feven,  and 
whose  name  is 


composed  of  a  French  and  Turkish  word,  both  moaning  the  same  thing,  is  a  poor 
Russian  village  founded  in  the  present  century  as  the  seaport  of  the  rich  Lower 
IngikT  district,  but  now  almost  forsaken  in  favour  of  Poti,  situated  farther  south,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river.  Its  houses,  raised  on  piles  and  surrounded  by  palisades, 
Htretch  for  a  considerable  distance  along  the  unhealthy  marshy  banks  of  the  river, 
whose  floodings  convert  the  town  twice  a  year  into  a  peninsula.  The  harbour  is 
rendered  inaccessible  to  large  vessels  by  the  bar  at  the  uth  of  the  Rion,  all  the 
engineering  efforts  to  remove  which  have  hitherto  had  but  partial  success.  Hence 
it  is  little  used  except  for  shipping  cereals  and  raw  silk.     The  exports  amounted  in 

Fig.  48.— BatCm 
1>Vom  «hr  Mfip  nf  tha  BomUd  Staff.    Scale  1  :  »90,0(jO. 


itm 


.  SHUaa. 


1876  to  nearly  5,000,000  roubles,  while  the  imports  average  scarcely  more  than 
800,000. 

A  much  finer  harbotir  is  that  of  Batum,  lying  30  miles  to  the  south-west,  and 
ceded  by  Tiurkey  in  1878.  Even  before  the  annexation  it  was  far  more  a  Russian 
than  a  Turkish  port,  for  here  the  large  Odessa  steamers  transhipped  their  cargoes 
in  60  feet  of  water  to  smaller  vessels  capable  of  crossing  the  bar  at  Poti.  Although 
declared  a  free  port  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin,  Battkm  has  none  the  less  already 
become  a  strong  fortress.  But  with  all  its  advantages,  the  peninsula  created  by  the 
alluvia  of  the  Chorukh  on  the  west  is  constantly  increasing,  and  threatening  to  still 
further  restrict  the  available  space  in  the  harbour,  which  i>«  already  insufficient  to 
accommodate  more  than  twelve  large  vessels.  But  nothin;;  would  be  easier  than 
to  connect  the  port  with  the  river  by  a  canal,  which,  with  the  railway  now  being 
construoted  by  the  town  of  Uzurgeti  to  the  Foti-Tiflis  line,  will  render  Bat(km  the 


100 


ASIATIC  BUSSU. 


(lommon  outport  of  tho  Ilion  and  Cborukh  basins.  Tho  extraordinary  fertility  of 
this  region  will  thus  Hocuro  it  a  certain  commerciul  iinportancu  in  future.  The 
chief  exports  are  cereals,  cotton,  the  excellent  apples  known  in  Russia  as  "  Orimean 
apples,"  and  the  oil  yielded  by  the  dolphina  taken  in  the  bay. 

The  chief  inland  town  of  Russian  Lazistan  is  Artvtn,  standing  on  the  slope  of  a 
hill  at  the  outlet  of  the  gorge  of  the  Lower  Chorukh,  and  at  the  head  of  itit 
nuvigutiou.  It  is  built  in  the  fonn  of  an  amphitheatre,  with  a  circuit  of  not  leas 
than  5  miles,  including  its  gardens.  Besides  dyeing,  which  is  its  staple  industry, 
it  manufactures  silks  and  other  woven  stuifs.  Itb  traders,  mostly  Armenians, 
have  relations  through  BatQm  with  Constantinople  and  Marseilles.  Here  the  Laz 
race  is  said  to  reach  its  highest  physical  perfection,  and  all  the  children  might 
serve  as  models  for  the  painter  or  sculptor. 

Ardaniy,  on  a  plateau  south  of  Artvin,  was  formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom, 
and  higher  up  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains  is  0/ti,  ceded  in  1878  by  Turkey. 
Like  Artvin,  it  is  a  city  of  fruits  and  flowers,  and  the  chief  trading-place  between 
Arduhan  and  Erzerum. 


VII.— THE  KURA  HASIN. 

GEORGIA,  TRAN80AU0ASIAN  TATAEY. 


The  Eura  and  Araxis  may  be  regarded  as  twin,  but  independent  streams.  Of 
nearly  equal  length,  and  draining  about  an  equal  area,  they  remain  separated 
throughout  their  upper  and  middle  course  by  plateaux  and  lofty  ranges.  In  the 
time  of  Strabo  they  had  even  separate  mouths,  ani'  <  t  present  unite  their  waters  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Caspian,  soarcely  more  than  20  feet  above  the  level  of 
that  sea.  Ethnically  also  the  two  river  basins  are  quite  distinct.  .  Both  are  now 
no  doubt  occupied  by  Tatar  peoples,  but  the  Georgians  are  still  predominant  in  the 
Upper  and  Middle  Eura  valley,  while  the  A  roxis  is  chiefly  occupied  by  Armenians. 
Politically  the  former  belongs  entirely  to  Russia,  whereas  the  latter  rises  in  Turkish 
territory,  and  for  about  half  its  course  its  right  bank,  with  all  its  southern  tribu- 
taries, waters  Persian  districts. 

River  Systems — ^Thb  Eura. 

The  Georgian  river  known  as  tho  Eura,  or  Eur,  names  recalling  the  Gh«ek 
Euros  (Anglicised  Cyrus),  has  its  farthest  source  in  the  "  Pearl  Brook,"  or  "Coral 
Water,"  of  the  Turks,  a  torrent  flowing  from  a  cirque,  or  old  hill-enoircled 
lakelet,  through  a  narrow  gorge  round  the  east  foot  of  the  Arsiani  range.  It 
descends  thence  through  a  series  of  defiles  and  sudden  windings  between  the  Ajara 
and  Trialetes  Hills,  west  and  east,  down  to  the  plains  of  Tiflis.  In  one  of  these 
defiles,  between  Atzkhur  and  Borjom,  it  falls  altogether  about  740  feet  through  a 
succession  of  rapids  in  the  space  of  15  miles.    The  plateau  whence  flow  its  head- 


.s-ssisissmMxi^^^, 


mmmm. 


iry  fertility  of 
future.  The 
as  "  Crimean 

the  slope  of  a 
e  he»d  of  itv 
uit  of  not  lets 

.plo  industry, 
y  Armenians, 

lere  the  Laz 
hildren  might 

the  kingdom, 
178  by  Turkey, 
-place  between 


it  streams.  Of 
[uain  separated 
anges.  In  the 
their  waters  in 
sve  the  level  of 
Both  are  now 
luminant  in  the 
by  Armenians, 
"iaes  in  Turkish 
southern  tribu- 


ing  the  Gh«ek 
ok,"  or  "Coral 
i  hill-encircled 
ani  range.  It 
reen  the  Ajara 
[n  one  of  these 
feet  through  a 
I  flow  its  head- 


KIV£B  8YST£MS~TiLt 


1A. 


IM 


streams  is  very  irregular,  but  it  becomes  mucli  more 

Akhultzik,  where  it  forms  the  true  wator-parti»K  '> 

with  a  moan  elevation  of  from  7,000  to  8,000  ff-et 

depressions  on  this  monotonous  plateau  uro  tilled  wit 

Araxis,  some  to  the  Kura,  while  others  have  become  brackish  tamH  m  ith  w  Aiw, 

and  others  again  half  dried-up  fens  and  marshes.     The  aspect  uf  the  1    id  still 


iifonr    hptween  Ai*dahun  and 
>veer    the  K'    n  and  Araxinr 
;K)ve  the        iic.k  8<'u.      The 
likes  drai     ng  m»iii       >  the 


Fig.  49.— AXHALKAI.AXI  Platiav. 
ftan  tb«  Map  of  Um  Riuaiu  SUIT.    S«U«  I  :  MflbOOa 


l-^ 

"^ 

% 

41' 
!)0 

41* 

A 

■^..s^ 

fe-5:5v.i^^ 

^'f^^B 

.It        *    .            ^- 

wm^ 

E»B^!| 

•■'$»*■  ^  \ 

^V      '  A                            >  ilV   ^^1 

"  "^  '■/    \T*^? 

fW' 

:*j 

;  ^V;. 

::'*'{// fr 
■.^/H' 

:^":i 
"■c^ 

'     #y  '..v^' '-wtk 

^ 

^>m^ 

''- 

iv-va 

...  .^ 

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1                   .  r  -A'^-^Ct^W 

iv 

■   \"     i'& 

i^lJI;''  ri^- 

— ■«  , —  ."■ /'i;#«;'i»v-.Vj- 

.■  ■■*  ' 

•  > 

^'    *■„;:—■-/ 

—  .     .  -   r 

f 

■if  ^y  ,  . :          -^  ** 

.■"^^^^"^/^ 

^: 

^H 

'^ - ■  '->-:,-  'i,^T:v  1. ri,\y^x;^ 

irjk; 

'^, 

C.oPC. 

Ai* 

u 


speaks  of  a  time  when  it  formed  a  vast  lacustrine  basin  with  inlets  ramifying  into 
the, surrounding  hills.  This  region  was  formerly  lit  up  by  a  double  line  of  active 
volcanoes  rising  to  the  east  of  Akhalkalaki,  and  running  north  and  south  vertically 
with  the  axis  of  the  Trialet«s  range.  Mount  Samsar,  one  of  these  volcanoes,  has  an 
oval  crater  nearly  2  miles  long,  and  its  lava  streams  stretch  north-west  over  a 
large  portion  of  the  plateau.  The  Great  and  Little  Abiil,  rising  from  a  common 
base,  resemble  in  form  the  double  cones  of  Ararat,  and  from  their  trachytic 


fi 


ISmS^m^^^^^^M^^ 


101  AHIATIO  BUBSIA. 

porphyry  aummit*!  u  northern  view  in  ufTurdixl,  umbraciuf^  all  tho  Cuucasu*  from 
Elbruz  to  tho  TobuloH-nitu.  Other  extinct  vulcunues  uru  (iiMimtied  in  urcaoont  fonn 
round  thecirc{uo  enclosing  the  romantic  I^ake  Toporovan,  which,  with  ita  mmaina  of 
lacuatrino  dwuUingH,  itttult  rcaoniblea  'i  vuat  fl(KNlud  crater.  Thia  aublimo  but 
gloomy  tableland,  with  ita  black  mouiitaina,  yawning  abyaaea,  and  ancient  lava 
atroama,  "  atill  haunted  by  demona  and  goblina,"  preaenta  a  atriking  contraat  to  the 
winding  valley  of  the  Kura,  with  ita  leafy  shadea  and  aparkliug  running  watera, 

atill  occaaionally  broken  by  nar- 

Fig.  60.— Tatab  Ttpb.  ^^^  ^'^^^    f^^^g^^  AQ<1  columnar 

oryatalline  cliifa  many  hundred 
{jet  high,  and  capped  with  the 
ruina  of  ancient  caatlea.  All  theae 
volcanic  highlanda  and  rugged 
terracea  riaing  to  the  weat  of  Tiflia 
..^  form  a   aort   of  advanced   pro- 

montory of    Aaia  Minor,   about 
60  milea  long,  within  whoae  nar- 
L^        ^ft  "^^  limits  are  brewed  nearly  all 

the    fierce    tempeats    and    hail- 
-y-  itK:.7,^^^w  atorms  that  bi^'st  on  the  neigh- 

,^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  bouring  Earthu.ian  plaina.    The 

<■  ^-^^^^^^^^^^^KI^^My^^^^  r  ^  frequency  of  theae  hail-storma 
l^^^^^^ifl^^H^^B  V  y  ^\|  '  X  has  compelled  the  peasantry  to 
'-i:.^^^^^^^^^^^^^IKt^li[v;'A<.-^^^,  N      abandon  the  cultivation  of  certain 

^:^Y    districts  in  this  region.   A  aeoond 

,A'VR^|i|m^^^^H^p^Hr  VBHH||^n^^^.  zone  of  tempests  stretches  along 

'i'tjr'^^ml^SS^KSmuZ^  i  \x^^^^^^     ^^    '°^^    ^^    ^^    Yelizavetpol 

I  ^-"{fliflBi^^w     :  ''A  v\v     ^^        Mountains,  preventing  the  exten- 

4k  J      M"'w?l^»  '^>  ^\  "^'^  °'  sericulture  in  consequence 

y'n       *^»V,  \^^^  '^  \^  of    the    great   mortality   caused 

by  thunder   amongst    the    silk- 
worms.* 

Before  its  junction  with  the 
Aragva,  which  is  scarcely  inferior  in  volume  to  the  main  stream,  the  Kura  flows 
south  and  south-east  mainly  in  a  line  with  the  Great  Caucasus  and  with  the  Yora 
and  Alazan,  the  two  tributaries  which  join  it  after  emerging  from  the  upper 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Upper  Kura  baain : — 

Kizil-Ojaduk.  aourre  of  the  Kara         .       - 10,360 

GwatAbfll    .                         .        .        .        .        .                .        .  11,125 

Samsar 11,000 

Godorebi 10,630 

EmIekU         .        .        .    ^ 10,106 

Koyerettn-dagh,  west  of  the  Kura        .        .                •        .        .        .  10,116 

Aij«van 9,106 

Kanll  PasH,  between  the  Eura  and  Chorukh 9,060 

Kojor  Pass,  between  the  Akhaltsik  plain  and  Tiflia       ^       .        .  4,890 


SP" 


.  «)'!*« 


BIVEfi  S¥8TEldS-TUE  KUltA. 


im 


uucasu*  from 
crescont  fonn 
its  ronminH  of 
Hublimo   but 
ancient  lava 
EontraNt  U)  the 
inning  waters, 
rokcn  by  nar- 
and  columnar 
(lany  hundred 
)ped  with  the 
ties.    All  these 
and    rugged 
0  west  of  Tiflis 
idvanced   pro> 
Minor,   about 
lin  whoso  nar- 
wed  nearly  all 
sts    and    hail- 
on  the  neigh- 
n  plains.    The 
ise    hail-storms 
B  peasantry  to 
ation  of  certain 
^on.  A  second 
stretches  along 
)    Yelizavetpol 
iting  the  exten- 
in  consequence 
ortality   caused 
igst    the    silk- 

iction  with  the 
the  Kura  flows 
I  with  the  Yora 
rom  the  upper 


VMt. 

10,360 

11,12« 

11,000 

10,680 

10,1«6 

10,115 

0,106 

9,060 

4,800 


gorges.  At  the  point  where  it  is  crossed  by  the  rood  from  Yelizavetpol  to  Ttuku, 
li  little  below  the  confluence  of  tht'se  HtrnuiiN,  the  Kura  is  ulrt'udy  nuvigahlc  for 
croft  drawing  4  feet,  although,  owing  to  the  w<unt  population  along  itH  ImnkH,  the 
water  highway  of  some  450  niilen  Ims  hitherto  been  little  utiliscMl.  FiNhitig  is 
almost  the  only  industry  curried  on  along  its  lower  cournts  which  teems  with  flsh 

Fig.  61.— Thi   Kt«A   AND   AiiAxiii   CoNrtviwci. 
rrom  Um  lUp  of  tba  Iluiaiaii  Staff.    SoO*  1  :  67S,U00 


tlk^ 


I 


r^. 


;'V«^*.-*^t  ^^^ 


V 


^f-m 


\  \, 


I   SkirtmA»ifmZt»pft 


\^ 


«Vy5 


N^ 


\ 


E  opc- 


o- 


de 
40 


45' 00- 


43 'PO 


OidContla. 


ISUilM. 


probably  more  than  any  other  spot  on  the  globe.  Here  the  chartered  company 
captures  prodigious  quantities  of  "white  fish"  and  sturgeon,  paying  a  yearly 
revenue  to  the  Government  of  not  less  than  120,000  roubles.  Yet  according 
to  the  descriptions  of  Pallas  these  fisheries  were  even  still  more  productive  during 
the  last  century,  when  as  many  as  16,000  sturgeon  were  taken  in  a  single  day. 


'm 


104 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Whenever  the  fishing  had  to  be  interrupted  for  four-and-twenty  hours  the  Eura, 
here  490  feet  wide  and  70  feet  deep,  became  one  moving  mass  of  fish.  The 
diminution  of  their  numbers  has  been  attributed  to  the  introduction  of  steam 
navigation,  which  frightens  away  the  shoals  ascending  the  river  to  the  spawning 
grounds. 

The  united  volume  of  the  Eura  and  Araxis  is  estimated  at  about  24,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  which,  in  proportion  to  the  area  of  their  basin,  is  much  less  than 
that  of  the  Rion,  a  difference  due  to  the  less  abundant  rainfall  and  greater  evapo- 
ration in  the  region  draining  to  the  Caspian.  A  large  portion  of  the  Eura  basin 
consists  of  almost  waterless  desert  incapable  of  cultivation,  though  rich  in  herbage 
after  the  rains,  and  in  spring  frequented  by  Tatar  graziers,  who  drive  their  herds 
to  the  upland  pastures  in  summer.  Even  in  the  heart  of  Georg^,  between  the 
Eura  and  Tora,  and  thence  to  the  Alazan,  we  meet  with  rocky  steppes  destitute  of 
permanent  dwelling^,  and  above  the  triple  confluence  the  stony  and  arg^illaceous 
land  everywhere  presents  an  aspect  of  monotonous  aridity.  During  the  last 
century  rice  was  cultivated  by  the  Tatars  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Eura,  north 
of  Yelizavetpol.  But  they  were  compelled  by  the  inroads  of  the  Lezghians  to 
abandon  their  fields,  and  nothing  now  remains  except  traces  of  the  old  irrigating 
canals  from  the  Tora,  and  a  few  Tatar  herdsmen,  who  are  obliged  to  burrow  in 
the  ground  to  shelter  themselves  from  the  cold  blasts  that  sweep  the  bare  Earayaz 
plateaux  in  winter.  "With  the  first  spring  days  they  gladly  quit  their  wretched 
underground  hovels,  migrating  through  the  beech  forests  southwards  to  the  fine 
Alpine  pastures  of  the  Gok-chai. 


Agriculture — Irrigation  Works — Climate. 

In  these  lands  civilisation  has  retrograded,  since  agriculture  has  been  replaced 
by  a  nomad  pastoral  life.  Tet  in  winter  during  the  low  waters  the  Eura  and 
Araxis  together  have  a  total  volume  of  6,800  cubic  feet,  and  in  aummer  about  t35,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  might  be  raised  for  irrigation  purposes.  But  nothing  has 
been  done  beyond  constructing  the  so-called  "  Mary  Canal "  aoroas  the  Earayai 
steppe  between  the  Eura  and  Yora.  Unfortunately  this  tract  is  very  unhealthy, 
so  that  few  venture  to  risk  their  lives  in  reclaiming  the  land.  The  Tatar  popula- 
tions, who  have  retained  possession  of  their  lands  between  Nukha  and  Shemakha, 
are  still  able  to  show  the  Russians  how  a  proper  system  of  irrigation  may  transform 
the  desert  to  a  garden.  The  torrents  descending  from  the  gorges  of  the  Caucasus 
are  arrested,  on  entering  the  plains,  by  dams  which  divide  and  subdivide  them  into 
countless  rills,  until  the  last  drop  of  water  is  iitilised  before  reaching  the  Eura. 
But  the  irrigation  works  might  be  met  by  channels  from  this  river,  by  which  the 
whole  steppe  could  be  brought  under  cultivation.  Some  of  the  waste  spaces  are 
at  present  dangerous  for  caravans,  owing  to  the  want  of  fodder  and  the  poiscmous 
herbs,  such  as  the  Pontine  wormwood,  fatal  to  horses.  The  army  sent  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1722  against  Shemakha  thus  lost  all  its  artillery  horses,  and  the  same 
disaster  overtook  General  Tzitzianov's  army  a  century  thereafter.  « 


JIMIIHLI.^U'itHWH' 


AGKICULTUEE— IRBIOATION  WORKS— CLIMATE, 


106 


loiira  the  Eura, 
of  fish.  The 
iction  of  steam 

0  the  spawning 

ut  24,000  cuhic 
much  less  than 

1  greater  evapo- 
the  Kura  basin 

rich  in  herbage 

rive  their  herds 

g;ia,  between  the 

ippes  destitute  of 

and  argiUaceous 

During  the  htst 

the  Eura,  north 

he  Lezghians  to 

llie  old  irrigating 

i;ed  to  burrow  in 

the  bare  Earayaz 

t  their  wretched 

imrds  to  the  fine 


las  been  replaced 
irs  the  Eura  and 
mer  about  35,000 
But  nothing  has 
srofls  the  Earayaz 
is  very  imhealthy, 
rhe  Tatar  popula- 
la  and.  Shemakha, 
on  may  transform 
B  of  the  Caucasus 
bdivide  them  into 
Baching  the  Eura. 
ver,  by  which  the 
)  waste  spaces  are 
And  the  poisonous 
sent  by  Peter  the 
les,  and  the  same 


A  portion  of  the  Earabagh  and  Sbirikum  steppes  between  the  Kura  and 
Araxis,  and  thoHO  of  Mugan  stretching  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Araxis  and 
Lower  Eura  to  the  foot  of  the  Talish  Mountains,  were  formerly  cultivatcxl  and  wWl- 
peopled  districts.  The  great  city  of  Bilgan,  destroyed  by  Jenghis  Ehan,  stood 
on  a  canal  constructed  fifteeu  htmdred  years  ago  across  the,  Earabagh  steppe,  and 
when  Timur  restore  J  the  canal  two  centuries  afterwards  this  city  reappeared  ond 
continued  to  flourish  till  the  last  century.  East  of  the  Araxis  the  traces  have  been 
discovered  of  nimierous  canals  running  from  its  right  bank  eastwards  across  the 
steppe ;  but  these  could  not  be  restored  without  tapping  the  river  above  the  old 
dams,  either  because  its  meau  level  has  fallen,  or  because  the  land  has  been  raised 
by  its  alluvia.  One  of  the  canals  followed  by  Toropov  is  no  less  than  90  miles 
long,  and  on  its  banks  are  the  remains  of  a  vast  city.  Ruined  caravanserais  and 
choked-up  cisterns  also  mark  the  site  of  other  now  abandoned  trade  routes.  The 
plain  is  here  and  there  dotted  with  barrows,  and  throughout  the  peninsula,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Eura  and  Araxis,  there  are  numerous  lines  of  earthworks, 
flanked  by  redoubts  and  hillocks  used  as  outposts.  The  general  disappearance  of 
the  population,  whose  presence  is  shown  by  all  these  remains,  dates  from  the 
Mongolian  invasion  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  those  who  escaped  service  in 
the  armies  of  Batu  Ehan  abandoned  their  towns  and  land,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
mountains.  The  irrigating  canals  now  became  choked  with  mud,  and,  the  waters 
of  the  Eura  and  Araxis  overflowed  into  the  surrounding  depressions,  where  they 
formed  unhealthy  morasses,  and  even  real  lakes,  such  as  that  of  MakhmCld-Chalassi, 
though  many  of  these  have  since  evaporated,  leaving  nothing  behind  except  saline 
tracts  fringed  with  a  russet  border  of  sickly  vegetation.  Elsewhere  the  land  is 
covered  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  with  the  grey  mugwort  or  the  white-flowering 
delphinium.  Tet  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  restore  its  fertility  to  this 
region,  which  might  support  an  agricultural  population  of  at  least  two  millions. 
The  survey  carried  out  in  1860  showed  that  in  the  lower  plains  there  are  over 
5,000,000  acres  capable  of  being  irrigated.  A  large  portion  of  the  steppe  is 
covered  with  a  black  loam,  which  only  awaits  the  fertilising  waters  to  become  one 
of  the  granaries  of  Western  Asia.  But  even  as  it  is  the  soil  at  the  foot  of  the 
Talish  Mountains  is  moist  enough  to  grow  vast  crops  of  cereals,  and  here  the 
Raskolniks  have  already  flourishing  villages,  which  have  begun  to  do  a  large  trade 
since  the  restrictions  on  free  intercourse  have  been  removed.  Nowhere  else  in 
Caucasia  has  Russian  colonisation  been  more  successful. 

Formerly  it  was  feared  that  the  main  obstacle  to  the  reclamation  of  the  land 
would  be  the  insalubrity  of  the  climate,  caused,  as  in  the  French  Camargue,  by  the 
decomposition  of  organic  matter  under  a  fierce  sun.  But  this  difficulty  seems  to 
have  been  exaggerated.  The  intense  heats  of  these  plains  i^pear  to  have  been 
formerly  symbolized  by  the  multitudes  of  venomous  snakes  said  to  guard  their 
approach.  Even  Plutarch  tells  us  that  the  army  of  Pompey  was  arrested  by  fear 
of  these  reptiles,  and  so  recently  as  1800  the  Russians  under  General  Zubov  are 
said  to  have  found  thb.  land  in  winter  covered  with  vipers  in  a  torpid  state.  But 
although  vrild  beasts  were  even  supposed  to  avoid  this  region,  Toropov  and  other 

8 


wmmmsMmiiBim 


mmiif&m^i^^Mmm^iiem.^.: 


106 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


travellers  assure  us  that  serpents  and  scorpions  are  so  rare  on  the  Mugan  strppe 
that  they  cause  no  alarm  to  the  graziers  frequenting  it.  They  dig  up  the  ground, 
hut  only  in  search  of  truffles,  which  here  abound.  Land  and  water  tortoises  are 
also  extremely  numerous  wherever  there  is  any  moisture,  and  flocks  of  antelopes 

Fig.  62. — Mouths  op  thb  Kuiu. 
Ttom  the  Map  of  the  Buauan  Staff.    Scale  1 :  820.000 


,  tSMflaa. 


are  occasionally  seen  bounding  over  the  plain,  while  the  marshes  and  running 
waters  of  the  delta  attract  vast  multitudes  of  birds. 


Lower  Evra  Basin — Apsheron  Peninsula. 

Like  the  Rion,  the  Eura  is  continually  encroaching  on  the  sea,  which  it  colours 
for  a  great  distance  with  its  reddiah-yellow  waters.      In  the  thirty-three  years 


?!5SP^ 


.  ' '  '.v  y — ^ 


mm 


'-#- 


LOWER  KUBA  BASIN -AP8HEB0N  PENINSULA 


107 


e  Mugan  strppe 

up  the  ground, 

iter  tortoises  are 

icks  of  antelopes 


80* 


ihes  and  running 


1,  whicli  it  colours 
ihirty-three  years 


between  1829  uud  1862  the  land  advanced  about  54  square  miles.  The  main 
channel  has  also  pierced  the  line  of  dunes  continuing  the  normal  coast-line, 
beyond  which  it  has  i  mified  into  two  branches,  each  of  which  has  developed  a 
peninsula  by  connecting  islets  and  sand-banks  with  the  mainland.  Between  the 
two  advanced  streams  of  the  delta  there  are  also  numerous  strips  of  land,  evidently 
formed  by  the  alluvia  of  the  Eura.  Only  the  north-east  swell  created  by  the 
polar  winds  has  reacted  on  these  deposits,  causing  them  to  assume  a  crescent  form, 
with  their  concave  sides  facing  seawards.  The  island  of  Sari,  lying  south-west  of 
the  extreme  peninsula  of  the  delta,  is  disposed  in  a  similar  manner  by  the  same 
waves.  All  the  Lenkoran  coast  has  also  been  enlarged  by  the  alluvia  first  carried 
seawards  with  the  current,  and  then  driven  landwards  under  the  action  of  the 
winds.  In  the  same  way  a  broad  belt  of  marshy  land  has  been  formed  at  the  foot 
of  the  advanced  spur:^  of  the  Iranian  plateau.  But  these  imhealthy  tracts  are 
infested  by  such  dense  clouds  of  mosquitoes  that  the  Tatar  natives  are  obliged  to 
pass  the  night  in  pavilions  raised  like  pictiiresque  turrets  into  the  purer  atmosphere 
above  their  dwellings. 

The  hilly  district  of  Lenkoran,  wrenched  by  Russia  from  Persia,  belongs 
geographically  to  that  state,  for  it  is  merely  the  escarpment  of  the  lofty  terraces 
rising  above  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  commanded  by  the  Savalan 
volcano.  By  holding  this  district  the  Russian  armies  are  able  to  reach  within 
their  own  territory  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet,  whence  they  have  no 
further  difficulty  in  penetrating  into  the  Iranian  plateaux.  Here  the  land  being 
abimdantly  watered  by  the  rains  brought  by  the  northern  winds  blowing  steadily 
from  the  Caspian,  its  flora  and  fauna  differ  from  f;ho8e  of  the  Caucasus.  We  are 
already  within  the  domain  of  the  tiger,  while  some  of  the  plants  flourishing  in 
the  dense  forests  resemble  those  of  the  tropics.  Still  the  arborescent  vegetation 
covering  the  slopes  of  the  Talish  range  between  650  and  6,000  feet  corresponds 
rather  with  thai  of  Central  Europe.  Few  regions  present  a  greater  contrast  in  their 
flora  than  do  the  slopes  of  the  Talish  and  the  Mugan  steppe,  the  arid  parts  of  which 
latter  yield  only  five  species  of  plants.  Ethnically,  also,  the  difPerence  is  equally 
marked,  for  the  Talish  highlands  already  belong  in  this  respect  to  the  Iranian 
domain.  , 

In  the  district  north  of  the  Eura,  which  still  retains  its  old  Persian  name  of 
Shirvan,  a  few  eminences  isolated  in  the  midsf  of  the  plain  seem  to  have  formerly 
belonged'  to  the  Caucasian  system,  from  which  they  have  g^radually  become  sepa- 
rated by  the  erosive  action  of  running  water.  But  this  region  has  also  been  sub- 
jected to  more  sudden  changes  by  underground  agencies.  Here  earthquakes 
are  still  frequent,  causing  great  damage,  especially  to  the  city  of  Shemakha, 
where  in  1669  as  many  as  8,000  persons  were  in  a  few  seconds  buried  under  a  heap 
of  ruins.  According  to  the  local  chronicles,  the  village  of  Lacha,  lying  farther 
south,  was  completely  swallowed  up,  with  all  its  inhabitants,  flocks,  and  herds. 
Shemakha,  with  the  industrious  village  of  Boskal,  was  again  wasted  in  May,  1859, 
after  which  the  seat  of  Government  was  transferred  to  Baku,  and  most  of  the 
inhabitants  left  ike  place.     Those  who  remained  again  suffered  from  a  violent 


108 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


shock  in  1872.  According  to  Abish  the  seismatic  waves  are  here  propagated 
north-west  and  south-east  in  a  line  with  the  continued  axis  of  the  Caucasxis,  and 
Shemakha  consequently  lies  at  no  great  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  movement. 
Explosions  of  burning  naphtha  occasionally  throw  up  masses  of  earth  and  stones, 
accompanied .  with  smoke  and  flames.  The  botanist  Eoch  foimd  the  debris  of 
one  of  these  eruptions  covering  the  steppe  for  a  space  of  over  half  a  mile, 
where  all  the  crevasses  were  filled  by  brackish  water  with  a  slight  flavour  of 
naphtha. 

The  Apsheron  peninsula,  forming  the  eastern  continuation  of  the  Caucasus, 
together  with  the  coast-line  stretching  thence  southwards  to  the  Kura  delta,  is  the 
scene  of  constant  igneous  activity.     Jets  of  gas,  hot  springs,  mineral  oils,  mud 


Fig.  63.— Chief  Rkgiokb  op  EABTHavAKBR  in  Cavoabia. 
From  the  MtmMr$  ofOu  Qufrapkical  Bdeklt  of  the  Canouoa.    Boele  1  :  8,000,000. 


':niin 


Hey  Slat,  IHW. 


Jane  SOth,  1840. 


May)IOthaiid81et,18B0. 
—  IWMflee. 


volcanoes,  and  even  lava  streams  bear  witness  to  the  internal  commotion  throughout 
the  region,  which,  like  tLe  segment  of  a  crater,  encircles  the  Gulf  of  Baku.  It 
would  seem  as  if  the  forces  by  which  the  Caucasus  was  upheaved  were  here  still  at 
work  endeavouring  to  continue  the  range  across  the  Caspian.  Tet  a  subsidence  has, 
on  the  contrary,  been  going  on  during  recent  times,  as  shown  by  the  building 
eng^ed  in  the  harbour  of  Bakui,  and  by  the  tradition  according  to  which  the 
island  of  Nargin  was  formerly  attached  to  the  mainland.  Ehanikov  has  shown  that 
since  the  tenth  century  the  seaboard  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Caucasus  has 
been  subject  to  various  oscillations,  rising  60  feet  above  its  present  level,  then 
sinking  18  feet  below  it,  and  again  rising  and  falling  alternately.  The  whole 
Apsheron  peninsula,  with  the  various  islands  continuing  it  eastwards,  has  evidently 


LOWER  KUBA  BASIN— APSHERON  PENINSULA, 


109 


lere  propagated 
e  Caucasus,  and 
the  movement, 
arth  and  stones, 
the  debris  of 
er  half  a  mile, 
light  flavour  of 

f  the  Caucasus, 

ura  delta,  is  the 

ineral  oils,  mud 


900. 


341' 


50* 


W. 


otion  throughout 
ilf  of  Baku.  It 
were  here  still  at 
a  subsidence  has, 
by  the  building 
ig  to  which  the 
V  has  shown  that 
the  Caucasus  has 
38ent  level,  then 
sly.  The  whole 
ds,  has  evidently 


Iwen  upheaved,  but  not  uniformly,  for  the  relief  of  the  land  shows  traces  of 
numerous  folds,  due,  doubtless,  to  side  pressure.  Mud  volcanoes  are  dotted  over 
the  peninsula,  all  the  depressions  are  filled  with  marshy  soil,  and  the  coast-line  is 
disposed  in  curves,  like  those  of  the  Kura  delta.  The  "  Holy  Island,"  north  of 
Apsheron  Point,  which  assumes  an  analogous  form,  is  of  volcanic  origin,  like  all  those 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Emnani,  one  of  them,  rose  above  the  surface  in  1864,  and 
Lozi,  another,  was  the  scene  of  three  eruptions  in  1876,  during  which  stones  were 
thrown  as  far  as  Cape  Alat,  on  the  mainland.  Shoals  of  seals  *  frequent  the  coast 
of  the  peninsula,  but  most  fishes  are  driven  away  by  the  exhalations  of  gas  and 
naphtha. 

In  many  places  these  gases  are  liberated  by  simply  piercing  the  surface  of  the 
land,  and  they  are  so  inflammable  that  a  mere  spark  suffices  to  set  them  burning 
till  extinguished  by  a  strong  wind  or  heavy  shower.  The  flames  will  at  times  even 
burst  forth  spontaneously,  and  during  boisterous  nights  the  hillsides  have  been 
swept  by  sheets  of  phosphorescent  light.  Even  in  the  middle  of  the  sea  the 
naphtha  streams  bubble  up,  clothing  the  ripples  far  and  near  with  a  thin  iridescent 
coating.    Near  Cape  Shikov,  south  of  Baku,  a  gas  jet  produces  such  a  violent  eddy 

Fig.  64.— OwiiiL&TioNs  OF  TBI  Baku  Coast  dvrimo  tum  last  1,(00  Ybars. 

Aeeording  to  KbMiikoT.  .    ' 


that  boats  are  obliged  to  cast  anchor  to  avoid  being  sucked  in.  Elsewhere  the 
underground  forces  not  only  throw  up  jets  of  gas,  petroleum,  and  asphalt,  but 
upheave  the  very  bed  of  the  sea,  as  was  lately  seen,  when  an  islet  rose  to  the  surface 
near  Baku.  The  legend  of  Prometheus,  who  stole  fire  from  heaven,  may,  in  the 
popular  fancy,  be  possibly  associated  with  the  flaming  hills  and  waters  of  this 
region. 

The  chief  focus  of  the  burning  gases  lies  "some  9  miles  north-east  of  Baku, 
on  the  margin  of  a  considerable  saline  pool  near  the  villages  of  Balakhan  and 
Surakhan.  The  district,  known  by  the  name  of  Atesh-gah,  has  become  famous  as  the 
hallowed  shrine  of  the  fire  worshippers.  Tet  this  sanctuary,  at  least  in  its  present 
form,  would  not  seem  to  be  as,  old  as  is  generally  supposed,  dating  only  from  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  the  courts  of  the  Tatar  khans  of  Derbent,  Shemakha, 
and  Baku  were  much  frequented  by  Indian  traders.  The  "  Fire  Temple  "  is  now  a 
mere  redoubt,  tolerated  in  the  comer  of  avast  naphtha  and  asphalt  factory,  which  is 
directly  fed  with  combustible  gas  from  the  imderground  fires.    The  votaries  of  this 

*  The  Caspian  Seal  {Phcca  Caapiea)  differs  specifically  from  that  of  Lake  Baikal,  though  both  are 
related  to  the  Banged  or  Arctic  Seal  (PkMa/attida).  Both  are  also  referred  by  Joel  A.  Allen,  *■  History  of 
North  Araericsn  Pinnipeds,"  to  a  ^koene  anoeator  from  the  south.— Ed. 


t 


^~:^^^^-aiai^?tiafet';^j#;aay'TavS^*^^' 


no 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


temple  have  no  longer  any  notion  of  a  positive  creed,  and  on  the  altar,  by  the  side  of 
Hindu  deities,  are  seen  the  vases  associated  with  Parsee  worship,  Russian  images 
of  St.  Nicholas,  statues  of  the  Virgin,  Roman  Catholic  crucifixes,  objects  which  are 
all  treated  mth  like  veneration. 

The  commercial  importance  of  this  great  natural  workshop  has  been  much 
enhanced  of  late  years,  and  the  sale  of  rich  naphtha  plots  has  already  ^Idlded  over 
8,000,000  roubles  to  the  State.  Nothing  can  be  imagined  more  simple  than  the 
structure  of  these  lime-kilns.  It  suffices  to  light  the  gas  escaping  from  the 
crevassed  calcareous  layers,  and  the  stones  are  g^dually  reduced  by  the  heat  to  the 
state  desired  by  the  lime  burner.   In  privpte  houses  and  workshops  these  jets  are  used 

Fig.  65. — Thb  Ap8Hbbo>c  Prninwula. 
Soale  1 :  MO,0OU.      ~ 


ModVoIoHiOM.      Naphtha  Wdla.  OaiJate.  Snbnwqiad  Baina. 

SMflta. 

for  heating,  lighting,  and  cooking,  though  the  illuminating  power  of  the  Balakhan 
gas  is  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  artificial  article,  for  it  possesses  far  less  carbon. 
To  the  internal  pressure  of  the  gas  is  due  the  rising  of  the  naphtha,  which  is  forced 
upwards  through  the  sandy  and  shingly  layers  below  the  superficial  tertiary  strata. 
With  the  petroleum  stream  there  are  carried  up  large  quantities  of  sand,  which 
accumulates  about  the  orifice,  where  it  gradually  forms  conic  moimds  60  feet  high. 
So  far  the  seven  hundred  n(q)htha  wells  sunk  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Baku  have 
shown  no  signs  of  exhaustion.  They  supply  over  five-sixths  of  the  petroleum  of  the 
Caucasus.  Between  1870  and  1878  the  yield  was  increased  over  tenfold,  and  quite  a 
fleet  of  steamers  and  sailing  vessels  has  been  equipped  for  the  export  of  this  produce. 


mmmm 


Jtfiffi^UJP' 


Itar,  by  the  side  of 
>,  Russian  images 
objects  which  are 

p  has  been  much 
ready  yielded  over 
e  simple  than  the 
leaping  from  the 
by  the  heat  to  the 
these  jets  are  used 


BaiH. 


9r  of  the  Balakhan 
es  far  less  carbon, 
ha,  which  is  forced 
jial  tertiary  strata, 
ies  of  sand,  which 
lunds  60  feet  high, 
lood  of  Baku  have 
le  petroleum  of  the 
enfold,  and  quite  a 
)rt  of  this  produce. 


INHABITANTS— THE  OEOBOIANS. 


Ill 


But  immense  Ions  is  cauaod  by  the  ignorance  of  thoae  engaged  in  the  trade.  Thufi  a 
well  at  Balakhan,  yielding  4,800  tona  of  naphtha  daily,  ran  waste  for  four  weeks 
before  a  reservoir  could  l)e  prepared  to  receive  the  oil.  The  totol  yield  of  naphtha 
at  Baku  amounted  in  1878  to  about  7,000,000  owt.,  of  which  nearly  3,500,000 
cwt.  were  exported. 


Inhabitants — ^The  Oeorgians. 

Tn  Central  as  in  Western  Caucasia  the  most  numerous  race  are  the  Georgians,  or 
Karthvelians,  descendants  of  the  Iberians  spoken  of  by  Strabo.  The  statuettes  found 
in  the  graves  represent  exactly  the  same  type  and  the  same  ^tyle  of  head-dress  as  those 
of  the  present  inhabitants,  so  that  no  change  has  taken  place  in  this  respect  during 
the  last  two  thousand  years.  Masters  of  the  land  from  the  remotest  historic  times, 
the  Georgians  have  succeeded,  if  not  in  maintaining  their  independence,  at  least  in 
preserving  their  ethnical  cohesion  and  various  national  idioms.  They  formerly 
occupied  a  wider  domain,  and  although  encroached  upon  at  various  times  by 
Persians,  Medes,  Armenians,  Mongols,  Turks,  and  now  by  the  Slavs,  their  territory 
still  stretches  from  the  plains  of  the  Eura  to  Trebizond,  and  from  Mount  Elbruz  to 
Mount  Arsiani.  Of  all  the  Caucasian  peoples  the  Georgians,  who  are  estinwted  at 
upwards  of  a  million,  form  the  most  compact  and  homogeneous  natioAality.  In 
Georgia  is  situated  Tiflis,  capital  of  all  Transcaucasia. 

As  a  political  state  Georgia  had  its  periods  of  prosperity  and  military  fame. 
Especially  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  the  reigns  of  David  the  "  Restorer,"  and  of 
Queen  Tamara,  the  Earth velian  kingdom  acquired  a  decided  preponderance  over  all 
the  Caucasian  lands,  and  the  name  of  Tamara  has  remained  popular  from  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  Caspian.  '  In  all  the  upland  valleys  she  is  the  theme  of  countless  legends 
and  national  songs ;  most  of  the  ruins  scattered  over  the  land  are  supposed  to  be  the 
remains  of  her  palaces  and  strongholds;  as  a  ruler  of  men  the  popular  enthusiasm 
ranks  her  with  Alexander ;  as  a  saint  with  Sti  George  and  the  prophet  Elias.  But 
the  period  of  Georgian  ascendancy  was  of  short  duration,  and  the  invasion  of 
Jenghis  Ehan  was  followed  by  incessant  warfare  and  civil  strife,  which  ended  only 
in  1802,  when  Georgia  was  officially  incorporated  in  the  Russian  Empire.  Its 
geographical  situation  pennitted  the  inhabitai\(8  to  maintain  their  independence 
and  become  fused  in  a  ctanpact  national  body.  Most  of  the  Earthvelians  dwell  on~ 
the  plains,  where  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  oblige  them  to  live  as  agricul- 
turists scattered  over  the  land.  Their  territory  is  everywhere  enclosed  by  lofty 
mountains,  whose  occupants,  pent  up  in  their  narrow,  bleak,  and  unproductive  glens, 
cast  envious  glances  on  the  lowlands,  never  failing  to  swoop  down  whenever  an 
opportunity  is  offered  for  making,  a  successful  foray.  .  The  Georg^ian  territory  is, 
moreover,  divided  into  three  distinct  parts,  clearly  defined  by  forests  and  mountain 
ranges.  The  Eura  basin  in  the  east,  those  of  the  Rion  and  IngAr  in  the  centre,  and 
that  of  the  Chorukli  in  the  west,  are  so  many  detached  geographical  areas,  whose 
inhabitants  were  naturally  involved  in  different  political  careers.  The  severance  of 
the  Georgian  nationality  into  distinct  fragments  was  also  rendered  almost  inevitable 


"WiH 


112 


ASIATIC  BU88U. 


by  the  form  of  the  neveral  diatrict«,  all  of  which  are  greatly  elongated  east  and 
west. 

The  Kurthvfl,  or  KurtbalianH,  properly  m  called,  who  hove  retained  the  collective 
racial  nuiiie,  uro  the  Georgians  dwelling  east  ot  the  Huram  Mountains,  in  the  old 
lacustrine  plain  whose  centre  is  oc(>upied  by  the  town  of  (}ori,  and  which  terminates 
at  Mtzicliet,  ancient  capital  of  Karthalia.  They  become  blended  eastwards  with  the 
Gru.siunH  of  Tiflis,  whone  name  is  frotjuently  applied  collectively  to  all  the  branches 

Tig.  Ae.— Mtxkhiit,  Amcibnt  Capital  or  Obomoia. 


of  the  Georgian  family.  The  Eakhetians,  the  easternmost  of  these  branchefl, 
occupy  the  Yora  and  Alazan  valleys;  west  of  the  Suram  Mountains  dwell  the 
Imerians  and  Mingrelians  in  the  Riou,  Tskhcnis,  and  Lower  IngAr  basins ;  the 
Gurians  hold  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Ajara  Mountains ;  the  Lazes  a  portion  of 
the  Ghondch  basin  west  of  that  range ;  lastly,  the  Svans,  with  a  few  other  tribes, 
have  found  a  refuge  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Upper  Caucasus  valleys.  The  varioiis 
branches  of  the  Karthalian  family  cannot  all  of  them  converse  together,  largely 


INHABITANTS— THE  OEOBOIANS. 


118 


ngatod  eaiit  and 

ed  the  collective 
taiiifl,  in  the  old 
v^hich  tcrtninatea 
Ntwarda  with  the 
uU  the  branches 


^■^i^' 


fis  _  - 


these  branches, 
itains  dwell  the 
gfir  basins;  the 
azes  a  portion  ot 
Eew  other  tribes, 
^8.  The  various 
ktgether,  largely 


owing  to  the  foreign  words  that  have  cropi  into  tho  different  local  idiomn.  Hut 
the  general  rcHoniblanco  is  very  marked  throughout  the  whole  region  from 
Trcbizond  to  Tiflis,  while  amongst  tho  educated  Kurthaliuns  complete  unity  of 
speech  has  been  maintained  by  the  works  of  all  sorts  that  have  been  published  in 
(ileorgian.  At  least  since  tho  tenth  century  there  has  ftcurishcd  a  Karthalian 
literature,  beginning  with  a  simple  translation  of  tho  Dible  and  gradually  enriched 
by  religious  treatises,  epic  poems,  songs,  dramas,  scientific  writings,  and  more 
recently  with  translations  of  foreign  works  and  periodical  publications.  Neverthe- 
less the  cultivation  of  the  Qeorgian  language  and  the  intcllectiul  development  of 
the  nation  have  been  arrested  by  extreme  centralizing  tendencies.  Hince  1807  the 
Georgian  archives  and  the  valuable  literary  and  historical  documents  found  in 
Tiilis  have  been  removed  to  St.  Petersburg.  Studied  efforts  are'  also  being  made 
to  replace  Georgian  by  Russian,  and  the  latter  lang^ge  is  now  compulsorily 
taught  in  all  the  local  schools.  The  national  speech,  by  some  grouped  with  the 
Aryan,  by  others  with  the  Ural-Altaic  family,  would  really  seem  to  stand  quite 
apart,  a  view  already  held  by  Klaproth,  and  since  confirmed  by  Zagarelli,  who  has 
paid  the  greatest  attention  to  the  structure  of  the  language.  Like  the  Basque  in 
Europe,  Georgian  appears  to  be  the  surviving  representative  of  a  form  of  speech 
formerly  current  throughout  a  far  wider  area,  and  absolutely  distinct  from  the 
Aryan,  Semitic,  and  Uralian  linguistic  stocks.  The  alphabet  in  use,  at  least  since 
the  tenth  century,  is  derived,  like  the  Armenian,  through  the  Pahlvi  and  Zend  from 
the  Aramtean. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Lazes,  who  are  mostly  Mohanunedans,  the  Eartha- 
lians  belong  to  the  Greek  rite,  and  to  their  patron  saint,  George,  is  with  some 
probability  attributed  the  name  of  Georgia,  whence  the  Russian  Grusia.  North  of 
the  Rion  and  Eura  this  saint  is  held  in  greatest  veneration,  whereas  in  the  region 
south  of  those  rivers,  including  the  whole  of  Armenia,  the  worship  of  Mary  has 
everywhere  replaced  that  of  Ma,  or  Maya,  goddess  of  the  teeming  earth  and  of  the 
harvest.  The  Georgians  are  strongly  attached  to  their  faith,  and  notwithstanding 
their  naturally  gentle  disposition,  they  have  always  energetically  resisted  the 
successive  religious  persecutions  of  the  Turks  and  Persians.  The  Byzantine  style 
of  their  churches,  introduced  from  Armenia,  assumed  in  mediaeval  times  a  certain 
originality,  still  represented  'by  exquisite  oaves,  belfries,  and  apses,  dating 
especially  from  the  tenth  and  two  foUo'ving  centuries.  Even  in  the  remotest 
upland  valleys  the  traveller  is  surprised  to  meet  with  churches  in  a  renoarkably 
pure  style,  mostly  standing  on  pleasant  hills  in  the  midst  of  leafy  thickets.  Nearly 
aU  are  so  built  as  to  serve  also  as  strongholds,  while  some  are  even  subterraneous, 
betrayed  by  no  outward  signs,  and  capable  of  sheltering  the  community  in  troubled 
times.  In  Kakhetia  the  rocky  eminences  of  the  Earayaz  steppe  overlooking  the 
Yora  valley  are  pierced  with  caverns,  said  to  have  been  excavated  as  churches  and 
convents  in  the  sixth  century.  In  aU  the  hilly  districts  of  Karthalia  the  peasantry 
are  also  acquainted  with  labyrinthine  oaves,  the  former  abode  of  a  troglodytic 
people.  Hundreds  of  strange  towers  are  also  met,  recalling  the  nuraghi  of  Sardinia, 
but  of  unknown  origin  and  use,  although  each  is  associated  with  its  special  legend. 


114 


A8IATI0  BUS8U. 


The  old  method  of  oonHtructin^  dwellingH  hnn  peniiited  for  orer  two  thotimnd 
yoorn.  Whole  villiif^cH  eoiiNitit  of  nothing  hut  holcH  dug  in  the  ground  or  hewn  out 
f)f  the  roi'k,  revoulwl  from  without  only  hy  masitea  of  foliugo,  or  by  clay  roofs  on 
which  the  women  nit  in  the  eool  of  the  nummer  oveningii.  In  mont  of  the  towns 
many  hou8cn  are  uIho  still  covennl,  instead  of  a  roof,  with  a  layer  of  hardened 
earth  alM)ut  2  feet  thick,  and  inclined  just  sufficiently  to  allow  the  water  to  run 
off  through  the  openings  in  the  low  wall  enclosing  the  terrace.  On  this  surface 
there  grows  a  dense  leafy  vegetation,  in  which  the  Lepidium  teticariuHi,  a  species  of 
crucifera,  pre<lominate8 ;  but  it  withers  up  in  summer,  and  is  got  rid  nf  by  being  set 
on  fire,  these  nightly  bonfires  often  producing  a  very  startling  effect  as  they  blaze 
up  suddenly,  and  as  suddenly  die  out  on  the  housetops.  As  regards  health  the 
clay  terraces  are  far  preferable  to  tho  European  roofs,  as  they  maintain  a  warmer 
temperature  in  winter  and  a  cooler  in  summer.  Yet,  through  a  blind  love  of 
everything  foreign,  the  upper  classes  in  Tiflis  have  begun  to  build  their  houses  in 
the  Western  style. 

The  Georgians  of  the  Eura  basin,  like  their  Imerian,  Mingrelian,  and  Laz 
kindred,  fully  deserve  the  reputation  for  physical  beauty  which  they  enjoy.  They 
have  the  same  abimdantr  black  hair,  large  eyes,  white  teeth,  delicate  complexion, 
lithe  figures,  small  hands,  that  distinguish  their  western  neighbours.  Yet  the 
appearance  especially  of  their  women,  who  mostly  paint,  can  scarcely  be  described 
as  prepossessing.  They  are  cold  and  unattractive,  their  features  lacking  the 
animated  expression  and  bright  smile  which  intellectual  development  might  be 
expected  to  have  produced.  Most  of  the  Georgians  have  a  high,  almost  flushed 
complexion,  due  doubtless  to  excessive  indulgence  in  wine,  of  which  they  are  ever 
ready  to  take  copious  draughts  in  honoiir  of  their  friends,  generally  with  the  Tatar 
words,  Allah  Verdi,  "  the  gift  of  God ! "  The  Eakhetians  especially,  proud  of 
their  excellent  vintages,  consume  large  quantities,  and  before  the  ravages  of  the 
o'idiiun,  the  usual  allowance  of  the  field  labourers  was  here  about  half  a  gallon 
daily.  This  fiery  wine,  some  of  which  might  compare  favourably  with  the  best 
produced  in  Europe,  is  mostly  consumed  in  the  country,  and  one  of  the  most 
familiar  sights  in  Eakhetia  is  the  well-filled  ox  or  pig  skins  hanging  at  the  doors 
of  the  shops,  or  crossing  the  country  in  waggon-loads.  In  order  to  preserve 
the  pliancy  of  the  skins  the  natives  have  the  horrible  practice  of  flaying  the 
beasts  alive,  and  then  smearing  the  hides  with  naphtha.  Thier  imparts  a 
disagreeable  flavour  to  the  liquor,  to  which,  however,  even  strangers  soon  get 
accustomed. 

Notwithstanding  the  fertility  of  the  land  and  relatively  sparse  population,  the 
peasantry  of  the  Eura  basin  are  generally  poor,  owning  little  beyond  a  few  mangy 
cattle  and  sheep,  whose  wool  looks  almost  like  hair.  Like  the  Mingrelians  and 
Imerians,  though  to  a  less  extent,  the  Georgians  have  suffered  from  the  feudal 
system.  However,  since  1864  and  1866  they  have  at  least  ceased  to  be  attached  to 
the  glebe,  and  serfdom  has  been  abolished  in  Transcaucasia,  as  elsewhere  throughout 
the  empire.  But  the  nobles,  who  have  remained  large  proprietors,  have  not  all  of 
them  yet  lost  the  habit  of  treating  the  peasantry  as  beasts  of  burden,  while  practices 


er  two  thouMnd 
und  ur  hewn  out 
by  clay  roofs  on 
oHt  of  thu  towns 
yer  of  hardened 
be  water  to  run 

On  this  Hurface 
'iuHi,  u  speoiea  of 
d  of  by  being  aet 
act  as  they  blaze 
l^rda  health  the 
iintain  a  warmer 

a  blind  love  of 
d  their  houses  in 

^elian,  and  Laz 
ey  enjoy.  They 
cate  complexion, 
ibours.  Yet  the 
jely  be  described 
ires  lacking  the 
pment  might  be 
h,  almost  flushed 
ich  they  are  ever 
ly  with  the  Tatar 
Bcially,  proud  of 
le  ravages  of  the 
mt  half  a  gallon 
>ly  with  the  best 
one  of  the  most 
^ng  at  the  doors 
)rder  to  preserve 
le  of  flaying  the 
Thier  imparts  a 
rangers  soon  get 

le  population,  the 

ond  a  few  mangy 

Mingrelians  and 

from  the  feudal 

to  be  attached  to 

where  throughout 

•8,  have  not  all  of 

in,  while  practices 


iiiiit '-'.u     MwiiMii  iwwn  H'm 


[n1rfl'lT"'''Mltiri'rJ<ry'\iii'iiii 


■M^ 


INHABITANTS— THE  GEOEGIANS. 


116 


begotten  of  slavery  in  the  people  themselves  have  not  yet  disappeared.  They  are 
for  the  most  part  uncleanly  and  listless,  though  their  naturally  cheerful,  social,  and 
upright  disposition  is  g^radually  asserting  itself.  They  are  said  to  be  rather  less 
intelligent  than  the  Caucasian  races,  and  in  the  schools  show  less  quickness  than 
their  Tatar  and  Armenian  neighbours  in  mastering  foreign  languages  and  the 
sciences,  though  this  may  be  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  latter  are  mainly 
townsfolk,  while  the  former  are  a  rural  population.  Theft  is  a  crime  almost 
unknown  in  the  Georgian  and  Armenian  communities,  the  few  cases  of  larceny  that 
come  before  the  Tiflis  courts  being  mostly  committed  by  strangers.  At  the  same 
time  many  are  addicted  to  contraband  hubits.  Nor  does  their  national  legislator, 
King  Yakhtang,  seem  to  have  entertained  any  high  opinion  of  their  general 
uprightness.  "  I  have  drawn  up  this  code,"  he  writes,  "  but  in  Georgia  no  just 
sentence  has  ever  yet  been,  nor  ever  will  be,  pronounced."  Yet,  however 
barbarous  may  have  been  the  former  Government,  it  remained  for  the  Russians  to 
introduce  corporal  punishment  of  the  most  degrading  form. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  traits  of  the  Georgian  race  is  their  love  of  song  and 
the  dance.  They  have  no  great  musical  talent,  and  their  language,  with  its 
numerous  gutturals  and  sibilants,  is  scarcely  adapted  to  melody.  Yet  none  the  less 
do  they  keep  up  an  incessant  chant  all  day  long,  accomp&nying  themselves  with 
the  daira,  or  tambourine,  and  the  balalaika,  a  sort  of  three-stringed  guitar.  Some 
will,  so  to  say,  adapt  every  movement  to  musical  rhythm,  and  while  weeding  their 
maize-fields  or  engaged  in  other  field  work,  the  men  dispose  themselves  in  groups, 
singing  in  various  sets  snatches  of  verse  suitable  to  the  work  in  hand.  As  they 
advance  the  chorus  becomes  more  vigorous,  and  their  measured  movements  more 
rapid.  At  the  end  of  the  furrow  they  stop  short,  shift  their  places,  and  in 
retracing  their  steps  renew  the  interrupted  burden  of  their  song.  Despotic 
masters  from  gloomy  Russia  attempted  in  vain  to  impose  silence  on  their  Trans- 
caucasian  labourers.  Unaccompanied  by  the  glad  music  of  the  voice,  the  daily  task 
hung  heavy  on  their  hands. 

Custom  has  also  given  force  of  law  to  numerous  feast-days  analogous  to  the 
old  holidays  of  "  Merry  England."  On  foot,  on  horseback,  or  in  their  ramshackle 
carts  the  whole  population  flocks  to  the  scene,  indicated  from  afar  by  some  venerable 
church  or  cluster  of  oak-trees',  and  here  the  song,  the  dance,  trade,  revelry,  and 
religious  rites  all  follow  in  rapid  succession.  Worship  is  itself  performed  with  a  sort 
of  blind  rapture.  Pilg^rimn  present  themselves  before  the  priest  to  have  the  iron 
collar  removed,  with  which  they  had  symbolized  their  temporary  thraldom  to  the 
patron  saint ;  and  when  released  they  immolate  to  his  honour  the  ram  or  the  bull, 
which  afterwards  supplies  the  banquet.  Frequently  some  fair  white-robed 
spouse  of  the  white  George  "  will  cast  herself  at  the  feet  of  the  faithful,  who 
must  either  step  on  her  prostrate  body  or  leap  over  it  to  reach  the  hallowed  shrine. 
The  Armenians,  and  even  the  Moslem  Tatars,  come  to  trade,  are  at  times  carried 
away  by  the  religious  frenzy,  and  join  in  the  chorus  and  Christian  rites.  To  the 
sacred  succeed  the  profane  dances,  wL^ch  often  assume  the  appearance  of  a  free 
fight,  the  victors  seizing  the  girdles  of  the  vanquished,  enveloping  themselves  in 


MM 


Mi 


mmmimim 


mt 


mstk^' 


116 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


the  ample  folds  of  their  b&rkas,  or  donning  their  imposing  papaahes.  Formerly  the 
sham  fights  held  in  the  streets  of  Tiflis  in  commemoration  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Persians  ended  in  regular  battles,  often  accompanied  by  loss  of  life. 


The  Khevsurs,  Pshavs,  and  TdsHEs. 

As  in  the  west,  so  in  East  Georgia,  the  ethnical  pictiire  is  completed  by  a  group 
of  highlanders,  who  had  till  recently  maintained,  their  independence  in  their  inac- 
cessible upland  retreats.  On  the  one  hand  are  the  already  described  Svans,  on 
the  other  their  Ehevsur,  Pshav,  and  Tiish  neighbours.  The  highest  eastern 
valleys  about  Mount  Borbalo  have  afforded  a  refuge  to  fugitives  of  diverse  race 
and  speech,  who,  amidst  these  secluded  upland  snows  and  pastures,  have  gradually 
acquired,  if  not  an  independent  type,  at  least  a  distinct  physiognomy.  Chechenzes, 
Lezghians,  Georgians,  and,  according  to  tradition,  even  Jews  have  entered  into  the 
composition  of  these  tribes,  although  the  chief  ethnical  element  is  no  doubt  the 
Georgian  from  the  south,  whose  presence  is  also  shown  by  the  prevailing  Christian 
practices.  Nevertheless  the  predominant  speech  on  the  northern  slopes  is  of 
Chechenz  origir . 

Mount  Borbalo  is  no  less  remarkable  as  an  ethnological  than  as  a  water  parting. 
Eastward  stretches  the  TCksh  district,  watered  by  the  two  head-streams  of  the 
Eoisu  of  Andi ;  on  the  south  the  Alazan  of  Eakhetia,  apart  from  a  few  Tdshes, 
is  mainly  occupied  by  Georgians ;  on  the  south-west  the  sources  of  the  Yora  and 
Eastern  Aragva  rise  in  the  Pshav  territory ;  while  the  Ehevsurs,  or  "  People  of 
the  Gorges,"  dwell  in  the  west  and  north-west,  on  both  slopes  of  the  central  range, 
though  it  is  impossible  to  assign  definite  limits  to  all  these  peoples.*  They  fre- 
quently shift  their  quarters,  following  their  flocks  to  fresh  pastures  assigned  to 
them  by  custom,  or  acquired  by  the  fortunes  of  war. 

The  Pshavs,  who  reach  farthest  down,  or  about  the  altitude  of  3,300  feet,  thus 
abutting  on  the  Southern  Georgians,  are  the  most  civilised  of  these  highlanders, 
and  speak  a  Georgian  dialect.  They  have  greatly  increased  in  numbers  since 
the  pacification  of  the  land  has  enabled  them  to  bring  their  produce  to  the  Tiflis 
market.  The  Ti^shes,  though  less  numerous  and  pent  up  in  their  rugged  valleys 
everywhere  enclosed  by  snowy  mountains,  are  said  to  be  the  most  industrious  and 
intelligent  of  all  the  hiUmen  in  this  part  of  the  Caucasus.  Most  of  the  men,  being 
obliged,  like  the  Savoyards,  to  emigrate  for  half  the  year,  bring  back  from  the  low- 
land populations  larger  ideas  and  more  enterprising  habits.  Many  have  even 
acquired  a  considerable  amount  of  instruction,  besides  several  foreign  languages. 
Their  own  is  an  extremely  irude  dialect,  poor  in  vowels,  abounding  in  consonants, 
with  no  less  than  nine  sibilants  and  eight  gutturals,  one  of  which  combines  so  inti- 

*  Population  of  Upland  Borbalo  valleys  in  1876,  according  to  Seidlitz  :— 

Pshavs 8,lfi0 

KhevButs 6,000 

Tashes 5.050 

Total 20,100 


Formerly  the 
[pulsion  of  the 


Bted  by  a  group 
e  in  their  inac- 
ribed  Svans,  on 
highest  eastern 
of  diverse  race 
have  gradually 
Chechenzes, 
entered  into  the 
is  no  doubt  the 
ailing  Christian 
irn  slopes  is  of 

a  water  parting, 
-streams  of  the 
1  a  few  Tdshes, 
If  the  Yora  and 
I,  or  "  People  of 
le  central  range, 
ties.*  They  fre- 
iires  assigned  to 

3,300  feet,  thus 
ese  highlanders, 
L  numbers  since 
uoe  to  the  Tiflis 
r  rugged  valleys 

industrious  and 
f  the  men,  being 
sk  from  the  low- 
if any  have  even 
reign  languages. 
^  in  consonants, 
combines  so  inti- 


THE  KHEVSURS,  PSHAVS,  AND  T^^SHES. 


117 


raately  with  the  preceding  or  following  consonants  that  special  signs  had  to  be 
invented  to  represent  the  combined  letters. 

The  Ehevsurs,  completely  isolated  from  each  other  daring  the  winter  by  the 
main  range,  are  still  in  a  very  rude  and  almost  barbarous  state,  although  in  some 

Fig.  A7.— Thb  Khbtsvu,  TCsk,  and  Pshat  Lakd*. 
Bade  1  :  853,000. 


•!!ii!«'!iiiir\ 


45«i5 


TftdtM.  VOntn.  flcoiglMM.  CheobeoM*. 


respects  one  of  the  most  remarkable  people  in  Asia.  Generally  of  a  lighter  brown 
complexion  than  the  Tftshes,  they  are  evidently  a  very  mixed  race,  varying  con- 
siderably' in  stature,  features,  coloiir  of  hair  and  eyes,  and  in  the  shape  of  the 
cranium.      Most  of  them  have  a  savage  aspect;    some  are  extremely  thin,  like 


MMMM 


iiiiMiiniwuiniiiiiimi-^-.ff--" 


118 


ASIATIO  BUSSU. 


walking  skeletons  with  miraculously  animated  Death's  heads  on  their  shoulders, 
and  with  large  hands  and  feet,  out  of  all  proportion  with  the  rest  of  the  body. 
From  the  surroundings  they  have  acquired  muscles  of  steel,  enabling  them,  even 
when  heavily  burdened,  to  scale  the  steepest  cliffs,  and  often  returning  across 
the  snows  and  rocks  from  Vladikavkaz  with  a  hundredweight  of  salt  on  their 
backs. 

Some  of  the  still  surviving  Khevsur  and  Pshav  customs  resemble  those  of  many 
Red  Indian  and  African  wild  tribes.  Thus  the  wife  is  confined  in  an  isolated  hut, 
roimd  which  the  husband  prowls,  encouraging  her  to  support  the  pains  of  labour 
with  volleys  of  musketry.  After  the  delivery  young  girls  steal  to  the  place  at 
dawn  or  dusk  with  bread,  milk,  cheese,  and  other  comforts,  the  mother  renuiin- 
ing  for  a  month  in  her  retreat,  which  is  burnt  after  her  departure.  The  father  is 
congratulated  on  the  birth  of  a  son,  and  feasts  are  prepared  at  his  expense,  but  of 
which  he  may  not  partake.  The  struggle  for  existence  in  this  unproductive 
land  has  introduced  many  practices  calculated  to  limit  the  number  of  children  to 
three ;  but  infanticide  does  not  prevail  as  it  formerly  did  amongst  the  Svans.  The 
Khevsurs  show  great  affection  for  their  offspring,  though  forbidden  by  custom  to 
caress  them  in  public.  The  boys  are  generally  named  after  some  wild  animal — 
Bear,  Lion,  Wolf,  Panther,  &c.,  emblems  of  their  future  valour,  while  the  girls 
receive  such  tender  names  as  Hose,  Pearl,  Bright-one,  Daughter  of  the  Sun,  Little 
Sim,  Sun  of  my  Heart,  &c. 

Most  of  the  marriages  are  arranged  by  the  parents  while  the  children  are  yet 
in  "  long  clothes."  Nevertheless  a  formal  abduction  is  still  practised,  and  after 
the  wedding  and  attendant  rejoicings,  the  young  couple  avoid  being  seen  together 
for  weeks  and  months.  Yet  divorce  is  frequent,  and  the  example  of  the  Moham- 
medans has  even  introduced  polygamy  :a  several  Khevsur  families.  The  funeral 
rites  are  not  practised  with  the  same  rigour  as  formerly,  when  none  were  allowed 
to  die  tmder  a  roof,  but  compelled  to  dose  their  eyes  in  face  of  sun  or  stars,  and 
mingle  their  last  breath  with  the  winds.  In  presence  of  the  body  the  relatives 
at  first  feigned  to  rejoice,  but  tears  and  wailings  soon  followed,  accompanied  by 
mournful  songs  for  the  departed. 

The  Ehevsurs  are  very  proud  of  their  Christianity,  which  is  certainly  of  an 
original  type.  Their  chief  divinity  is  the  Ood  of  War,  and  amongst  their  other 
gods  and  angels  are  the  Mother  of  the  Earth,  the  Angel  of  the  Oak,  and  the 
Archangel  of  Property.  They  keep  the  Friday  like  the  Mohammedans,  abstain 
from  pork,  worship  the  sacred  trees,  offer  sacrifices  to  the  genii  of  earth  and  air. 
They  have  priests  whose  duties  are  to  examine  the  sick,  sprinkle  tiie  victim's  blood 
over  the  people,  proclaim  the  future,  prepare  the  sacred  beer,  and  these  dignitaries 
end  by  becoming  possessed  of  all  the  precious  stones,  old  medals,  and  chased  silver 
vases  in  the  country.  The  Khevsurs  are  also,  perhaps,  the  only  people  in  the 
world  who  still  use  armour,  coats  of  mail,  arm-pieces,  and  helmets  like  those  of 
mediaeval  knights,  and  formerly  general  amongst  all  the  Caucasian  tribes.  Down 
to  the  close  of  the  last  century  the  Chechenz  Ingushes  still  wore  the  shield 
and  coats  of  maU.     The  traveller  is  often  startled  by  the  sight  of  these  armed 


.:^,.::M^,,.L.t^,i^imM^irCt^iMMMl'L.&miUdl^^lSlM 


■*- 


THE  TATARS,  TALISHES,  SLAVS,  AND  GERMANS. 


110 


warriors,  who  look  like  lineal  descendants  of  the  Crusaders,  but  whom  the  law  of 
vendetta  alone  compels  to  go  about  thus  cased  in  iron.  All  who  have  to  execute 
or  fear  an  act  of  vengeance  appear  abroad  with  all  their  offensive  ond  defensive 
arms,  including  the  terrible  spiked  gauntlet,  which  has  left  its  mark  on  the  features 
of  most  of  the  natives. 

The  Tatars,  Talishes,  Slavs,  and  Germans. 

Although  far  less  numerous  than  the  Georgians  in  the  Eura  basin,  the  Tatars 
still  occupy  nearly  all  its  eastern  section  below  Tiflis.  In  several  districts  they 
are  grouped  in  compact  masses  of  afar  purer  type  than  their  kinsmen,  the  Western 
Osmanli.  By  the  Byzantines  and  Arabs  they  were  all  confused,  under  the  general 
name  of  Ehazars,  with  the  peoples  at  that  time  predominating  on  the  banks  of  the 
Don  and  Volga.  Although  presenting  every  variety  of  type  from  the  coarsest  to 
the  noblest,  they  are  in  general,  scarcely  less  symmetrical  than  their  Georgian 
neighbours,  while  harbouring,  imder  a  serious  and  solemn  expression,  moral  qualities 
not  found  in  other  Caucasian  races.  Those  who  have  prieserved  their  freedom  are 
remarkably  sincere,  upright,  and  hospitable,  generally  very  industrious,  and  superior 
to  their  neighbours  as  stock-breeders,  agriculturists,  gardeners,  and  artisans. 
They  are  often  even  better  instructed  than  the  Russians  themselves,  for  most  of 
them  can  read,  while  many  write  Turkish  very  correctly,  and  some  show  themselves 
familiar  with  Arabic  and  Persian. 

In  some  respects  the  Tatars  are  the  civilising  element  in  Caucasia,  for  their 
language,  the  T&rki  of  Azerbeijan,  is  the  general  medium  of  intercourse  between 
the  various  tribes,  so  that  all  the  natives  are  commonly  comprised  under  the  col- 
lective name  of  Tatars.  Amongst  them  are  some  representatives  of  the  Kimians 
and  other  warlike  invaders  of  Southern  Europe,  and  they  could  not  fail  to 
have  acquired  a  decisive  influence  in  the  country,  but  for  a  certain  apathy  of 
character  which  has  caused  them  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  Armenian  speculators 
and  money-lenders.  In  their  habits  those  of  the  Lower  Eura,  Shirvan,  and  Baku 
approach  nearer  to  the  Persians  than  to  the  Turks.  They  seldom  pra6tise  poly- 
gamy, and  their  women  generally  work  freely  with  unveiled  face.  On  the  whole 
they  are  remarkably  tolerant,  nor  does  the  Shiah  sect  take  advantage  of  its  decided 
ascendancy  to  persecute  either  the  Sunnite  Mohammedans  or  their  Christian 
neighbours.  In  some  mixed  villages  the  mayors  are  chosen  alternately  from  the 
Armenians  and  Tatars,  and  even  on  the  Persian  frontier  the  Christians  assist  at 
the  Shiah  celebrations.  Thus  at  Shusha  the  funeral  processions  in  honour  of 
Hassan  and  Hussein  are  escorted  by  mounted  Cossacks,  and  attended  by  military 
bands.  Yet  the  fanatical  actors  often  bewail  those  martyrs  of  the  Prophet's 
family  by  self-inflicted  tortures  of  a  most  atrocious  description,  slashing  their 
heads  with  knives  until  they  are  bathed  in  gore,  burying  wooden  pegs  in  their 
skull,  attaching  iron  clasps  to  the  cheek  bones  and  nostrils,  confining  the  shoulders 
between  two  sharp  swords  which  pierce  the  skin  at  every  step,  or  loading  the 
arms,  breast,  and  loins  with  chains  and  amulets  fastened  by  means  of  iron  hooks 


mmumm 


mimmm 


190 


A8IATI0  RUSSIA. 


sunk  into  the  flesh.  The  unhappy  victimfl  often  fall  from  exhaustion  or  Ions  of 
blood,  while  the  dervisheH  und  priests  continue  to  excite  the  populace  with  sougs, 
pruyors,  and  nhouts. 

In  certain  eastern  districts  dwell  the  Tats,  also  zealous  Shiah  sectaries,  descend- 
onts  of  the  former  Persian  rulers  of  the  country,  and  whoso  name  is  synonymous 
with  thot  of  Tajik,  current  throughout  Turkestan.  They  are  found  in  compact 
groups  about  Baku,  and  as  far  north  as  Kuba.  Most  of  the  Lenkoran  district,  on 
the  Persian  frontier,  is  also  occupied  by  un  Iranian  people  known  as  Talishes,  who 
have  long  dwelt  in  a  semi-barbarous  state  in  the  secluded  region  between  the 
highlands  and  the  swamps  of  the  Lower  Kura.  Their  language  is  not  a  Persian 
dialect,  but  an  independent  parallel  development,  showing  a  certain  affinity  to  the 
Afghan.  Next  to  the  Georgians  and  the  Tatars,  these  Tats  and  Talish  Iranians 
occupy  the  widest  ethnical  area  in  Caucasia,  although  outnumbered  by  the  Arrae- 
^nians,  who  are  grouped  in  the  towns,  and  especially  in  Tiflis.  Besides  all  these 
races  there  are  a  few  Mongol  tribes  in  the  Lower  Kura  basin,  survivors  of  the  old 
invaders,  who  live  more  or  less  intermingled  with  the  Tatars  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  Alazan  between  Signakh  and  Zakatali.  The  hilly  district  overlooking  Tiflis  on 
the  west  is  occupied  by  some  Osses,  and  even  Greeks,  invited  hither  to  replace  the 
Tatars  in  1829.  Lastly,  the  settled  population  of  Eastern  Transcaucasia  is  com- 
pleted by  several  Russian  and  German  colonists,  some  banished,  others  voluntary 
emigrants  to  this  region. 

The  Russian  nonconformists,  compelled  in  1838  and  subsequent  years  to  settle 
in  Transcaucasia,  are  mostly  Molokanes — that  is,  "  Feeders  on  Milk  " — or  Dukho- 
bortzi — that  is,  "  Wrestlers  in  Spirit " — from  Taurida.  Thanks  to  their  co-operative 
habits,  both  are  far  more  prosperous  than  their  Tatar  or  Georgian  neighbours, 
though  in  many  respects  inferior  to  other  Slav  colonists.  The  Germans  who,  like 
the  Russian  dissidents,  have  also  settled  near  Tiflis  and  Yelizavetpol,  live  entirely 
aloof  from  the  surrounding  populations,  and  by  their  agricultural  skill  have  con- 
verted into  gardens  the  lands  conceded  to  them  when  they  migrated  in  1817  from 
Wurtemberg.  These  Suabian  colonists  seem,  in  the  course  of  two  generations,  to 
have  become  remarkably  modified  under  the  influence  of  the  physical  surroundings. 
Although  they  have  contracted  no  alliances  with  their  Georgian,  Armenian,  or 
Tatar  neighbours,  they  no  longer  resemble  their  kinsmen  in  the  fatherland,  most 
of  them  being  now  distinguished  by  dark  hair,  black  eyes,  oval  and  regular  features, 
graceful  and  lithe  figures.  > 


TOPOGRAPHV. 

The  highest  to\(ai  in  the  Eura  basin  is  Ardahan,  a  stronghold  situated  in  a 
fertile  cirque  at  the  southern  foot  of  the  bliiff  surmounted  by  the  fortress  of 
Ramazan.  By  its  capture  in  1877  the  Russians  became  masters  of  the  more 
important  passes  leading  towards  the  Chorukh  and  Araxis  valleys.  But  eastwards 
Ardaha^  still  remains  unconnected  by  easy  routes  with  the  rest  of  Transcaucasia, 
the  volcanic  region  here  traversed  by  the  Eura  opposing  great  obstacles  to  trade. 


■ymt- 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


181 


istion  or  lom  of 
ilaco  with  flongH, 

ctaricH,  doscend- 
is  synonymous 

und  in  compact 
coran  district,  on 

as  Talishcs,  who 
ion  between  the 

is  not  a  Persian 
in  affinity  to  the 

Talish  Iranians 
sd  by  the  Arrae- 
Besides  all  these 
vivors  of  the  old 
',  the  left  bank  of 
rlooking  Tiflis  on 
ler  to  replace  the 
Bcaucasia  is  com- 
others  voluntary 

it  years  to  settle 
ilk"— orDukho- 
their  co-operative 
gian  neighbours, 
rermans  who,  like 
tpol,  live  entirely 
il  skill  have  con- 
ted  in  1817  from 
70  generations,  to 
cal  surroundings. 
;n,  Armenian,  or 
fatherland,  most 
reg^ar  features, 


>ld  situated  in  a 
f  the  fortress  of 
)rs  of  the  more 
But  eastwards 
>f  Transcaucasia, 
ibstacles  to  trade. 


One  of  the  river  gorges  below  Arrlnhuii  onolosos  the  celebrated  convent  of  Vardziu, 
or  Vardzish — that  is,  "  Castlo  of  Roses  "—entirely  oxoavuted  in  the  Hoft  tufa,  which  is 
liore  regularly  stratified  with  layers  of  black  Hcoria.  The  underground  town  contains 
innumerable  cells  dis|)OHcd  in  stories,  and  connected  by  galleries  edging  the  preci- 
pice 200  foet  above  the  Kura.  The  larger  spaces  form  either  chapcjls,  where  are 
still  to  bo  seen  the  rcmaius  of  frescoes,  or  the  so-called  summer  and  winter  palaces 
of  Queen  Tamaro. 

East  of  these  defiles  stands  the  important  fortress  of  Akalkalaki,  on  an  exposed 
but  fertile  plateau  6,630  feet  above  sea-level.   Akiaka,  or  Akhaltzik — that  is,  "  New 

Fig.  68.— The  Suhax  Fasb  and  Mbkk  Moumtains. 
Bcalu  1  :  9tO,<ro 


4Q 


-45*  C5' 


45*  i5- 


L.PG 


.  SMiln. 


Fort " — which  was  the  old  Turkish  town  of  Ak-hissar,  or  "  White  Fort,"  is  also  an 
important  military  town,  commanding  several  of  the  frontier  routes,  and  in  peaceful 
times  the  centre  of  a  considerable  trade,  since  the  emigration  of  the  Turks  chiefly 
occupied  by  Armenians,  with  about  a  thousand  Jews.  The  old  mosque  of  its 
citadel,  now  a  church,  is  one  of  the  finest  monnments  in  Caucasia.  The  district 
abounds  in  hot  springs,  amongst  M^hich  those  of  Aspinza  below  Vardzia,  and  Abbas- 
Tuman  to  the  north-west,  attract  numerous  bathers  to  one  of  the  most  umbrageous 
and  romantic  valleys  in  this  re^';,jn.  Descending  from  Akhaltzik  towards  Tiflis 
by  the  banks  of  the  Kura,  we  reach  the  magnificent  gorge,  whose  entrance  is 
guarded  by  the  pleasant  watering-place  of  Borjom,  2,665  feet  above  sea-level. 
0 


mmmagUgmtmiBmmemi 


taiii»swwil>)iiitrr,riiwiiiiiiiiriiii(i  ii  w 


A8UTI0  BUS8IA. 


This  ia  the  Huminer  rcnort  of  the  woulthy  classes  from  Tiflis,  and  the  ruined  build- 
ings intcrH|x>rHC<l  iiniDUgHt  the  nuKlem  palaces  and  villas  show  that  it  was  u  lur)f<> 
centre  of  population  even  l)oforo  the  sixteenth  century.  Hero  the  air  is  pure  and 
fresh,  water  flows  in  abundance,  and  every  eminence  is  clothed  with  forests  in  which 
the  ibex  uiid  wild  goat  are  still  hunted. 

Snram,  though  small  in  size,  is  a  bu.«y  town,  well  known  to  travellers  as  a 
resting-place  on  the  routo  and  railway  between  Poti  and  Tiflis.  It  is  comnuinded 
by  a  strong  custlo,  which,  according  to  the  legend,  the  owner  endeavoured  to  render 
impregnable  by  layinv^  the  foundation  stone  on  the  only  son  of  a  widow.  Surani 
stands  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Earthalian  plain,  a  dried-up  lake  whose  bed 
is  now  extremely  fertile.     The  temporary  railway  ot  pre  .at  crossing  the  Suram 


Fig.  69.— Thb  Kura  Valley  Bmr»N  Qori  and  Mtsuut. 
IlromUMlUpofthcaaMlMiStaC.    a«at  1 :  MXMW). 


1 

AQ, 

1 

I^ 

i 

^M 

FvfflHHHflr*  ll 

mz 

- 

ifSfi^^'^^i^^ 

^  V       *  •:  *^H^^^^^^H^*  1 

^K 

E^:-' 

^ffi^V^Eg 

^  Vai....*-<^.t 

M 

4i' 
DO 

nm 

^^gj 

W 

EoPG 

44*  10* 

'a^'ao-         1 

.•XflM. 


Hills  will  probably  be  ultimately  replaced  by  another  running  farther  south,  and 
piercing  the  Mesk  range  by  a  tunnel  in  the  vicinity  of  Borjom. 

Oori,  capital  of  the  district,  and  ethnological  centre  of  Oeorg^a,  stands  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  the  middle  of  the  old  lacustrine  basin,  not  far  from  the  junction  of 
the  Eura,  Lakhva,  and  Mejuda,  of  which  the  two  latter  streams  descend  from  the 
country  of  the  Osses.  Gori  is  happily  situated  in  a  fertile  and  well- watered  district 
at  the  foot  of  a  bluff  crowned  by  an  old  citadel.  The  wheat  of  this  district  is  the 
best  in  Transcaucasia,  and  its  wines  are  used  in  Tiflis  for  tempering  the  more 
fiery  vintages  of  Eokhetia.  On  a  tertiary  rock  of  molasse  formation,  5  miles  east 
of  Gori,  lies  the  troglodytic  town  of  Uflis-tzikhe,  no  less  remarkable  than  the  convent 
of  Yardzia,  and  much  more  accessible  to  visitors  by  the  railway  from  Tiflis.  The 
rock,  some  660  feet  high,  consists  of  strata  of  varying  hardness,  carved,  sculptured, 
and  excavated  from  base  to  summit,  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of  a  pyramidal 
group  of  buildings.     These  Uflis  grottoes  were  probably  at  first  inhabited  by 


TOPOOEAPHY. 


128 


tho  ruined  build - 
at  it  WU8  a  lur{j^> 
e  air  is  pure  and 
forests  in  which 

0  travellers  as  a 
It  is  comniunded 
ivoured  to  render 

1  widow.  Surani 
ip  lake  whose  bed 
isaiug  the  Surani 


>M'40' 


farther  south,  and 

%,  stands  as  neok'ly 
m  the  junction  of 
descend  from  the 
11- watered  district 
this  district  is  the 
apering  the  more 
ition,  5  miles  east 
e  than  the  convent 
from  Tiflis.  The 
arved,  sculptured, 
Lce  of  a  pyramidal 
Krst  inhabited  by 


luirbarous  troglodytes ;  but  their  Huocesimrs  were  acqiuiintod  with  tho  arts  and 
I'omforts  of  life,  and  in  these  underground  chambers  are  found  the  romainH  of 
Urcok,  Roman,  Arub,  and  Dyzuntino  architecture. 

Mftkhet,  standing  at  tho  outlet  of  the  old  Lake  of  Kurthalia,  though  now  an 
insigniHcant  village,  was  tho  residence  of  the  Georgian  kings  in  tho  fourth  and 
Hfth  centuries.  It  occupies  a  vital  position  at  tho  junction  of  the  main  routes  from 
tho  Dariul  defile  through  the  Aragva  valley,  and  from  the  Caspian  and  Euxine 
through  the  Kuro  and  Rion  basins.  Hence  after  its  destruction  tho  new  capital  of 
Georgia  and  of  all  Caucasia  was  founded  in  tho  same  neighbourhood,  but  removed, 
about  a  thousand  years  ago,  some  13  miles  farther  south,  to  avoid  tho  dangerous  proxi- 
mity of  the  Osses.  The  piles  of  a  bridge  thrown  across  the  iCura  in  1841  are  said  to 
rest  on  Roman  foundations  dating  from  the  time  of  Pompey.  But  more  interesting 
are  the  ruins  of  the  cathedral  founded  by  King  Mirian  in  328,  and  since  then 
frequently  restored. 

Tiflia,  capital  of  Caucasia  and  the  largest  city  in  Asiatic  Russia,  was  a  more 
hamlet  on  the  banks  of  the  Kura  till  the  fifth  century,  when  the  seat  of  Govern- 
ment was  transferred  hither  from  Mtzkhet.  The  Georgian  term  Tiflis,  Tphilis,  or 
Tphilis-Kalaki,  means  "  Hot  Town,"  doubtless  in  reference  to  the  sulphur  spring 
rising  near  the  Euro,  amidnt  the  porphyries  and  schists  of  the  Tsavkjssi  fissure. 
Yet  the  name  might  be  equally  well  applied  to  it  from  the  sultry  summer  heat 
reflected  by  the  bare  rocks  of  the  surrounding  heights  on  the  basin  enclosing  the 
city  at  an  elevation  of  1,220  feet  above  the  sea.  Nothing  is  visible  in  every  direc- 
tion except  the  slopes  of  hills  or  yellow  and  grey  schistous  mountains  stripped  of 
the  forests  formerly  covering  them,  and  even  of  the  vegetable  humus  carried  away 
by  the  winds  and  rains.  The  Russians  have  recently  endeavoured  to  restore  these 
forests,  but  they  have  succeeded  only  in  the  ravines,  on  the  flats  and  islands 
watered  by  the  Euro.  Above  the  quarter  where  stood  the  old  town,  the  mono- 
tonous uniformity  of  the  rocky  landscape  is  broken  by  ramparts,  bastions,  and 
crumbling  towers,  while  the  banks  of  the  Euro  present  a  picturesque  view  with 
their  three  bridges,  hanging  galleries,  low  many-coloured  housetops,  and  churches 
flanked  by  belfries  terminating  with  octagonal  pyramids.  Nevertheless  the  general 
aspect  of  the  place  is  not  cheerful,  the  grey  tones  of  the  brick  and  wood  work  con- 
tributing to  produce  a  depressing  effect  on  the  traveller.  In  1874  nearly  half  of 
the  houses  were  still  roofed  with  earth,  giving  them  the  appearance  of  huts,  and 
forming  a  strange  contrast  with  the  grand  edifices  in  their  midst.  North-west  of 
the  old  town  stretch  the  regular  streets  of  the  new  quarter,  flanked  by  heavy 
buildings,  churches,  barracks,  palaces,  in  the  ultra-Caucasian  Russian  style.  A 
broad  boulevard,  much  frequented  after  sunset,  vies  in  the  splendour  of  its  ware- 
houses with  those  of  the  great  European  capitals.  The  town  is  also  constantly 
spreading  northwards,  especially  round  about  the  Poti  railway  terminus,  along  the 
left  bank  of  the  Eura,  and  in  the  direction  of  Mtzkhet. 

In  its  motley  population  Tiflis  is  the  worthy  capital  of  the  Caucasian  regions. 
Although  lying  within  the  ethnological  limits  of  Georgia,  it  is  not  in  a  special 
sense  a  Georgian  city,  and  even  in  1803  of  2,700  houses  four  only  belonged  to  families 


wmmmmmmm 


ssasmmemmMmmmim^ 


124 


A8IATT0  RUSSIA. 


of  that  nation.  The  AnnonianH,  oonntituting  ono-thinl  of  the  inhabitantH,  are  i\w 
nioHt  nuniorouM  olonicnt,  whilu  niMtlu>r  lluHHianH  nor  Quorgianit  amount  to  ono-Hfth, 
and  «vcn  amoni^Nt  tho  latter  niunt  bo  inulud(*d  tho  Inioriun  and  Miiigrcliun  "  Lowitn 
of  w{hhI  and  drawtTM  of  wat(>r."  *  A  lurj^o  ntim))c>r  of  tho  |)<<oplo  aro  unniarriod 
inuni^runtM,  toniiN)rary  roHidentM  ruiHing  tho  nialo  population  to  about  two-thirds  of 
tho  whole,  und  partly  aeeountin)^  for  the  prevailing  depravity  noticed  by  all 
travellers.  Tho  bazaars  aro  largely  fi-tHiuontod  and  woU  stocked  with  arms,  carpets, 
silks,  English  or  Russian  cottons,  I'aris  fancy  goods,  and  other  wares.  Tho  skilful 
Armenian  jewellers  produce  various  articles  of  an  original  type.  The  baths  form 
another  centre  of  social  activity,  ospecially  for  the  Russian,  Armenian,  and 
lioorgiun  ladies,  who  here  occupy  themselves  with  the  pleasures  of  tho  toilet. 
The  city  has  no  remarkable  monuments,  but  possesses  a  rich  natural-history 
collection,  and  in  tho  governor's  palace  may  be  seen  a  fine  plan  in  relief  of  tho 
Caucasus  range.  Amongst  the  numerous  learned  associations  noteworthy  is  tho 
Geographical  Society,  which  is  attached  to  that  of  St.  Petersburg,  and  has  pub- 
lished valuable  documents  on  Caucasian  geography  and  ethnography.  Another 
institution  has  been  formed  to  collect  the  old  manuscripts  of  the  Transcaucasian 
languages. 

During  the  oppressive  summer  heats  tho  parks,  pleasure  grounds,  and  botanic 
gardens  in  the  neighbourhood  are  frequented  by  thousands,  glad  to  escape  from  the 
close  and  foul  air  of  the  narrow  streets.  The  officials  and  wealthy  traders  now  also 
flock  to  the  villas  and  hostelries  of  the  surrounding  uplands.  The  chief  "  Sani- 
torium  "  is  Kojor,  whose  houses  are  scattered  at  an  elevation  of  from  4,400  to 
5,000  foot  along  the  slopes  of  a  mountain  conunanding  the  Tiflis  basin,  and  where 
the  Georgian  kings  had  also  their  summer  residence.  Here  are  the  remains  of 
some  ancient  forests,  and  Manglis,  Beliy-ElCkch,  and  other  more  remote  retreats  in 
the  heart  of  the  hills  are  still  surrounded  by  extensive  woodlands.  The  numerous 
alabaster  quarries  of  this  district  supply  the  gypsum  required  by  the  Tiflis  builders. 
Farther  south  volcanoes  pierced  by  craters  and  furrowed  by  crevasHes  have  accu- 
mulated vast  terraces  of  lava  above  the  fertile  Somkhet  district,  which  is  watered 
by  an  affluent  of  the  Eura.  This  country  was  long  the  domain  of  the  Orbeliani,  a 
princely  family  of  Chinese  origin,  who  some  twenty-three  centuries  ago  settled  here 
as  conquerors,  followed  by  Eastern  retainers  of  all  races.  Various  ruins  still  testify 
to  the  former  power  of  the  Orbeliani  in  this  region. 

On  one  of  the  numerous  streams  to  the  south-west  of  Tiflis  stands  the  famous 
Shamkhor  column,  already  mentioned  by  Abulfeda  in  the  thirteenth  century.  This 
finely  proportioned  minaret,  with  its  pedestal,  frieze,  capital,  and  terminal  piece,  is 
180  feet  high ;  but  it  is  in  a  very  bad  state  of  repair,  already  inclining  from  the 


*  Population  of  Tiflis  in  1876  according  to  nationalities  :- 


Armenians 

Georgians  of  all  branches 

Russians 

Germans 

Tatars  and  Turlcs  . 

Persians 


37,808 

21,623 

ig,S74 

2,006 

2.310 

1,892 


Poles 
Jews 
Qreeks  . 
Osses 
French  . 
Sundries 


MM 

1,146 

M8 

267 
1,3M 


In  boarding-houses,  barracks,  hospitals,  and  priaoni,  14,473.    Of  thetJ  30,147  ore  males,  37,877  females- 


labitantu,  ore  t]\v 
(unt  to  ono-fiftli, 
igreliun  "  hewiTN 
lie  uro  unmarried 
out  two-thirds  of 
r  noticed  by  ull 
ith  arras,  coriiets, 
rea.  Tho  Hkilful 
Tbe  baths  fonii 
Armenian,  and 
gg  of  tho  toilet. 
1  natural-history 
I  in  relief  of  tho 
oteworthy  is  tho 
irg,  and  has  pub- 
raphy.  Another 
le  Transcaucasian 

imds,  and  botanic 

0  escape  from  the 
Y  traders  now  also 
The  chief  "  Sani- 
Df  from  4,400  to 

1  basin,  and  where 
re  the  remains  of 
remote  retreats  in 
».  The  numerous 
the  Tiflis  builders. 
jvasses  have  accu- 
,  which  is  watered 
)f  the  Orbeliani,  a 
es  ago  settled  here 
8  ruins  still  testify 

stands  the  famous 

ttth  century.    This 

terminal  piece,  is 

Inclining  from  ihe 


-— «-SWJSBW«'    -~' 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


125 


perpendicular,  and  the  Eufic  inscription  on  the  frieze  in  no  longer  legible.  It  dates 
probably  from  the  ninth  century.  The  basin  of  the  Shainkhor,  which  flows  by  the 
village  of  like  name,  is  the  most  important  in  Caucasia  for  its  mineral  wealth.  In 
a  cirque  in  these  porphyry  mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet,  are  situated  the 
Kedabek  works  for  reducing  the  copper  ores  extracted  from  the  neighbouring 
mines.    This  establishment,  purchased  in  1863  by  some  German  engineers,  gives 


Fig.  60.— TiFLiB. 
Soda  1 :  86,000. 


1,080  Tard*. 


constant  employment  to  1,000  Persian,  Armenian,  Tatar,  and  Greek  workmen,  and 
works  up,  on  an  average,  from  8,000  to  10,000  tons  of  ore  with  about  6  per  cent,  of 
metal,  partly  purchased  by  the  Government  for  the  artillery  service.  It  has 
developed  quite  a  network  of  railways,  and  disposes  of  about  36,000  acres  of  forests 
and  pastures,  and  one  of  the  shafts  has  already  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  nearly 
2,000  feet.   Near  Soglik,  in  the  some  basin,  are  some  alum  deposits,  as  rich  as  those 


JwaiMrttflH^ 


tmm 


>i»ffijT;  "'v^f  ^fj..::' r.,;:'«»sss®>  rfa.is's^cSffir! 


A^S 


1S6 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


of  Tolfa,  near  Giyita  Yecchia,  and  covering  an  urea  of  over  12  square  roilea.  These 
mines  have  been  worked  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  as  shown  by  numerous 
remains  found  on  the  spot.  Iron  and  cobalt  are  also  worked  in  this  part  of  the 
Yelizavetpol  district. 

Some  120  miles  south-east  of  Tiflis  lies  the  old  city  of  Ganja,  formerly  capital 
of  a  khanate  of  like  name,  and  now  renamed  Yelizavetpol,  as  capital  of  the  Russian 
province  of  Yelizavetpol.  It  existed  in  the  eleventh  century,  but  some  miles  from 
its  present  site,  where  are  still  to  be  seen  the  ruins  of  the  old  place,  popularly 
attributed  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who  never  visited  the  Eura  basin.  A  little 
farther  south-east  stood  Partav,  the  old  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Agvania,  or 

Fig.  61. — Yblizavbtfol  and  VioimrT. 
n«iii  the  Map  of  the  Bawian  Staff.    Soale  1 :  000,000. 


.11 


Albania,  in  the  district  watered  by  the  Tertor  above  its  junction  with  the  Kura. 
Partav  was  destroyed  in  the  tenth  entury,  according  to  the  Arab  historians,  by 
"  R(is8i "  advent  rers  from  beyond  the  Caucasus,  and  its  site  is  now  indicated  by 
the  village  of  Barda,  or  Berdaya.  This  region  was  certainly  far  more  densely 
peopled  formerly  than  at  present,  and  Yelizavetpol  itself,  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth 
century  on  its  present  site,  was  evidently  a  considerable  place,  as  shown  by  its 
extensive  ruins  and  the  fine  Persian  mosque  erected  here  by  Shah  Abbas.  Most  of 
its  windowless  houses  are  bitilt  of  a  hardened  clay,  which  is  very  durable  in  this 
dry  climate,  but  which,  with  the  ruins,  contributes  to  g^ve  the  place  an  appearance 
of  g^reat  age.  With  its  fine  plantations  it  covers  a  large  area,  some  12  miles  in 
circumference  ;  yet  it  is  so  unhealthy  that  the  ofiicials  are  all  obliged  to  remove  in 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


summer  to  the  banks  of  the  romantic  "  Blue  Lake  "  (Qok-gdl),  to  Ilelenendorf,  and 
Haji-Kend,  near  the  wooded  hills  of  the  south.  Yelizavetpol  is  even  noted  for  a 
local  endemic,  the  so-called  godovik,  or  "  yearly  leprosy,"  so  named  because  it  lasts 
about  one  3'ear  in  defiance  of  all  remedies.     This  loathsome  disease  is  probably  due 


127 


to  the  twenty-two  cemeteries  close  to  the  town,  iningling  their  contents  with  the 
numerous  irrigating  rills  fronii  the  river  Oanja,  whose  waters  are  often  absorbed  in 
this  way  before  reaching  the  Eura.  The  skilful  horticultiu^  of  its  Tatar,  Suabian, 
and  Slav  inhabitants  has  brought  the  fruits  of  this  district  to  great  perfection,  and 
its  cherries  especially  are  tihe  finest  in  Caucasia.    They  also  occupy  themselves  with 


128 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  cotton,  sericulture,  spinning,  and  weaving,  while  the  trade 
of  YelizaviJtpol  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenians. 

Shusha,  the  largest  town  in  this  government,  is  also  peopled  by  Armenians  and 
Tatars.  Standing  3,500  feet  above  the  sea  on  an  augite  porphyry  terrace  enclosed 
by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  its  climate  is  one  of  the  severest  in  Caucasia,  while  its 
flag-paved  streets,  stone  houses,  fortified  buildings,  towers,  and  posterns  give  it  the 

• 

Fig.  63.— Baku  and  Cafh  Bail-Buhni. 


aspect  of  a  mediaeval  European  town.    T^    Vrmeuian  traders,  who  deal  chiefly  in 
silk,  have  extensive  relations  with  Tiflis,  Moscow,  and  Marseilles. 

Telav,  capital  of  Kakhetia,  and  in  the  eleventh  century  the  residence  of  a  "  King 
of  Kings,"  is  now  merely  a  picturesque  village,  standing  with  its  ruined  forts  on  the 
summit  of  a  blu£E  overlooking  the  Alazau  valley.  Yet  it  has  a  considerable  wino 
trade,  and  but  for  its  inconvenient  situation  might  possibly  recover  some  of  its  former 
importance.      Signakh,  also  commanding  the  Alazan  valley  from  an  eminence 


■s^ssss^^^ 


-**- 


TOPOGBAPHY. 


120 


,  while  the  trade 

f  Annenians  and 
terrace  enclosed 
aucaaia,  while  its 
stems  give  it  the 


J_-r! 


>Ko*: 


iio  deal  chiefly  in 

dence  of  a  "  King 
(lined  forts  on  the 
considerahle  wino 
some  of  its  former 
om  an  eminence 


Fig.  64.— Lbnkoran. 

Fram  th«  Map  of  the  Bunian  Staff. 

Scale  1  :  600^000. 


2,600  feet  high,  was  originally  a  fortress  and  "  place  of  refuge,"  as  indicated  by  its 
Tatar  name,  but  has  gradually  become  a  thriving  commercial  town,  with  a  prepon- 
derating Armenian  population.  Nukha,  at  the  foot  of  the  Great  Caucasus,  is 
peopled  chiefly  by  Tatars  engaged  mostly  in  sericulture  and  silk-weaving.  Here 
the  Khan  Hussein  built  a  strong  fortress  in 
1765,  which  encloses  an  extremely  handsome 
palace  in  Persian  style.  It  does  a  large  export 
trade  in  raw  silk,  and  since  the  ravages  of  the 
silk  disease  in  the  European  nurseries  it  is  yearly 
visited  by  hundreds  of  French  and  Italian 
buyers. 

Shamakhi,  the  Shemakha  of  the  Russians, 
capital  of  the  old  province  of  Shirvan,  and 
formerly  the  largest  city  in  Transcaucasia,  was 
said  to  have  had  a  population  of  100,000  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  But  it  has  suffered  much 
from  earthquakes,  and  still  more  from  the  hand 
of  man,  having  been  wasted  first  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  then  by  Nadir  Shah.  Yet  ever 
since  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  Government 
to  Baku  it  has  remained  the  most  popidous  place 
in  the  province.  It  is  chiefly  engaged  in  wool- 
spinning,  dyeing,  and  weaving  carpets  in  the 
Persian  style,  said  to  be  the  best  and  most 
durable  in  all  Asia,  and  surpassing  even  those 
of  the  French  looms  in  beauty  of  design,  rich- 
ness of  colour,  and  cheapness.  Its  seedless 
pomegranates  are  also  famous  throughout  the 
East. 

Baku,  the  present  capital  of  the  eastern 
province  of  Transcaucasia,  exhibits  quite  an 
Asiatic  appearance,  with  its  low  flat-roofed 
houses,  taU  minarets  and  palace  of  its  former 
khans.  Close  to  the  blue  waters  of  its  bay 
stands  the  so-called  "  Maiden's  Tower,"  a 
truncated  cone,  originally,  doubtless,  a  watch- 
tower,  but  now  used  as  a  lighthouse.  But  being 
otherwise  destitute  of  monuments,  the  dirty, 

irregular,  and  dusty  town  of  Baku,  and  centre  of  the  naphtha  trade,  possesses  no 
impoirtance  except  as  the  Caspian  seaport  of  all  Transcaucasia.  In  its  deep  and 
sheltered  roadstead  at  least  fifty  vessels  are  always  anchored,  some  in  20  feet  of 
water  within  a  few  yards  of  the  shore,  and  although  still  unconnected  by  rail  either 
with  Stavropol  or  Tiflis,  it  has  the  largest  trade  of  any  Caspian  port  except 
Astrakhan.    But  it  has  scarcely  any  industries,  and  even  all  the  naphtha  and 


,iaiu)M. 


! 


nnii-'i  lillniiliiii 


IMMM 


■WMMMMaamv-:; 


■  rtl  I  im  Mta  t\t^i"Mt!^mk< 


L '  .U.v.lbJ^-f <*'«.>^£;uu^,1. 


180 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


petroleum  refining  works  are  carried  on  at  Balakhani  and  Maslitagi,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  "  fire  springs." 

8alyani,  or  Salyan,  the  chief  town  of  the  Exira  delta,  and  standing  near  its 
apex,  derives  considerable  importance  from  its  productive  fisheries  and  horticulture. 
Lenkoran,  or  Lenkorud,  a  maritime  town  near  the  Persian  frontier,  lacks  the 
natural  advantages  of  Baku ;  for  although  its  Tatar  name  means  "  roadstead,"  it  is 
greatly  exposed  to  the  winds  and  surf,  and  its  shipping  is  obliged  to  oast  anchor 
about  2  miles  from  the  coast.  The  Mard-ab,  or  "  Dead  Waters,"  of  the  surround- 
ing district  also  render  its  climate  very  unhealthy.  In  these  swampy  g^'ounds 
multitudes  of  ducks  and  other  aquatic  birds  are  taken  by  the  net,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  rice,  together  with  a  rich  Indian  flora,  has  been  introduced  by  the  Hindu 
traders. 

South  of  Lenkoran  stands  the  equally  inconvenient  and  insalubrious  little  port 
of  Astara,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  like  name,  which  here  marks  the  frontier  of 
the  Russian  and  Persian  Empires.  From  Persia,  Astara  imports  dried  fruits,  gall 
nuts,  and  raw  cotton,  in  exchange  for  cotton  stuffs,  iron  and  copper  ware,  and 
samovars.    It  has  a  yearly  trade  of  nearly  1,000,000  roubles. 


VII.— RUSSIAN  ARMENIA. 


ARARAT,  ALAQOZ,  PLATEAU  OF  LAKE  OOK-GHAI,  AKD  ABAXIH  BAS 

Thk  Araxis  basin  presents  on  the  whole  a  marked  geographioal  unity,  forming, 
north  of  the  Iranian  tableland,  a  broad  semicircular  zone,  with  its  convex  mia 
facing  southwards,  and  everjrwhere  enclosed  by  lofty  mountains,  except  near  the 
Caspian,  where  the  hills  fall  towards  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Euia  and  Araxis. 
Neither  of  these  rivers  forms  a  uniform  ethnological  domain,  for  Armenians, 
Georgians,  and  Tatars  dwell  on  the  banks  of  the  former,  while  the  Araxis  valley 
is  occupied  by  Armenians,  Kurds,  and  other  Tatar  peoples.  Still  the  Armenians 
everywhere  preponderate  not  only  in  culture  and  influence,  but  aLso  in  numbers. 
Politically  also  the  Araxis-  basin  is  divided  between  the  tiiree  u>nverg^g  states, 
the  region  of  all  the  head-Btreams  belonging  to  Turkey,  and  most  ci  the  right  bonk 
of  the  main  stream  to  Persia,  while  more  than  half  of  the  whole  basin,  indudihg 
the  best  strategical  points  for  a  descent  on  the  Euphrates  valley,  ore  now  Riueian 
territory.  Russia  is  thus  mistress  of  the  famous  Mount  Ararat,  and  of  the  con- 
vent of  Echmiadzin,  the  religious  capital  of  the  Armenians,  and  centre  of  their 
nationality. 

Oroobapht — ^Ararat — ^Ala-ooz. 

North  of  the  sources  of  the  Araxis  the  mountains  sloping  northwards  towards 
the  Euxine  are  cut  up  by  ittvines  and  glens  into  irregular  chains  and  spurs,  such  as 
the  Kirechli,  Soghanli,  and  Childir-dagh,  which,  north  of  the  Ears  basin,  merge  in 
the  lacustrine  plateau  bordered  eastwards  by  the  Abul  and  Samsar  volcanoes. 
Although  presenting  serious  obstacles  to  intercommunication,  none  of  these  ranges 


■*»- 


OBOOEAPHY— ABAEAT— ALA-OOZ. 


181 


lashtagi,  in  tho 

rtanding  near  its 
and  horticulture, 
ontier,  lacks  the 

roadstead,"  it  is 
ed  to  cast  anchor 
of  the  surround- 
swampy  g^'ounds 

and  the  cultiva- 
led  by  the  Hindu 

ubriouB  little  port 

'ks  the  frontier  of 

dried  fruits,  gall 

copper  ware,  and 


LXI8  BAS 

al  unity,  forming, 
h  its  conrex  aide 
is,  except  near  the 
Eura  and  Araxis. 
1,  lor  Armenians, 
)  the  Araxis  valley 
ill  tlie  Armenians 
t  also  in  numbers, 
converging  states, 
I;  of  the  right  bank 
le  basin,  including 
r,  are  now  Russian 
,t,  and  of  tiie  oon- 
id  centre  of  their 


Dithwards  towards 
and  spurs,  such  as 
irs  basin,  merge  in 
Samsar  volcanoes. 
>ne  of  these  ranges 


attain  the  altitude  of  the  Caucasus  and  Anti-Caucasus,  tho  highest  summit  being 
the  Eizil-dagh,  or  "  Red  Mountain,"  between  the  Ears  basin  and  Lake  Childir, 
which  is  only  10,460  feet,  and  consequently  below  the  normal  snow-line.  South  of 
the  region  of  the  Araxis  head-streams  the  highlands  become  narrower,  but  more 
elevated,  here  forming  a  single  parting  range  running  east  and  west  between  the 
Araxis  and  Euphrates  or  Murad  valleys,  with  several  extinct  craters  over  10,000 
feet  high,  and  culminating  with  the  Ferli-dagh  in  the  centre,  and  the  Chingil, 


¥itf.  b(.— Bbcint  RrwiAif  CoxauiiiTS. 
1 : 8,000,000. 


OadMbytbetiMtr 
ofSt.  Stefeao. 


Anaavd 
inisrs. 


TnuBMuoMia  before 
tlMWar. 


60 


near  the  eastern  pass  leading  from  Erivan  to  Bayazid,  both  about  10,830  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Several  streamlets  flowing  to  the  Araxis  indicate,  by  their  name  of  Tuzla-su,  the 
nature  of  their  waters,  which  spring  from  extensive  salt  beds.  North  of  the 
Perli-dagh  stands  Mount  Eulpi,  one  of  the  largest  masses  of  rock-salt  in  the  world, 
rising  on  a  tertiary  plain  near  the  point  where  the  Araxis  passes  through  a  narrow 
basalt  gorge  above  its  junction  with  the  Arpa-chai.  The  surrounding  hills, 
destitute  of  vegetation,  and  composed  of  red,  blue,  green,  or  grey  marls,  impart  to 


::t; 


m 


mftw" 


J 


188 


ASIATIC  RU88U. 


tho  landHcapo  a  most  motley  appearance.  The  Eulpi  salt  mines,  which  are 
confined  to  a  central  layer  from  100  to  210  feet  thick,  have  probably  been  longer 
worked  than  any  other  out  of  China.  The  Armenians  tell  us  how  Noah  drew  his 
supplies  from  this  source,  and  even  show  the  very  spot  where  he  began  his  mining 
operations.  In  the  abandoned  parts  of  the  works  hammers  and  other  implements 
are  frequently  picked  up,  dating  from  the  stone  age.  These  objects  are  all  made 
of  diorite,  a  rock  found  nowhere  in  the  district,  and  which  must  have  been  procured 
from  distant  countries.  The  mining  operations  are  still  carried  on  in  a  rude 
manner,  and  owing  to  the  absence  of  roods,  the  produce  is  limited  to  the  Tiflis  and 


Fig.  66.— AiUBAT. 
nom  the  Map  of  UmBdmUb  Staff.    Sod*  1 : 8«M)00. 


H^:*^ 


■/'  r^. 


?■    -.V  ■,/ 


44»  lO'- 


Erivan  markets.    Between  1836  and  1876  the  average  yield  has  risen  from  4,000 
to  16,300  tons. 

Ararat,  "  historical  centre  of  the  Armenian  plateau,"  and  central  point  of  the 
line  of  tablelands  stretching  across  the  eastern  hemispheres  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Bering  Strait,  rises  above  the  eastern  continuation  of  the  volcanic  chain 
nmning  between  the  Araxis  and  the  Euphrates.  '  But  its  snowy  crest  towers  to 
such  a  height  above  the  surrounding  mountains  that  they  become  dwarfed  to  mere 
hills,  while  the  hilly  plateaux  seem  to  stretch  like  plains  at  its  base.  Its  very 
name  of  Ararat,  probably  of  Aramaean  origin,  is  synonymous  with  ^upereminence, 
while  its  Armenian  designation,  Masis,  is  also  said  to  mean  "  grand,"  or  "  sublime." 


&:'SSSWS?S 


r""::mimimsm 


OBOOEAPHY— ABAEAT— ALA-OOZ. 


IW 


lines,  which  arc 
lubly  been  longer 
«r  Noah  drew  his 
}cgan  his  mining 
ather  implements 
octs  are  all  made 
ive  been  procured 
Eld  on  in  a  rude 
I  to  the  Tiflis  and 


The  Turks  call  it  Agri-dagh,  or  "  Steep  Mountain,"  and  the  Persians  Koh-i-Nuh, 
or  "Noah's  Mount."  This  superb  muss,  gronder  than  the  Hellenic  Olympusc-s, 
naturally  became  a  sacred  object  to  the  peoples  of  the  plains,  the  mysterious 
summit  whence  men  and  animals  descended  to  people  the  world.  The  Armenians 
show  the  very  spot  where  Noah's  ark  grounded,  ond  where  it  is  still  guarded  by 
genii  armed  with  flaming  swords.* 

Viewed  from  Nakhichevan,  Ararat  looks  like  a  compact  conic  moss  rising  on 
the  north-west  horizon ;  but  from  Bayazid  on  the  south,  and  Erivan  on  the  north, 
it  is  seen  to  consist  of  two  distinct  mountains  disposed  in  the  direction  of  the 
Coucosus— Great  Ararat,  with  a  double  peak  in  the  north-west ;  Little  Ararat,  with 
a  rounded  crest  in  the  south-east,  and  with  a  deep  intervening  depression.     Both 


Fig.  67. — ^HovMT  Ababat. 


WM 


EeFG. 


I  risen  from  4,000 

mtral  point  of  the 
the  Cape  of  Good 
the  volcanic  chain 
wy  crest  towers  to 
le  dwarfed  to  mere 
its  base.  Its  very 
ith  iBupereminenoe, 
id,"  or  "  sublime." 


masses,  with  their  (»unterforts,  occupy  an  area  of  about  380  square  miles  between 
the  plains  of  Bayazid  and  Erivon.  Like  those  of  Etna,  their  slopes  ore  almost 
everywhere  gently  inclined,  although  the  ascent  is  -rendered  very  difficult  lower 
down  by  occasional  lava  streams,  and  higher  up  by  the  snows,  nearly  always 
softened  under  the  solar  raye  in  summer.  The  Armenians  speak  of  the  prodigies 
by  which  too  daring  shepherds  hove  ever  been  prevented  from  scaling  the  "  Mother 
of  the  World,"  and  the  failures  of  Toumefort  and  Morier  lent  a  colour  to  their 
statements.    When  Parrot  at  last  scaled  the  highest  crest  in  1829,  they  unani- 


*  Elevniioiu  of  the  Irazia  and  neighbouring  plaina 

Feet, 


Great  Ararat 
Little  Ararat 
Intermediate  Col 


16,760 

11,080 

8,78d 


Bayazid  (citadel) 
Echmiadzin   . 
Krivan  . 


6,634 
2,810 
3,200 


^mimmseKsiim 


jgateiaBCMi'iga.wffj'v'.w.ti^f'ijiW'frihwawiifjiwi^iijitJ'ii'ff^-'.^ 


;^JT.«r>'»«',a»fjf."f." 


»ami^mmmim 


184 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


mouHly  (lonicd  the  truth  of  hiA  account,  and  for  a  long  time  micceeded  in  casting  ii 
doubt  on  hlH  veracity,  until  the  exploit  was  repeated  by  other  adventurers.  In 
1860  Khodzko  pawed  five  whole  days  on  the  auinmit  in  order  tx)  prosecute  his  work 
of  triangultttion  in  Caucasia.  He  passed  thence  south-east  to  Mount  Halivan, 
204  miles  off,  and  north- west  to  Mount  Elbruz,  distant  264  miles,  corresponding  by 
means  of  heliotropic  signals  with  the  astronomers  stationed  on  Mount  Akh-dagh,  in 
the  centre  of  the  Qok-chai  plateau. 

At  an  elevation  of  11,600  feet,  Ararat  is  still  everywhere  clothed  with  vegeta- 
tion ;  but  herbage  ceases  at  12,600  feet,  while  nothing  occurs  except  on  Alpine 
flora  between  13,200  and  14,300,  which  marks  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
species  of  the  Upper  Ararat  are  all  either  identical  with,  or  allied  to,  those  of  the 
Alps,  but  they  are  much  less  numerous,  a  fact  doubtless  due  to  the  greater  dryness 
of  the  atmosphere  on  the  Armenian  mountain.  Its  fauna  also  is  comparatively 
very  poor.  The  wolf,  hyena,  and  perhaps  the  panther,  haunt  the  thickets  at  its 
base  about  the  Araxis ;  but  higher  up  nothing  is  met  except  an  ibex,  a  polecat,  and 
a  species  of  hare. 

Although  only  3°  of  latitude  farther  south  than  the  Pyrenees,  the  lower 
slopes  are  free  of  snow  much  earlier,  and  the  snow-line  itself  is  about  a  mile  lower 
down  than  on  the  Iberian  range.  StiU  the  snow  reaches  much  further  down  in  the 
ravines  of  erosion  by  which  its  flanks  are  furrowed.  In  several  gorges  these  snows 
become  true  glaciers,  of  which  the  chief  is  that  of  St.  James,  whose  cirque  has 
undoubtedly  been  formed  by  a  former  eruptioa  analogous  to  that  of  the  Yal  del 
Bove  on  Mongibello.  In  more  remote  times  the  glaciers  reached  much  lower,  as 
shown  by  the  scored  and  polished  surface  of  the  traohite  rooks. 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  quantity  of  snow  lying  on  its  slopes,  Ararat  is  almost 
entirely  destitute  of  water.  Wagner  failed  to  discover  anything  beyond  two 
cprings  at  its  base,  from  which  mere  rills  trickle  away  amongst  the  stones.  Hence 
its  sides  remain  arid  and  parched,  while  the  neighbouring  mountains,  also  of 
volcanic  origin,  discharge  torrents  numerous  enough  to  form  vast  and  deep  lakes 
at  their  feet.  During  dry  seasons  Ararat  becomes  altogether  uninhabitable,  the 
want  of  shade  and  moisture  driving  away  the  flocks,  and  even  the  Inrds  of  the  air. 
It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  water  from  the  melting  snows  disappears  in 
crevasses,  or  beneath  the  ashes  and  lavas,  either  collecting  in  underground  lakes, 
or  forming  a  network  of  hidden  streams.  These  waters,  transformed  to  steam  by 
the  subterraneous  fires,  may  perhaps  explain  the  terrible  eruption  of  1840,  when 
an  old  crater  above  the  convent  of  St.  James  suddenly  reopened,  ejecting  a  dense 
vapour  far  above  the  smnmit  of  Ararat,  and  diffusing  sulphurous  exhalations 
round  about.  The  mountain  groaned  threateningly,  casting  up  from  the  fissure 
vast  quantities  of  stones  and  rocks,  some  weighing  as  much  as  5  tons.  Jets  of 
steam  escaped  through  niunerous  crevasses,  and  springs  of  hot  water  bubbled  up  from 
the  bed  of  the  Araxis.  The  convent  itself  disappeared  beneath  the  debris,  together 
with  the  rich  and  populous  village  of  Arguri,  supposed  by  the  Armenians  to  be 
the  oldest  in  the  world,  and  to  mark  the  spot  where  Noah  planted  the  vine  on 
leaving  the  ark.      There  perished  on  this  occasion,  besides  the  2,000  inhabitants 


OEOOBAl'HY— ARARAT-ALA-G6Z. 


IM 


sded  in  casting  a 
idvonturen.  In 
rosocuto  his  work 
Mount  Halivan, 
jorreaponding  by 
iint  Akh-dagh,  in 

bed  with  vegeta- 
xoept  an  Alpine 
tual  snow.  Tbo 
1  to,  those  of  the 
)  greater  dryness 
is  comparatively 
le  thickets  at  its 
ex,  a  polecat,  and 

snees,  the  lower 
lout  a  mile  lower 
ther  down  in  the 
>rgeB  these  snows 
(rhose  cirque  has 
it  of  the  Yal  del 
1  much  lower,  as 

Ararat  is  almost 
ing  beyond  two 
e  stones.  Hence 
ountains,  also  of 
t  and  deep  lakes 
ininhabitable,  the 
)  Inrds  of  the  air. 
WB  disappears  in 
idergrbund  lakes, 
med  to  steam  by 
m  of  1840,  when 
,  ejecting  a  dense 
trous  exhalations 
I  from  the  fissure 

5  tons.  Jets  of 
r  bubbled  up  from 
e  debris,  together 
Armenians  to  be 
ated  the  vine  on 
2,000  inhabitants 


of  Arguri,  several  thousands  at  Envan,  Nakhichevan,  ond  Hoyajsid,  victims  of  the 
(•(irthquako  felt  at  those  places.  Four  days  afterwords  a  fresh  disaHtcr  doHtroyMl 
nouriy  all  the  land  under  oultivotion  about  Arguri.  Tht'  wiiter  und  slush,  collected 
in  the  crat«r  portly  from  the  mdfing  snows,  burst  their  Iwrriers,  overflowing  in 
long  streams  of  mud  down  the  sIojkjs,  and  converting  the  plain  into  a  vast  morass. 
The  Arguri  eruption  is  the  only  one  mentioned  in  historic  times,  though  Ararat 


Fig.  68.— Ala-ooi. 
Um  Map  of  Um  BuMlMt  Staff.    Soalt  1  :  800,000. 


.SMUm. 


has  been  the  scene  of  frequent  and  violent  earthquakes.  The  statement  of 
Reineggs  that  he  saw  flames  and  smoke  emitted  from  the  s'lmmit  in  1785 
is  more  than  doubtful,  for  the  phenomenon  was  witnessed  by  none  of  the 
natives. 

The  Allah-ghoz,  or  rather  Alo-gdz  ("Motley  Mountain"),  faces  Ararat  from 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Erivan  plain.  It  is  a  volcanic  mass,  with  a  truncated 
cone  13,900  feet  high,  but  with  its  counterforts  occupying  a  wider  area  than  its 


■iSgjSaWMS3»ii:i- 


iwiii  iHL.iiL  ■>_.» ' .  tMii.[.|w*>«<»^itt 


£=3Bbi 


186 


ASIATIC  HUH8U. 


hnuffhty  rival,  lin  Invn  utrpaniii  dencond  iiouth  and  «wt  towanln  the  Araxin 
vulU'V — wont  iind  north  towardN  AU»Xiindra|K)l,  in  th«)  Ari>u-«hai  IwiHin.  It  takes  itH 
name  from  tho  divorHo  coloiirR  of  ita  Hcoriiu,  pumico,  and  <•*»'  '  ini.v,  vun'oti  hero  and 
then'  with  horlMigo  and  bright  flowers.  Throo  of  tho  o'  i  .  .  orH  now  form  r  a  many 
Hniall  lakes,  although  but  fow  streams  roach  tho  plains,    '  '  m  >  un^  waters  gone- 


Fig.  00.— Lake  Oox-chai. 
Trom  th«  Hap  uf  tlw  llumian  Staff.    Soal*  I  I  I.OOO.nnn 


44050 


4a'so   Z  oCG 


18 


rally  disappearing  beneath  the  scorisB,  and  feeding  tlie  Aiger-gol,  a  lake  lying 
south  of  the  mountain,  and  draining  through  the  Eara-su  to  the  Araxis. 


Lake  Gok-chai — ^The  Earabaoh — Flora  and  Fauna, 

Isolated  like  Ararat,  the  Ala-goz  is  connected  only  by  low  ridges  with  the 
northern  highlands.  These  run  parallel  with  the  Caucasus,  and  connect  the 
volcanic  chain  of  the  Akhalkalaki  plateau  with  the  mountains  overlooking  Lake 


LAKE  nOK-rnAI— THE  KARAHAOH— PT.ORA  AND  FAUNA. 


187 


anlH  the  AnixiN 
iNin.  It  tnkcs  itn 
,  vuHcd  here  und 
)W  form  f  A  inuiiy 
itiif^  wulufM  gvnu- 


50    C  oCG 


gol,  a  lake  lying 
iraxis. 


LUNA, 


f  ridges  with  the 
and  connect  the 
overlooking  Lake 


(!ok-«hui,  euHt  of  Krivun.  Theno  inountuinH — Hoiiikhi-t,  I*nnih(ik,  and  otherH  from 
H.OOO  to  10,000  feet  high — Htuiul  on  iiuch  an  elevutwl  pluteiiu  that  the  rulgv  \h 
camily  Hurniuunted  hy  {iummw  upprouehiHl  by  lony;  iiiul  ^i  ni\y  Nloping  indineN. 
The  KHhek-Muidun  I'umh,  on  the  trade  route  lM<tw(H<n  TifliH  mid  Kriviin,  NtiiiidH  iit 
nil  altitude  of  7,'2W  feet  at  the  north-went  angle  of  a  hilly  plateau,  wliore  the 
InterstHition  of  the  various  axes  of  the  (^uueanuH  fonnn  a  labyrinth  of  chainN  radi- 
ating in  all  directionn,  although  mainly  nuining  north-went  and  mmth-oaHt,  parallel 

with    the   Oreat  ('aucaiius. 

T\g  70.— Tim  ALAroLARtM  Lava  RniiAMt. 
From  Dnbola  do  Mnntp^Ttim     PmIw  i  :  (MW  nno. 


The  ridges  maintain  a  moan 
uniform  elevation,  rising 
ovorywhero  about  3,300 
foet  above  tho  plateau 
fonning  their  common  base, 
although  a  few  extinct  cones 
attain  a  relative  height  of 
5,000  feet,  or  about  13,330 
above  sea-level.  This  inter- 
section of  ridges  of  uniform 
elevation  explains  the  forma- 
tion of  a  vast  lake  filling  a 
cavity  in  the  plateau  6,440 
foot  above  the  Euxine,  and 
in  summer  only  discharging 
its  waters  through  Zanga, 
south-west  towards  the 
Araxis.  This  is  the  Qok- 
chai,  or  "  Blue  Water,"  of 
the  Tatars,  and  the  Sevanga 
of  the  Armenians.  Although 
550  square  miles  in  extent, 
or  two  and  a  half  times 
larger  than  Lake  Geneva, 
Chardin  is  the  first  European 
traveller  who  mentions  it. 
The  mean  depth  varies  from 
150  to  250  feet,  but  its 
waters,  fresh  in  the  northern 
section,  slightly  brackish  in  the  south,  harbour  five  species  only  of  fish,  including 
the  trout  and  salmon,  although  these  are  so  numerous  that  from  2,000  to  3,000 
trout  have  been  taken  at  one  haul. 

The  lake  forms  an  irregular  triangle,  contracted  towards  the  centre  by  two 
advancing  headlands,  and  as  it  is  everywhere  encircled  by  grey  and  snowy  moun- 
tains, the  landscape  presents  on  the  whole  a  grand  and  solemn,  though  somewhat 
sombre  aspect.    The  lava  and  porphyry  slopes  are  perfectly  bare  down  to  the 
10 


45'tiO' 


eMiiM. 


mgjlgtggigtgmm 


lUaMiMMdaiiMiMnMMMMii 


iirnniit.  ■^- 


" ''<  iuV^-*?LTW'^jJi4W41iri--'{^ 


188 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


water's  edge,  while  of  the  old  cities  nothing  now  survives  except  crumhling  masses, 
beneath  which  numerous  coins  have  been  found  dating  from  the  time  of  the 
Sassanides.  The  villages  also  lie  hidden  away  in  sheltered  nooks,  so  that  little  is 
visible  beyond  a  few  hamlets  half  buried  in  the  ground,  and  the  so-called  "  Tombs 
of  the  Giants,"  numeroiis  tumuli  scattered  over  the  plateau,  which  is  under  snow 
eight  months  in  the  year.  Nearly  all  the  cultivable  land  has  long  remained  fallow, 
so  that  the  country  has  again  become  a  desert.  Till  recently  no  craft  navigated 
the  lake,  which,  notwithstanding  the  fierce  storms  sweeping  down  from  the  hills, 
is  often  ice-bound  in  winter.  On  a  volcanic  islet  in  the  north-west  comer  stands 
the  convent  of  Sevan,  noted  throughout  Armenia  since  the  ninth  century.  It  would 
be  hard  to  conceive  a  more  forlorn  place  of  exile  than  this  bleak  island  of  bluck 
rocks,  whose  inhabitants  are  condemned  to  silence  except  for  four  days  in  the  year. 
But  the  villages  of  the  neighbouring  plateau  have  become  convalescent  retreats  for 
the  people  of  the  unhealthy  town  of  Erivan,  where  dangerous  fevers  are  endemic. 

East  of  the  Gok-chai  and  its  encircling  volcanoes,  conspicuous  amongst  which 
ia  the  Alapolarim,  the  labyrinth  of  intersecting  ranges  is  continued  south-east- 
wards, under  the  collective  name  of  Karabagh,  the  Rani  of  the  Georgians. 
Although  the  ravines  preserve  their  snows  throughout  the  year,  not  more  than 
three  or  four  of  the  crests  in  this  region  rise  above  the  snow-line.  Such  are  the 
Garnish  (12,460  feet),  source  of  the  Terter,  the  Eazangol-dagh,  and  its  southern 
neighbour,  the  Eapujish  (12,380  feet),  continued  southwards  towards  the  town  of 
Ordubat  by  steep  rugged  hills  crowned  with  peaks.  South  of  these  culminating 
points  of  Eastern  Armenia,  and  beyond  the  gorge  of  the  Araxis,  rise  other  moun- 
tains of  equal  height,  and  similarly  furrowed  with.supwy  raianes.  Between  the 
chain  commanded  by  Mount  Eapudish  and  the  Shuaha  Koimtains  lies  the'  Zangezdr 
basin,  at  a  mean  elevation  of  4,000  feet,  apparently  an  old  lacustrine  depression, 
like  the  Gok-chai,  whose  waters  have  been  drawn  off  by  the  Berguahet  and 
Akera  Rivers,  which  unite  before  reaching  the  Araxis  Talley.  In  the  centre  of 
this  basin  the  conic  Ishikli,  or  Eachal-dagh,  rises  to  a  height  of  over  10,000  feet, 
and  the  scorise  and  ashes  ejected  by  the  surrounding  volcanoes  have  been  accumu- 
lated on  the  bed  of  the  old.^lake  to  a  thickness  of  several  hundred  yards,  since  deeply 
furrowed  by  torrents. 

The  flora  of  these  highlands  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  that  of '  the 
European  Alpine  regions.  Here  are  the  same  beeches,  oaks,  aspens^  undergrowth, 
and  flowering  plant|.  The  upland  valleys,  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  black 
loam,  are  very  fertile,  whence  probably  the  name  of  Earabagh,  or  "  Black  Garden," 
by  which  this  coimtry  is  known.  But  on  the  arid  slopes,  with  the  thermometer 
at  104°  Fahr.  during  the  summer  months,  little  grows  beyond  the  wild  sage 
and  other  aromatic  plants,  while  the  fauna  is  chiefly  represented  by  reptiles, 
scorpions,  and  formidable  tarantolos  (Phalangtum  araneoides).  The  Earabagh 
horses,  however,  which  climb  the  cliffs  like  goats,  are  said  to  be  i^e  finest  in 
Transcaucasia. 


THE  ABAXIS  BASIN. 


189 


b  crumbling  masses, 
the  time  of  the 
is,  80  that  little  is 
e  so-called  "  Tombs 
hich  is  under  snow 
ig  remained  fallow, 
no  craft  navigated 
iwn  from  the  hills, 
-west  comer  stands 
century.  It  would 
eak  island  of  black 
ir  days  in  the  year, 
alescent  retreats  for 
ivers  are  endemic, 
ious  amongst  which 
ntinued  south-east- 
of  the  Georgians, 
ear,  not  more  than 
line.  Such  are  the 
and  its  southern 
owards  the  town,  of 
[  ^^  c^^inating 
is,  rise  other  moun- 
ines.  Between  the 
IS  lies  the'  Zangezdr 
sustrine  depression, 
;he  Bergushet  and 
In  the  centi'e  of 
if  over  10,000  feet, 
have  been  cccimiu- 
L  yardB,  since  deeply 

nee  to  that  of  ■  the 
ipens^  undergrowth, 
lick  layer  of  black 
)r  "  Black  Garden," 
bh  the  thermometer 
ond  the  wild  sage 
sented  by  reptiles, 
\.  The  Earabagh 
to  be  the  finest  in 


The  Araxis  Basix. 

The  Araxis,  or  Aras,  pre-eminently  the  Armenian  river,  rises  beyond  Bussian 
territory  to  the  south  of  Erzerftm,  and  receives  its  first  tributaries  from  the  Bingol- 
dagh  volcano,  the  "  Mountain  of  the  Thousand  Streams,"  some  of  which  flow  south- 
wards to  the  Euphrates.  After  entering  Bussian  Transcaucasia  its  still  feeble 
volume  is  doubled  by  the  junction  of  the  Arpa-chai,  or  Akhurean,  descending 
from  the  volcanic  plateaux  of  Alexandrapol  and  the  Ala-goz.  Thanks  to  this 
supply,  it  is  enabled  to  contribute  largely  to  the  irrigation  of  the  Erivan  basin, 
which  would  else  become  a  desert  waste.  Diverted  southwards  by  the  Gok-chai 
and  Karabagh  highlands,  it  escapes  from  the  old  lacustrine  bed  through  a  narrow 
rocky  gorge  with  falls  from  200  to  270  feet  broad,  where  its  seething  waters 
descend  between  steep  rugged  cliffs  at  an  average  rate  of  15  feet  in  1,000  yards, 
falling  at  one  point  as  much  as  45  feet  in  the  same  distance.  Ordubat,  above  the 
Arasbar  gorge,  is  still  3,090  feet  above  the  Caspian,  yet  within  60  miles  of  this 
place  the  river  has  already  reached  the  lowlands.  After  receiving  the  Bergushet 
it  sweeps  roimd  the  southern  base  of  the  Diri-dagh,  beyond  which  it  is  joined  by 
several  torrents  from  the  Persian  highlands,  ultimately  joining  the  Kura  after  a 
course  of  about  470  miles.  At  the  Diri-dagh  it  is  crossed  by  the  £h(idaferin 
Bridge,  attributed  traditionally  to  Pompey,  but  which  is  certainly  of  more  recent 
date. "  Higher  up  are  the  ruins  of  another  bridge,  referred  by  the  natives  to 
Alexander  the  Great,  but  which  may  well  be  a  Roman  structure.  Below  that  of 
Ehiidaferin  there  are  no  other  bridges,  and  here  the  former  hydraulic  works  and 
irrigation  canals  have  been  mostly  abandoned,  so  that  instead  of  promoting  the 
fertility  of  the  steppe,  they  combine  with  the  swamps  of  the  Eora  to  render  this 
tract  of  the  Caspian  seaboard  all  but  uninhabitable.  The  Araxis  is  said  to  be 
showing  a  tendency  to  trend  more  to  the  right,  and  again  separate  itself  from  the 
Kura,  and  flow  independently  to  the  sea,  as  in  the  time  of  Strabo. 

The  Araxis  basin  is  exposed  to  greater  extremes  of.  temperature  than  most 
regions  in  Western  Asia.  The  climate  of  Erivan  is  even  more  severe  than  that 
of  Tiflis,  the  temperature  falling  in  winter  to  '—20°  Fahr.,  and  rising  in  summer  to 
104°  and  even  110°  Fahr.  Hence  the  frequency  of  malignant  fevers  and  other 
epidemics  in  Erivan.  "In  Tiflis,"  says  the  Armenian,  "the  young  are  not  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  old;  in  Erivan  the  living  are  no  better  than  the  dead." 
Fortunately  during  the  summer  heats  the  Erivan  plain  is  swept  at  nightfall  by  a 
cool  north  or  north-west  wind,  blowing  fiercely  from  the  Ala-g^z  highlands.  It 
generally  beg^s  to  blow  about  five  p.m.  and  lasts  the  greater  part  of  the  night, 
but  is  accompanied  by  such  clouds  of  dust,  and  even  sand,  that  the  inhabitants  are 
confined  to  their  houses  during  its  prevalence.  All  the  poplars  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Erivan  are  slightly  inclined  toward  the  south-east. 

These  pyramidal  poplars  are  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  landscape  in  the 
Araxis  basin.  But  a  more  remarkable  plant  is  the  nblbond,  a  species  of  elm, 
whose  leafy  branches  form  a  vast  canopy  of  foliage  absolutely  impenetrable  to  the 
solar  raya.     Although  one  of  the  finest  omameatal  trees  in  the  world,  it  is  found 


•■%fitfn'i"viiiiiiiiilii'iii'iiii'if'wiii 


-ii!,-\--^f:^jy»f:i-A\ 


\^i\l!^Mii^\i9tl 


140 


A8UTI0  EUSSIA. 


nowhere  beyond  the  limits  of  Russian  Armenia.  The  apricot  grows  in  all  tlio 
gardens,  and  rice,  cotton,  and  sesame  are  also  cultivated,  besides  a  vine  producing  u 
strong  M'ine  of  a  brown  colour,  somewhat  like  sherry  or  madeira.  But  this  vine 
has  to  be  buried  underground  in  winter,  and  regularly  watered  in  summer.  In 
this  climate  everything  perishes,  and  the  ground  becomes  baked  like  burnt  clay, 
except  where  the  irrigating  channels  convert  the  desert  to  a  green  oasis.  The 
former  irrigation  works  were  all  developed  by  the  Persians,  and  an  English 
engineer  now  proposes  to  distribute  the  waters  of  the  Arpa-chai  over  the 
desert  plains  of  Sardarabad.  Meantime  field  operations  are  carried  on  in  the 
most  primitive  fashion.  Although  skilful  traders,  the  Armenians  are  bad  agri- 
culturists, but  scarcely  worse  than  their  Tatar  neighbours.  In  several  districts 
the  land  is  also  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  wild  boars,  which  haunt  the  brush- 
wood and  sedgy  banks  of  the  Lower  Araxia.  Yet  the  zealous  Tatars  hold  these 
unclean  bsasts  in  such  horror  that  they  will  neither  soil  their  hands  by  pursuing 
them  themselves,  nor  allow  others  to  interfere  with  them. 


Inhabitants —The  Armenians. 

The  chief  nation  in  the  Araxis  basin,  numerically  the  fourth  in  Caucasia,  and 
second  to  the  Russians  alone  in  influence,  are  the  Armenians,  or  Hai,  Ha'ik,  or 
Haikan,  as  they  call  themselves.  The  term  Armenia,  of  Aramaean  origin  and 
probably  meaning  "highlands,"  is  extremely  vague,  and  applied  in  a  general 
way  to  all  the  region  of  plateaux  overlooked  by  Ararat.  Armenia  proper,  or 
Hayasdan — that  is,  land  of  the  Ha'ik — has  shifted  its  borders  from  century  to 
century  with  the  political  vicissitudes  and  migrations  of  the  race.  At  present  it 
comprises  most  of  the  Araxis  basin,  a  large  portion  of  the  Eura  valley,  all  the 
Upper  Euphrates  basin  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  two  main  head-streams,  the 
shores  of  Lake  Van,  and  a  few  isolatevl  tracts  in  Persia  about  Lake  Urumiyah. 
The  centre  of  g^vity  of  the  nation  has  been  gradually  removed  northwards  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Van  and  the  Eastern  Euphrates  valley,  where  a  village 
still  bears  the  national  name  of  Ha'ik.  But  from  all  parts  of  the  globe  the  scat- 
tered fragments  of  the  people  turn  their  eyes  towards  Ararat  and  the  plains  of  the 
Araxis  as  their  true  fatherland.  Here  they  are  still  found  in  the  most  conipact 
and  homogeneous  masses,  and  here  the  Armenian  tongue  is  spoken  in  the 
greatest  purity,  approaching  nearest  to  the  old  language  'rtill  employed  in  the 
churches,  but  which  has  ceased  to  be  citrrent  since  the  close  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

At  the  time  of  the  Russian  conquest  in  1828 — 30,  about  130,000  Armeniane  of 
Persia  and  Turkey  migrated  to  the  Araxis  and  Eura  valleys,  here  replacing  the 
Eurds  and  Tatars,  who  in  their  turn  took  refuge  in  the  lands  that  had  remained 
in  the  power  of  the  Mohammedans.  During  the  war  of  1877-8  a  similar  cross 
migration  look  place.  Tha  ^stricts  of  Ardahan  in  the  Upper  Eura  valley,  and 
of  Ears  in  the  Araxis  basin,  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  Mussulman  inhabitants, 
receiving  in  their  steed  a  multitude  of  Armenians  from  the  Upper  Euphrates,  the 


«M* 


b  grows  in  all  tbo 
a  vino  producing  a 
ra.  But  this  vine 
3d  in  summer.  In 
id  like  burnt  clay, 

green  oasis.  The 
and  an  English 
rpa-chai    over    the 

carried  on  in  the 
lians  are  bad  agri- 
[n  several  districts 
I  haunt  the  brush- 
)  Tatars  hold  these 

hands  by  pursuing 


rth  in  Caucasia,  and 
IS,  or  Hai,  Haik,  or 
ramsean  origin  and 
)plied  in  a  general 
Ajrmenia  proper,  or 
rs  from  century  to 
ace.  At  present  it 
f ura  valley,  all  the 
n  head-streams,  the 
at  Lake  TJrumiyah. 
red  northwards  from 
lley,  where  a  village 
:  the  globe  the  scat- 
ad  the  plains  of  the 
a  the  most  conipact 
i  is  spoken  in  the 
ill  employed  in  the 
le  of  the  fourteenth 

}0,000  Armeniane  of 
,  here  replacing  the 
that  had  remained 
r7-8  a  similar  cross 
er  Eura  valley,  and 
Bsulman  inhabitants, 
pper  Euphrates,  the 


X-/ 


*r' 


1NHA13ITANT8-THE  ARMENIANS.  141 

Cliorukh,  and  especially  from  the  tract  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  St. 
Stcfano,  but  restored  to  Turkey  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  These  national  move- 
ments were  doubtless  attended  by  a  frightful  loss  of  life,  and  even  now  religious 
and  racial  hatred  gives  rise  to  terrible  tragedies.  But  the  populations  have,  on  the 
whole,  been  grouped  more  in  conformity  with  their  natural  affinities. 

Hitherto  no  reliable  estimate  has  been  formed  of  the  number  of  Armenians  in 
Asia  Minor  imder  Moslem  rule,  but  they  are  probably  less  numerous  than  those 
subject  to  Russia.*  The  whole  nation,  usually  estimated  at  three  and  even  four 
millions,  would  seem  scarcely  to  exceed  two  millions,  of  whom  no  less  than  200,000 
reside  in  Constantinople.  Tiflis,  the  second  Armenian  city  in  numerical  impor- 
tance, lies  also  beyond  the  limits  of  Armenia  proper,  and  the  same  is  true  of  several 
other  Transcaucasian  towns  in  which  the  Armenian  element  preponderates. 

Deprived  for  centuries  of  all  political  unity  and  national  independence,  the 
Armenians  have  been  scattered  over  the  Eastern  world  since  the  days  of 
Herodotus,  who  met  them  in  Babylon.  When  their  country  fell  a  prey  to 
foreign  conquerors  they  preferred  to  become  "  strangers  amongst  strangers  than 
remain  slaves  in  their  native  land."  They  migrated  in  multitudes,  and  since  the 
eleventh  century  have  been  settled  in  Russia,  Poland,  Bukovina,  and  Galicia.  At 
present  they  are  found  in  all  the  large  emporiums  of  trade  from  London  to 
Singapore  and  Shanghae,  everywhere  distinguished  by  their  commercial  enter- 
prise. They  have  often  been  compared  with  the  Jews,  whom  they  certainly  equal 
in  religious  tenacity,  spirit  of  fellowship,  mercantile  instincts,  and  commercial  skill. 
But  they  are  less  adventurous,  and  whereas  individual  Jews  have  penetrated  to 
the  ends  of  the  earth,  sustaining  alone  the  struggle  for  existence,  the  Armenians 
seldom  advance  except  in  compact  groups.  The  majority  of  the  nation  have  also 
remained  in  their  original  homes,  where  they  are  far  from  showing  the  same 
aversion  as  do  the  Jews  to  agricultural  pursuits.  In  several  districts  of  Trans- 
caucasia all  the  peasantry  are  of  Armenian  stock,  and  in  some  of  their  villages  in 
the  Earabagh  dintrict  they  are  jccupied  temporarily  as  masons  or  carpenters, 
pursuits  which  th«  Jews  are  Eifavei  found  engaged  in. 

Nevertheleos  the  Semitic  eiomeni  probably  entered  largely  into  the  formation  of 
th«'  sTaik  race,  for  numerous  migirations  end  even  transportations  in  mass  have  taken 
piuce  from  Palestine  to  Armenia.  The  Ha'iks  maty  in  a  general  way  be  regarded 
as  Aryans  closely  allied  to  the  Persians ;  but  during  the  incessant  wars,  conquests, 
and  migrations  of  the  last  four  thousand  years  they  have  become  mingled  with 
all  the  neighbouring  peoples,  and  especi&Jly  with  the  Jews,  multitudes  of  whom 
were  removed  by  the  Assyrian  kings  to  the  Armenian  highlands.  The  Bagratides, 
the  most  famous  royal  race  that  has  ruled  over  Hayasdan  and  Georgia,  even  claim 

•  Probable  nnmber  of  ArmnniimR  ir  the  world :  —  „  - 

Cancasia  and  European  Biusua 840,000 

Asiatic  Turkey 760,000 

Persia ....  160,000 

European  Turkey         , « 250,000 

Elsewhere 60,000 

Total 2,OeO,000 


:_-jl 


142 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


to  be  descended  from  David  of  Israel.  Amongst  the  other  foreign  elements  said  to 
have  exercised  a  considerable  influence  on  the  nation,  mention  is  made  of  the  Mani- 
gonian  tribe,  introduced  in  the  third  century  of  the  new  era  into  Somkhet,  in  Armenia, 
by  a  prince  of  Jenasdan — that  is,  of  C  uina.  But  the  chroniclers  show  clearly  that 
most  of  these  foreigners,  arriving,  like  the  Normans  and  Varangians,  as  warriors  and 
mercenaries,  were  in  fact  Iranians,  probably  allied  to  the  Tajiks  of  the  Oxus  basin. 

The  Armenian  language  is  included  by  all  philologists  in  the  Aryan  family. 
Its  affinities  are  chiefly  with  the  Bactrian  ("Zend"),  its  syntax  is  completely 
Iranian,  and  its  vocabulary  greatly  resembles  the  Greek  and  Slavonic.  Although 
very  harsh  and  abounding  in  consonants,  it  rivals  the  Hellenic  in  its  wealth  of 
words  and  grammatical  forms,  as  well  as  in  its  flexible  structure  and  unlimited 
power  of  word-building.  Still  the  numerous  modem  varieties  have  borrowed 
largely  i'rom  Turkish  and  Georgian,  and  the  speech  current  in  the  Lower  Araxia 
basin  is  a  veritable  jargon,  in  which  the  Tatar  element  at  times  prevails  over  the 
Ilaikan,  while  in  Shirvan  numerous  Armenianr  communities  have  forgotten  their 
mother  tongue  as  completely  cs  have  the  more  distant  settlements  in  Bukovina  and 
Transylvania.  In  the  convent  of  Echmiadzin,  nhere  it  is  spoken  in  its  purest 
form,  it  still  remains  a  purely  Iranian  dialect,  wh&.ie  origin  and  development  are 
well  illustrated  in  a  local  literature,  continued  uninteryupiedly  over  a  period  of  two 
thousand  years.  Rock  inscriptions  in  the  cuneiform  character  occur  in  the  Van 
district.  Other  Haikan  documents  are  extant  in  Persian  and  Greek  letters,  and  in 
*he  flourishing  literary  period  (fith  century  a.d.),  when  three  hundred  schools  were 
open  in  the  country,  the  pecuJ'or  alphabet  now  in  use  was  introduced.  Th.a  people 
still  show  a  great  love  of  inf-fcruction  ;  schools  are  supported  in  all  the  comm^mes ; 
and  the  villagers  have  often  to  contend  either  with  the  Russian  Government,  or 
with  the  clergy,  jealoujB  of  the  influence  exercised  by  their  teachers.  The  scientific 
and  literarj'  movement  has  become  very  active,  and  in  proportion  to  their  numbers 
the  Armenians  probably  print  more  books  than  any  other  people  in  the  empire. 
To  the  former  theological,  historical,  metaphysical,  and  grammatical  works  are  now 
added  translations  of  foreign  masterpieces,  and  even  in  Anatolia  are  found  close 
students  of  French  literature.  In  1854  about  twenty- two  Armenian  presses  were 
at  work  in  Europe  and  Asia,  issuing  periodicals  in  Tiflis,  Constantinople,  and  other 
towT.'.  and  publishing  the  old  monimienir  of  the  language,  especially  in  Moscow, 
V'.onua,  Paris,  and  Venice.  The  most  famous  establishment  of  this  «ort  abroad  is 
%ke  tionvent  foimded  in  1717  by  the  monk  Mekhitar,  or  the  "  Consoler,"  in  the 
island  of  San  Laz2.  vo,  ne  ir  Venice.  Here  are  published  many  valuable  documents, 
ftvid  in  the  library  are  preserved  8»n3  rare  Oriental  manuscripts. 

The  Mekhitaiists,  like  most  of  ih<i  communities  residing  beyond  the  limits  of 
Transcaucasia  and  Turkey,  belong  to  the  United  Armenian  ritti,  in  union  with  the 
Roman  Church,  while  preserving  some  of  their  traditional  practices.  But  the  bulk 
of  the  nation  in  the  Euphrates  and  Araxis  valleys  have  remained  faithful  to  the 
old  Orthodox  cult.  The  dogmatic  differences  dividing  the  nation  into  two  hostile 
religious  sects  turn  chiefly  on  the  nature  of  Christ,  hell,  and  purgatory,  the 
authority  of  the  councils,  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  and   sundry  rites.     But 


INHABITANTS -THE  AEMENIANS 


148 


n  elements  said  to 
uade  of  the  Mani- 
ikhet,  in  Armeniu. 
show  clearly  that 
ns,  as  warriors  and 
)f  the  Oxus  hasin. 
;he  Aryan  family, 
tax  is  completely 
ivonic.     Although 

0  in  its  wealth  of 
ure  and  unlimited 
es  have  borrowed 

the  Lower  Araxis 

1  prevails  over  the 
ve  forgotten  their 
s  in  Bukovina  and 
)ken  in  its  purest 
d  development  are 
'er  a  period  of  two 
occur  in  the  Van 
eek  letters,  and  in 
ndred  schools  were 
uced.  Th.a  people 
ill  the  comnuimes; 
m  Government,  or 
)rs.  The  scientific 
n  to  their  numbers 
pie  in  the  empire, 
ical  works  are  now 
ia  are  found  close 
lenian  presses  were 
itinople,  and  other 
Bcially  in  Moscow, 
this  sort  abroad  is 
'  Consoler,"  in  the 
duable  docimients, 

rond  the  limits  of 
,  in  union  with  the 
ces.  But  the  bulk 
ted  faithful  to  the 
)n  into  two  hostile 
id  purgatory,  the 
undrv  rites.     But 


beneath  the  outward  teaching  of  both  forms  are  preserved  numerous  symbols  dating 
from  still  older  religions.  The  Armenian  was  the  first  nation  converted  in  mass  by 
Gregory  the  "  Illuminator,"  about  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  But 
while  changing  its  deities,  it  lost  few  of  its  traditions,  and  modified  its  worship 
very  gradually.  The  sacred  fire  is  even  still  commemorated,  as  in  the  days  of 
Zoroaster.  On  the  annual  feast  a  recently  married  couple  consume  in  a  copper 
basin  the  richest  fruits  of  the  earth,  flowers  of  all  sorts,  ears  (  corn,  the  vine  and 
laurel  branches.  On  all  important  occasions  the  people  turn  towards  the  sun  as  if 
to  seek  for  aid  from  that  source.  During  the  great  feasts  bulls  or  rams  crowned 
with  wreaths  and  decorated  with  lighted  candles  are  led  into  the  churches  or  under 

Fig.  71. — Aiuxis  AND  Zakoa  Bahn. 
From  the  Map  of  the  Bnntan  Staff,    Boale  1  :  800,00a 


a  MOn. 


the  sacred  trees,  and  afterwards  sacrificed  with  songs  and  prayers — evidently  the 
sacrifice  of  Mithra  bequeathed  by  the  old  to  the  new  religion. 

The  "  Eatholicos,"  or  spiritual  head  of  the  nation,  derives  his  power  from  the 
possession  of  a  precious  relic,  the  right  hand  of  the  martyred  Gregory.  Chosen  by 
the  dignitaries  of  Echmiadzin  when  not  designated  by  his  predecessor,  he  is 
obeyed  by  all  his  co-relig'onists  of  the  Gregorian  rite ;  he  names  the  bishops,  who 
are  nearly  always  selected  from  the  monkish  communities ;  and  he  addresses  the 
Patiiarchs  cf  Constantinople  and  Jerusalem  as  a  superior.  Hence  the  extreme 
importance  attached  hy  the  Russian  Government  to  the  possession  of  Ararat  and 
the  sacred  convent  of  Echmiadzin.  By  seizing  this  strip  of  territory,  so  renowned 
throughout  the  East,  the  Muscovites  have  at  the  tsame  time  secured  the  spiritual 
ruler  of  over  2,000,000  human  beings.  The  St.  Petersburg  authorities,  who 
usually  view  with  scant  favour  all  religions  antagonistic  to  the  Orthodox  Greek, 


n^ittivS^rtf.'Tiiirt^.-i 


144 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


have  accordingly  boon  caroful  to  treat  the  Katholicos  with  the  greatest  respect, 
thus  acquiring  a  sort  of  protective  right  over  all  the  Armenians  settled  in  Turkey. 
On  several  occasions  excessive  zeal  for  the  "  Russification  "  of  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  empire  has  doabtless  led  to  acts  of  violence  and  oppression  even  in  Armenia. 
But  the  caprice  of  governors  and  political  dreams  do  not  prevent  the  Armenians 
from,  on  the  whole,  exercising  a  considerable  influence  in  the  empire — an  influen(;o 
due  to  their  knowledge  of  languages,  to  their  tact,  often  even  to  their  intriguing 
spirit  and  adroitness  in  gaining  access  to  the  bureaucratic  circle.  They  have  long 
enjoyed  a  large  share  in  the  government  at  Constantinople,  and  they  have  already 
begun   to  play  a  part  in  St.  Petersburg  analogous  to  that  often  exercised  by 

wily  Italians  at  the  Frencli 
Fig.  72.— Abminian  Woman.  courts.      Even    in    Trans- 

caucasia they  are  gradually 
taking  possession  of  the  soil, 
and  constantly  encroaching 
on  their  Tatar  neighbours. 

The  Armenians  of  Rus- 
sian Transcaucasia  diifer 
little  in  their  physique  from 
the  Georgians,  except  that 
their  features  are  generally 
rounder,  their  neck  shorter 
and  thicker.  Many  are  in- 
clined to  obesity,  probaUy 
from  their  sedentary  habits. 
With  fine  heads  of  brown 
hair^  large,  black,  and 
languid  eyes,  they  seem  to 
be  of  a  gentle  and  almost 
melancholy  temperament. 
Yet  they  do  not  lack  valour 
in  resisting  attacks,  as  shown 
by  the  Seven  Years'  War  of 
Independence,  which  they  sustained  in  the  beg^ning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
against  the  Persians  in  the  Karabagh  highlands,  and  since  then  in  many  local  revolts 
against  the  Turks.  Though  they  do  not  go  about  armed  with  an  assortment  of  pistols 
and  daggers,  like  the  Georgians  of  the  Rion  basin,  they  have  contrived  far  better  to 
preserve  their  liberties,  and  have  never  fallen  under  the  hard  yoke  of  serfdom,  which 
has  been  the  lot  of  most  of  their  neighbours.  Notwithstanding  the  prevailing  igno- 
rance, they  betray  a  remarkable  degree  of  intelligence  sl^u  aptitude,  especially  in  the 
acquisition  of  languages.  It  has  been  said  that  "  the  intelligence  of  the  Georgians 
is  only  in  their  looks,  whereas  that  of  the  Armenians  is  in  their  head."  But  on 
the  whole  they  seem  to  take  life  too  seriously,  and  are  somewhat  indifferent  to  the 
charms  of  poetry,  although  they  have  produced  some  good  poets  even  in  recent 


—.-^flte 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


146 


greatest  respect, 
tettled  in  Turkey, 
the  inhabitants  of 
oven  in  Armenin. 
it  the  Armenians 
)ire — an  influence 
their  intriguing; 
They  have  lonn; 
hey  have  already 
'ten  exercised  by 
ins  at  the  French 
Even  in  Trans- 
ley  are  gradually 
isession  of  the  soil, 
antly  encroaching 
'atar  neighbours, 
rmenians  of  Rus- 
nscaucasia  diSer 
leir  physique  from 
^ans,  except  that 
ures  are  generally 
their  neck  shorter 
er.    Many  are  in- 

obesity,  probably 
r  sedentary  habits, 
e  heads  of  brown 
rge,  black,  and 
jyes,  they  seem  to 
gentle  and  almost 
ly  temperament, 
do  not  lack  valour 
ig  attacks,  as  shown 
ven  Years'  War  of 
nghteenth  century 
L  many  local  revolts 
ssortment  of  pistols 
itrived  far  better  to 
e  of  serfdom,  which 
he  prevailing  igno- 
de,  especially  in  the 
:e  of  the  Georgians 
nr  head."  But  on 
t  indifferent  to  the 
Bts  even  in  recent 


times.  Their  favourite  studios  are  theology,  metaphysics,  and  philology,  and 
their  influence  has  been  chiefly  felt  in  the  more  solid  walks  of  literature. 
Knigments  of  Eusebius,  Philo,  Chrysostomus,  and  other  Greek  fathers,  which  were 
supposed  to  have  been  irrevocably  lost,  have  been  found  in  old  Armenian  trans- 
lations by  the  Mekhitarists  of  Venice  and  Vienno. 

In  most  places  the  Armenians  keep  themselves  aloof  from  the  surrounding 
populations,  generally  forming  distinct  trading  communities,  and  in  the  Tatar  and 
Georgian  towns  rendering  themselves  no  loss  indispensable,  hated,  and  despised  than 
the  Jews  in  East  Europe  and  Germany.  But  popular  feeling  is  of  little  con- 
sequence to  men  living  quite  apart  in  the  seclusion  of  the  family  circle,  where  they 
still  practise  patriarchal  habits.  The  grandfather  commands — children,  sons-in-law, 
and  grandchildren  obey.  The  wife,  condemned  to  silence  till  the  birth  of  her  first 
child,  wears  round  her  neck  and  the  lower  part  of  her  face  a  thick  bandage  con- 
coaling  the  mouth,  and  obliging  her  to  converse  in  signs  like  a  dumb  creature. 
Even  after  childbirth  she  speaks  only  in  a  low  voice  till  advanced  in  years,  but 
imdertakes  all  the  household  duties  till  the  marriage  of  a  sister-in-law.  Strangers 
are  rarely  welcomed  into  the  domestic  circle,  and  many  villages  might  be  traversed 
without  suspecting  them  to  be  inhabited,  so  completely  are  dwellings  and  gardens 
walled  off  from  the  outer  world. 

The  Tatars  of  the  Lower  Araxis  valley  differ  in  no  respects  from  th'e  Tdrki 
tribes  of  the  Euro  basin.  Here  also  are  found  a  few  Gipsies,  besides  some  Kurdish 
herdsmen,  mostly  temporary  immigrants  from  Persian  and  Turkish  Kurdistan. 
Amongst  them  are  several  hundred  Yezides,  regarded  by  all  their  neighbours  with 
a  sort  of  horror  as  devil-worshippers.  The  sedentary  Kurds  are  numerous  only  in 
the  Zangez&r  district,  south-east  of  the  Gok-chai,  where  they  number  about  13,000, 
mostly  assimilated  in  dres;,  and  often  even  in  speech,  to  the  Tatars. 

Topography. 

The  chief  town  of  the  Upper  Araxis  valley  is  Kaghizman,  pleasantly  situated 
in  the  midst  of  trailing  vines,  cherry,  apricot,  peach,  and  other  fruit  trees.  In 
the  same  district,  but  on  a  tributary  of  the  main  stream,  lies  the  capital  of  Upper 
Russian  Armenia,  the  celebrated  city  and  fortress  of  Kara,  thrice  conquered  from 
the  Turks  in  1828,  1866,  and  1877,-  and  definitely  ceded  to  Russia  in  1878.  Even 
before  the  Russo-Turkish  wars  it  had  often  been  exposed  to  attack.  Capital  of  an 
Armenian  kingdom  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centiuries,  it  was  sacked  by 
Tamerlane,  by  Amiirat  III.,  and  again  by  the  Forsians,  its  strategical  importance 
constantly  attracting  the  attention  of  invaders.  For  it  occupies  a  central  position 
between  the  upper  basins  of  the  Kura,  Araxis,  Chorukh,  and  Euphrates,  com- 
manding all  the  mountain  passes  between  those  valleys.  At  this  point  the 
Ears-chai,  confined  in  a  narrow  rocky  bed,  makes  a  double  bend,  first  partly 
encircling  the  town,  and  then  sweeping  roimd  the  citadel.  Built  of  lava  blocks, 
and  standing  on  a  block  basalt  eminence,  Kars  could  formerly  defy  the  attacks  of  its 
assailants.  But  since  the  invention  of  artillery  it  was  found  necessary  to  fortify 
the  surrounding  heights,  and    during  the  late    war   the  eleven  detached  forts 


J 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


enclofling  an  ontroncbed  camp  formed  a  line  of  def ruct;  1 1  milen  in  circumferenco. 
These  forts,  with  their  basalt  and  obsidian  rocks,  are  the  onl^  attractions  of  a  town 
which,  although  6,1. 50  feet  above  Hca-level,  enjoys  a  considerable  trade. 

A  carriage  road  descending  eastwards  from  the  Kars-chai  to  the  Arpa-chui 
valley  connects  Kara  with  Alexandrapol,  a  Russian  stronghold  whoso  fortifications 
have  been  continued  almost  uninterruptedly  since  1837.  At  that  time  nothing 
existed  here  except  the  village  of  Giimvi,  peopled  by  Armenian  refugees.  Situat«.'d 
near  the  oast  bank  of  the  Arpa-chai,  in  a  basin  commyndod  on  the  south  by  the 
Ala-goz,  and  1,330  feet  lower  down  than  Ears,  Ak^yjir  -irupol  lies  in  a  better- 
cultivated  district,  abundantly  watered  by  the  Arpa-chai.  It  succeeded  to  Am, 
former  residence  of  the  Armenian  Bagratides,  which  was  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1319,  and  whose  extensive  ruins  still  cover  a  triangular  headland 
overlooking  the  right  bank  of  the  Arpa-chai.     According  to  probably  exaggerated 

Fig.  73.— Tub  Kabs-chai  Vallhv:  Kam  ai'd  Albxandkapol. 
From  the  Uap  of  tba  Bnwiaa  Staff.    Soale  1  :  800,000. 


40 


45*5 


IS  MUm. 


accounts  of  the  native  chroniclers,  Ani  had  at  one  time  a  population  of  100,000, 
with  1,000  churches  and  other  public  buildings. 

South-east  of  Ani  is  Taluh,  which  also  seems  to  have  been  an  Armenian  capital, 
the  ruins  of  whose  high  walls  and  towers  now  afford  shelter  to  a  wretched  hamlet. 
The  whole  of  the  Lower  Arpa-chai  valley  is  a  land  of  ruins.  To  the  west  are  the 
remains  of  Pakaran,  or  "  Abfiembly  of  the  Gods,"  and  a  little  farther  south  those 
of  two  other  capitals,  Eromittashad  and  Eromntagerd,  built  successively  by 
Erovan  II.  north  of  the  Araxis  and  Arpa-chai  confluence,  and  said  to  have  formerly 
contained  30,000  Jewish  and  20,000  Armenian  houses.  Armarir,  piso  founded  by 
the  same  king,  has  left  but  few  remains  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  plain  skirted 
by  the  Kara-su  Canal,  near  the  Araxis.  Lastly,  south  of  this  river  stands  Kara- 
Kaleh,  the  "  Black  Castle,"  wrongly  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  the  ancient 
Tigranocertes,  but  still  a  most  pictitrorque  object  perched  on  a  frowning  precipice, 


TOPOOHAPllY. 


147 


n  circumference, 
actions  of  a  town 
rado. 

o  the  Arpo-chui 
1080  fortifications 
lat  time  nothing 
Eugeea.  Situatod 
the  south  by  the 
lies  in  a  better- 
ucceedod  to  Am, 
>yeA  by  an  earth- 
ingular  headland 
Mibly  exaggerated 


4&'50 


dationof  100,000, 

Armenian  capital, 
i  wretched  hamlet, 
'o  the  west  are  tihe 
farther  south  those 
It  successively  by 
id  to  have  formerly 
i>,  plflo  founded  by 
f  the  plain  skirted 
river  stands  Kara- 
been  the  ancient 
frowning  precipice, 


with  toworn  built  of  alternate  rows  of  red  porphyry  and  black  luva.  at  whose  feet 
rush  the  foaming  waters  of  u  mountain  torrent. 

Echmiadzin,  the  present  religious  capital  of  the  Iltiikans,  lies  to  the  west  of 
Erivan,  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the  plain.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  small  town 
of  Vayarshabad,  but  Echmiadzin  itself  is  little  more  than  o  vast  convent  surrounded 
by  a  cob-wall,  and  commanded  by  a  church  with  pyramidal  belfry  and  side  turrets. 
The  lower  story  of  the  buildings  is  concealed  by  a  plain  quadrangular  enclosure  of 
dull  grey  walls,  so  that  there  is  nothing  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  these  heavy 
masses  except  the  surrounding  thicket  of  poplars  and  fruit  trees,  a  few  flower  beds, 
and  limpid  streams.  Yet  this  monastery,  whose  name  means  "  the  only  son  has 
descended,"  is  the  capital  of  the  Armenian  world.  Here,  according  to  the  legend, 
the  "  Son  of  God  "  appeared  to  Gregory  the  Illuminator,  and  at  one  thunder-stroke 
hurled  the  pagan  divinities  beneath  the  earth.  For  here  formerly  stood  Ardimet- 
Eaghat,  the  "  City  of  Artemis,"  the  "  Armenian  Venus,"  to  whose  shrine  wor- 
shippers flocked  from  all  quarters.  Tho  deities  have  changed,  but  for  at  least  five- 
and-twenty  centuries  this  has  remained  a  hallowed  spot.  The  library  contains 
six  hundred  and  thirty-five  old  mani<  ts,  and  its  printing-press,  the  oldest  in 
Armenia  proper,  publishes  a  periodica .  some  popular  works.  One  of  the  bells  bears 
a  Tibetan  inscription  with  the  famous  mystic  words,  om  tnaiiipadmi  hOim,  showing  that 
at  some  unknown  epoch  Armenia  must  have  had  relations  with  the  Buddhist  world. 

Erivan,  capital  of  the  chief  government  in  Russian  Armenia,  and  the  second 
city  of  the  Araxis  valley,  stands  at  the  nort.h-east  angle  of  the  old  lacustrine  basin 
traversed  by  the  river,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Zanga,  here  diverted  into  a  thousand 
irrigating  rills.  It  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Armenians,  who  have  succeeded  to  the 
Tatars  occupying  it  under  the  Persian  rule.  It  holds  an  important  commercial 
and  strategical  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  upper  valley  leading  to  Tifl:8  and 
the  Eura  basin  over  the  Ook-chai  plateau,  and  its  fortress,  perched  on  a  columnar 
basalt  cliff,  has  been  the  scene  of  many  stirring  events.  Built  mostly  in  the 
Persian  style,  it  boasts  of  some  picturesque  structures,  including  a  handsome 
mosque  decorated  with  arabesques,  and  shaded  with  magnificent  elms.  The 
district,  commanding  a  superb  view  of  Ararat,  is  very  fertile  and  well  watered. 
But  the  wretched  climate,  with  its  violent  changes  of  temperature,  dust,  and  fevers, 
woidd  soon  depopulate  the  place,  but  for  its  extreme  strategical  importance  on  the 
Turko-Persian  frontier  and  the  rich  rock-salt  mines  in  the  neighbourhood.  In 
summer  the  Bussian  officials  retire  to  Semonovka,  Delijan,  and  other  sanitaria  among 
the  surroimding  hills.    The  copper  mines  of  this  region  are  no  longer  worked. 

East  of  Erivan  are  the  ruins  of  Boih-Karni,  or  Garni,  another  old  capital, 
which  the  natives  pretend  was  foimded  four  thousand  years  ago,  and  which 
contains  the  remains  of  a  Greek  temple,  probably  dedicated  to  the  Armenian  Venus. 
But  more  remarkable  than  its  ruins  are  its  basalt  columns,  blue,  green,  red,  and 
other  igneous  rocks,  the  scene  of  former  eruptions,  through  which  now  foams  a 
mountain  stream.  In  the  same  wild  and  rugged  region  lies  Kegart,  Eergash,  or 
A'irivauk,  the  "  Convent  of  Hell,"  half  of  which  is  hollowed  out  of  the  tufa  and 
lavas.     In  the  centre  of  the  plain,  watered  by  the  Eami-chai,  stood  Artaxates, 


v~— ^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


11.25 


ttilM  |25 
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CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


c^ 


CIHIVI/iCIVIH 
Collection  de 


Canadian  Inatituta  for  HIatorlcal  MIcroraproductlona  /  Inatltut  Canadian  da  microraproductlona  liiatoriquaa 


^A'^ 


.  > 


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mnaPB 


TOPOGBArnY. 


140 


u 

«l*? 


It  was  succeeded  by  Neronia,  which  yielded  later  on  to  Vagarshabiul,  and  was 
finally  overthrown  by  Sapor  11.  in  370,  when  its  200,000  Armenian  and  Jewish 
inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword  or  carried  captive  into  Persia. 

Nakhichevan,  or  Nakhijevan,  capital  of  the  district  stretching  south-east  of 
Ararat,  is  said  to  be  even  an  older  place  than  Echmiadzin,  having  been  tradi- 
tionally founded  by  Noah  after  planting  the  first  vine  on  the  slopes  of  Ararat.  Its 
very  name  means  the  "  First  Dwelling,"  and  a  mound  is  shown  in  the  neighbour- 
hood in  which  Noah  is  supposed  to  be  buried.  The  town,  already  mentioned  by 
Pompey  under  the  name  of  Naxuana,  has  been  repeatedly  rebuilt,  and  all  the 
present  houses  are  constructed  of  stones  from  previous  ruins.  The  gateway  of  an 
old  palace  flanked  by  two  brick  minarets  bears  a  Persian  inscription  surrounded  by 
rich  arabesques,  and  near  it  stands  the  "  Tower  of  the  Khans,"  a  twelve-sided 
building  bearing  a  long  inscription  with  letters  in  relief.  Nakhichevan  is  now 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Tatars  occupied  with  gardening  and  vin3  growing,  and  has 
been  much  reduced  since  the  time  of"  the  Persian  rule,  when  it  had  a  population  of 
40,000.  The  district  is  well  watered,  and  in  the  neighbouring  hills  are  rich  salt 
mines,  worked  since  prehistoric  times.  The  millstones,  cut  from  a  variegated  sand- 
stone, are  highly  esteemed  throughout  Armenia. 

South-west  of  Nakhichevan  is  the  frontier  station  of  Jtifa,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Araxis,  and  facing  an  old  Persian  caravanserai,  which  is  commanded  by  a  strong- 
hold perched  on  a  red  sandstone  escarpment.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  Jufa  was  the  richest  and  most  industrious  place  in  Armenia,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  40,000.  But  Shah  Abbas  the  "  Great "  commanded  the  inhabitants  to 
emigrate  in  mass  to  New  Jufa,  near  Ispahan,  those  who  lagged  behind  being 
thrown  into  the  river,  and  the  town  burnt  to  the  ground.  Its  most  noteworthy 
remains  are  its  ruined  bridge  and  the  tombs  of  its  vast  necropolis.  In  1854  the 
popidation  had  dwindled  to  ten  famil;  )8  living  in  a  ruined  caravanserai. 

Ordubat  stands  on  the  Araxis,  below  Jufa,  near  the  Migri  Gorge,  south  of  the 
Earabagh  Mountains.  It  is  the  pleasantest  place  in  Armenia,  being  in  a  fertile 
district  watered  by  numerous  streamlets  anc'.  irrigation  rills,  and  studded  with  villas 
scattered  over  the  wooded  heights  of  the  neighbourhood.  A  few  miles  to  the  north- 
west is  the  thriving  village  of  Akuliai,  inhabited  by  wealthy  Armenians.  The  copper 
mines  of  the  surrounding  hills  yielded  no  more  than  117  tons  of  pure  metal  in  1877. 

The  double  basin  of  the  Bergushet  and  Akera,  between  the  Ordubat  and  Shusha 
Hills,  comprises  the  administrative  district  of  Zangez(^r,  and  contains  no  towns,  but 
several  important  villages  peopled  by  Armenians,  Tatars,  and  Kurds.  The  largest 
is  Khinztrak,  but  the  administrative  capital  is  OirufA,  the  Koriss  of  the  Armenians ; 
that  is,  the  "  Village  of  Pillars,"  so  called  from  the  "  needles  "  of  tufa  rising  above 
the  slope  of  the  terrace  on  which  the  village  is  situated.  The  flat-roofed  houses  are 
disposed  in  the  form  of  a  flight  of  steps,  beneath  which  the  inhabitants  move  about 
in  underground  streets.  Other  dwellings  are  excavated  in  the  igneous  scoria  of  the 
terrace,  but  the  present  village  is  a  modem  place  1,000  feet  lower  down  than  the  old 
,Gir£k8i.  For  a  few  weeks  in  summer  it  becomes  a  busy  trading-place,  when  50,000 
nomads  of  the  surroimding  districts  drive  their  flocks  to  the  rich  Zangezftr  pastures. . 


S?S3^',-' 


ypiriii^w 


t  I    ^iiPi,((f^l<«IJ^,«JUiJ^p 


160 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


I 


VIII.— GENERAL  CONDITION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 
OF  THE  CAUCASUS. 

The  Russiuns  are  not  recent  arrivals  in  Caucasia.  A  portion  of  the  Kuban  basin 
was  peopled  by  them  since  the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  and  in  914  others  reached 
Berda,  at  the  foot  of  the  Earabagh  Mountains.  Over  two  hundred  years  ago 
Stephen  Razin  sacked  Baku,  and  in  1723  Peter  the  Great  pushed  his  cono'iests 
to  the  Persian  frontier.     For  over  a  century  the  Muscovite  power  has  secured  •. 

Fig.  76. — Phoorbss  of  Russian  Cunoubst. 
8oaU  1  :  10,fi00,00a 


Seveuteenth  Centwy.      1700— fiO. 

mm     ^ 

18SB-80.  1830-fie. 


1780-lSOO. 


1801. 


1800-64. 
.SWHilea. 


i6os-ae. 

1S78. 


footing  in  Transcaucasia,  which  has  been  gradually  annexed  to  the  empire  either 
by  conquest,  purchase,  or  voluntary  cession. 

In  spite  of  wars,  migrations,  wholesale  exiles,  and  the  insalubrity  of  certain 
districts,  the  population  of  Caucasia  has  rapidly  increased  since  the  conquest, 
although  still  relatively  inferior  to  that  of  European  Russia.  The  losses  have  been 
repaired  by  the  immigration  of  the  Cossacks,  Russian  peasantry,  and  Armenian 
fugitives,  while  the  popidation  of  all  the  provinces  has  been  increased  by  the 
normal  excess  of  births  over  deaths.  At  the  beginning  of  the  military  occupation 
Caucasia  was  a  Russian  tomb,  fevers  more  than  decimating  those  attacked  during 


GENERAL  CONDITION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  CAUCASUS.       161 


TION 

le  Kuban  basin 
others  reached 
Ired  years  ago 
I  his  cononests 
'  ha6  secured  -. 


the  course  of  the  year.  But  experience,  quinine,  a  better  hygienic  system,  and 
here  and  there  the  draining  of  the  marshy  htiids,  have  brought  about  wonderful 
improvements,  and  at  present  the  mortality  of  the  Russians  is  less  than  in  Russia 
proper.*  A  similar  phenomeii  in  has  been  observed  in  Algeria,  where  the  French 
and  Spanish  immigrants  have  gradually  become  acclimatized.  The  actual  rate 
of  mortality  is  less  in  Caucasia  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  empire,  and  in  this 
respect  the  country  takes  a  foremost  position  in  the  world.  The  niunber  of  suicides 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  rather  high,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  they  are  here  about 
equal  in  both  sexes,  whereas  in  Europe  those  of  men  are  generally  three  or  four 


Fig.  76.— F«VBB  Dl»THlCT8  IN   Caucaria. 


44 


AO 


EofG 


40 


46 


58' 


4Q'       L.oFG 


1 


**'iidftnnfflti 


Frequent. 


B«l» 


le  empire  either 

)rity  of  certain 
the  conquest, 
osses  have  been 
and  Armenian 
Lcreased  by  the 
tary  occupation 
attacked  during 


times  greater  than  those  of  womoi.    Amongst  the  Armenians  and  Osses  the  cases 

of  female  suicides  are  even  more  frequent  than  those  of  males.     This  is,  perhaps, 

due  partly  to  the  enforced  silence  and  monotonous  lives  of  the  Armenian  women, 

and  partly  to  the  brutal  treatment  to  which  the  Oss  women  are  subjected. 

A  large  portion  of  Caucasia  rising  above  the  zone  of  cereals  can  scarcely  be 

inhabited  except  by  a  pastoral  population.     But  there  are  also  extensive  tracts, 

formerly  under  cultivation,  which  have  been  rendered  improductive  by  desolating 

*  Mortality  of  the  army  of  the  Caucanu: — 1837,  I  in  9  of  those  attacked;  1846,  1  in  17  of  thoiie 
attacked;  186->.  I  in  41  of  those  attacked.  Total  mortality :-  1864,  25  in  the  1,000;  1872, 19-86  in  the 
1,000.    Tutal  mortality  in  the  Moscow  district,  4111  in  the  1,000.  ' 


iS'iff'!.VJ^'W,w» 


% 


162 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


wars  and  tho  abandonment  of  the  irrigation  works.  The  vast  plains  of  Eehmiud/in, 
the  Lower  Kura,  and  Aruxis  have  thu8  been  partly  changed  to  deserts,  and  even  the 
region  confined  by  tho  Alazan,  Yora,  and  Kuru  is  now  a  barren  steppe,  notwith- 
Htanding  tho  copious  streams  surrounding  it  on  all  sides.  Tho  neglect  of  the 
irrigating  canals  has  caused  tho  disappearance  of  millions,  but  tho  population 
everywhere  reappears  with  the  gradual  revival  of  these  works  and  with  tho  progress 
of  tho  drainage  system.  Cultivated  fields  thus  succeed  to  the  swunips,  and  the 
land  becomes  at  once  more  healthy  and  more  populous. 

Land  Tenuhe — Aoricultuuk. 

In  taking  possession  of  Caucasia  tho  Hussiun  Government  introduced  great 
changes,  often  of  a  contradictory  character,  in  the  laws  affecting  landed  property. 
These  were  further  complicated  by  all  the  vicissitudes  of  conquest,  the  wasting  of 
cultivated  districts,  destruction  of  nomad  encampments,  depopulation  and  whole- 
sale shifting  of  the  people,  military  and  agricultural  colonisation.  During  tho  first 
period  of  Russian  rule  all  the  colonies  were  of  a  military  character.  Composetl  of 
Cossacks,  at  once  peasantry  and  soldiers,  they  had  to  build  villages  and  forts,  to  till 
the  land,  dig  canals,  open  up  highways,  and  keep  constant  watch  against  the  enemy. 
One  feels  amazed  at  the  vast  amount  of  work  performed  by  these  men,  thanks  to 
whom  all  the  western  division  of  Ciscaucasia  has  been  finally  settled.  Its  settle- 
ment would  have  been  even  still  more  thorough,  had  not  the  Government  long 
prevented  its  peaceful  colonisation  by  the  Russian  peasantry.  Millions  of  serfs 
might  have  migrated  to  this  region  had  thoy  been  free  to  do  so. 

In  all  the  already  peopled  districts  of  Caucasia  the  Government  at  first  pursued 
the  simple  policy  of  securing  the  loyalty  of  the  native  princes  by  guaranteeing  to 
them  the  property  of  the  land,  though  occasionally  compelled,  as  in  Kabardia  and 
Daghestan,  to  favour  the  people  against  their  chiefs.  But  this  system  was  soon 
abandoned,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Nicholas  every  effort  was  made  to 
gain  over  tlie  local  aristocracy.  In  many  places  serfdom  was  introduced,  and  large 
fiefs  granted  to  the  nobles.  Some  of  the  Kabard  princes  thus  received  domains  of 
30,000,  100,000,  and  even  250,000  acres,  so  that  the  State  was  afterwards  obliged 
to  repurchase  many  of  these  lands  either  for  the  Cossack  settlers,  or  for  the  com- 
munes after  the  abolition  of  serfdom.  The  principle  was  even  laid  down  in  1863 
that  the  whole  of  the  lands  should  belong  to  the  communes  ;  but  in  practice  the 
large  properties  were  maintained,  and  in  Kabardia  alone  140  lots,  each  of  about 
1,400  acres,  were  reserved  for  influential  persons  likely  to  be  useful  to  the  Govern- 
ment. All  the  officers  of  the  army  also  received  freehold  allotments  independently 
of  the  lands  assigned  to  the  communes,  while  all  the  forests  and  pastures  remained 
undivided.  Thiu  was  brought  about  a  state  of  things  analogous  to  that  of  Russia. 
Below  the  large  proprietary  class  came  that  of  the  peasantry,  sharing  the  land 
according  to  the  communal  system  of  rotation,  and  paying  an  average  tax  to  tho 
State  of  about  3  roubles  per  family. 
.  The  serfdom,  which  under  divers  forms  prevailed  throughout  most  of  Caucasia, 


•^mm 


LAND  TENURE— AORIOUIiTUBE. 


168 


of  Kchmiudziii, 
H,  und  even  the 
teppe,  notwith- 
neglcct  of  the 
the  iM)pulution 
ith  the  progress 
vuiups,  und  the 


itroduced  grent 
mdcd  property. 
,  the  wasting  of 

ion  and  whole- 
During  the  first 
Composed  of 
and  forts,  to  till 
linst  the  enemy. 

men,  thanks  to 
led.  Its  settle- 
ovemment  long 
lillions  of  serfs 

,  at  first  pursued 
guaranteeing  to 
n  Kabardia  and 
system  was  soon 
ort  was  made  to 
iuced,  and  large 
lived  domains  of 
terwards  obliged 

or  for  the  com- 
1  down  in  1863 

in  practice  the 
s,  each  of  about 
il  to  the  Govem- 
ts  independently 
astures  remained 
3  that  of  Russia, 
iharing  the  land 
^erage  tax  to  the 

nost  of  Caucasia, 


waa  at  first  aggravated  under  Russian  rule,  and  even  when  abolished  in  1866  very 
harsh  conditions  were  imposed  on  the  emancipated.  In  virtue  of  "  free  contracts  " 
they  were  bound  to  pay  the  landlords  either  200  roubles  or  six  years'  manual 
labour,  children  under  fifteen  years  being  charged  150  roubles,  or  ten  years  of 
forced  labour.  When  the  serf  was  at  the  same  time  owner  of  cattle  or  movable 
property  this  was  divided  into  thr(>('  parts,  of  which  one  part  only  was  assigned  to 
the  freedman.     Hence  much  misery,  especially  in  the  lowland  districts. 

The  ag^cultural  produce  of  Caucasia  already  suffices  for  a  considerable  export 
trade.   Land  was  formerly  valued  in  Imeria  at  from  22  to  28  roublos  the  hectare  (2| 

Fig.  77.— Dbnsity  of  tub  Popvlation  ov  tub  Cavcabur  in  1873  pbk  Sqiahi  Milb. 


44- 


4QI 


/\a 


4a* 


10  to  to. 


10  to  40. 


40toao. 


60  to  80.        80  to  too.      100  and  upw»rda. 


acres),  whereas  now  it  fetches  ten  times  that  amount ;  but  the  eastern  districts  of  the 

Eura  and  Araxis,  exposed  to  storms  and  locusts,  have  increased  less  rapidly  in  value. 

The  superabundant  cereals  are  largely  used  in  the  distillation  of  alcohols.   Far  more 

than  Bessarabia,  the  Crimea,  or  the  Lower  Don  valley,  Caucasia  is  the  "  vineyard  of 

the  empire."   In  1876  the  land  under  vines  still  scarcely  exceeded  212,000  acres,  but 

the  districts  where  wine  migbt  be  grown  certainly  exceed  those  of  France,  and  they 

have  hitherto  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera,  though  riot  those  of  theoidium. 

Caucasia  supplies  most  of  the  wines  consumed  in  the  empire,  the  rich  vintages  of 

Eakhetia  being  used  chiefly  for  the  table,  those  of  Eislar  and  the  Lower  Terek  for 
11 


1S4 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


mixinj?  with  other  vintugos.  In  the  Aklmltzik  diNtrict  the  vino  in  cultivutod  to  a 
heijfht  of  4,H00  feet  ubove  the  hou.  Tolmcco  \h  alwi  l»ccoinin>?  un  im}K)rtunt  crop, 
9,840  ucroH  having  yielded  1,700,000  kilogmmmeH  of  louf  in  IH70,  undHuppIyingthe 
chief  urticlo  of  export  from  the  Bluck  Sea  porta.  The  TrunseuucuBian  pluinn 
pnxluce  Bonie  cotton,  wliich  during  the  Americun  war  inoreoHed  rapidly,  and  even 
found  its  way  for  a  time  to  the  markets  of  the  West.  At  present  the  mean  annual 
yield  scarfiely  exceedH  480  tons.  The  raw  silks  of  Nukha  and  Hhcmakha  are  highly 
appreciatefl,  cHpeciully  by  the  French  weavers.  Since  the  spread  of  the  silk  disease 
in  the  south  of  Franco  Eastern  Caucasia  has  become  one  of  the  most  important 
fields  for  the  production  of  the  finer  qualities.    In  1848  a.  uiunber  of  French  female 


Fig.  78.— IIiniiwAvs  in  CAVctstA. 
Aoourdinff  to  N.  de  BcidllU.    Soaia  1 : 7,68U,000. 


.  Biilwari. 
Railway!  In  inogiaw, 
Carriago  Boadi. 


spinners  settled  in  Zugdidi,  Nukha,  Shemakha,  and  other  towns  to  teach  the  native 
women  the  art  of  winding  the  thread.  For  many  other  products,  especially  fruits 
and  spring  vegetables,  Caucasia  is  destined  to  take  the  same  position  as  regards 
Russia  as  Algeria  has  taken  towards  France.  Tropical  heats  prevail  in  the  Araxis 
valley,  and  wherever  sufficiently  watered  the  soil  produces  excellent  crops.  There 
is  also  a  succession  ol  climates  on  the  mountain  slopes,  suitable  for  raising  produce 
of  the  most  varied  character.  , 


Population— Industries — ^Trade — ^Education. 

The  population  of  Caucasia,  nowhere  as  dense  as  in  Western  Europe,  is  con- 
centrated especially  on  the  Mingrelian  plains,  where  the  climate  and  vegetation 


I'OPULiVTlON- INDUSTRIES     TRADE     EDUCATION. 


1S5 


cultivated  to  a 
injiK)rtunt  crop, 
id  supjil  ying  tho 
uucuHian  pluiuH 
ipidly,  and  even 
ho  mean  annual 
akha  are  highly 
:  tho  silk  dincaao 
most  important 
f  French  female 


most  roHomblo  those  of  the  wcHt  of  France.  In  the  districtH  of  this  region  it  aniounta 
to  alK)ut  HO  |K>r  Mcpiare  mile,  and  theno  more  denw^ly  jMHiplwl  tracts  are  at  tho 
Htuno  time  tho  moHt  floui-iMiing,  and  have  mo.    to  Hparo  for  export. 

Tlie  chaw)  and  forest  produce  have  ceased  to  be  of  any  economical  importance, 
since  most  of  the  plains  have  boon  jioopled  and  the  mountain  slopes  largtdy  cleared. 
lUit  the  fisheries  are  very  productive  in  tho  Sou  of  Azov,  tho  Kiixino,  ond  ps|)ecially 
tho  Caspian.  Tho  Akhturi  and  Yeisk  limans,  the  river  Kuban,  the  coasts  of  I'oti 
and  ]3at(^m,  the  Lower  Terek,  and,  above  all,  tho  Kura  and  Gulf  of  Kizil-Agach 
abound  in  animal  life,  and  contribute  largely  to  the  support  of  the  people  and  to  the 
cxiwrt  trade  to  Russia  an4  Persia. 

Manufactures  are  still  mostly  confined  to  the  old  traditional  industries,  and  to 
those  connected  with  mining  operations.  But  implements  dating  from  the  stone  age 
are  still  found  in  use  side  by  side  with  the  powerful  modem  machinery  now  employed 
at  the  Baku  naphtha  wells,  the  Kedabek  copper  mines,  the  Saglik  alum  works,  near 
Yelizavctpol,  and  the  iron  works  of  Cbasash,  in  the  Bolnis  valley,  14  miles  south - 


Fig.  79.— 81CTIOK  OP  THB  Rovn  pbom  Vladikavka*  to  JrrA. 
Beale  t  :  8,000,000. 


.110  HUM. 


8m1«  of  Altttndn  flfty  time*  Ungtt  than  that  of  Dictaaee*. 


9' 


teach  the  native 
especially  fruits 
lition  as  regards 
ail  in  the  Araxis 
it  crops.  There 
■  raising  produce 


I  Europe,  is  con- 
»  and  vegetation 


west  of  Tiflis.*  This  state  of  things  must  necessarily  continue  until  the  Caucasian 
provinces  are  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world  by  means  of  good  roads.  Each 
of  the  two  g^reat  divisions  has  but  one  railway,  one  connecting  Ciscaucasia  with  the 
Russian  system  by  the  Rostov- Vladikavkaz  line,  the  other  connecting  Tiflis  with 
the  Euxine.  But  both  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  are  crossed  only  by  the  military  routes 
passing  beneath  the  Eazbek  glaciers  and  over  the  Mamisson  Pass.  In  the  east  the 
range  is  skirted  by  the  road  from  Derbend  to  Baku,  and  in  the  west  the  Abkhasian 
coast  route  will  soon  be  opened  to  traffic.  The  g^reat  lines  of  railway  destined  to 
connect  Vladikavkaz  with  Tiflis,  Yelizavetgrad  with  Petrovsk  and  Baku,  Groznaya 
with  Saratov  vid  Astrakhan,  Bat(im  with  Rostov,  have  only  just  been  begun.  The 
line  from  Tiflis  to  Baku,  which  will  complete  the  jimction  of  the  two  seas,  has  also 


*  Steam-engines  in  the  CHUcasian  mines  (1876),  91  horse-power, 
mines  (18T6),  174  horse-power. 
Mining  returns  (1876) : — 

Silver       ....  810  lbs.    !  Alum 

Lead        .        .        .        .         ],78fi  cwt.  'Salt 
Copper     ....         2,650   „      ;  Goal 


Water  engines  in  the  Caucasian 


130  tons. 
24,630    „ 
6,218   „ 


tn 


AHIATIO  lUISBIA. 


lM'«>n  reci'iitly  taken  in  hand.  Kor  tho  liiHt  twenty  yeuPH  tho  pnij  f  Hum  lieon 
nntcrtaincil  of  u  groat  intcrnutinnul  line  lM>twoen  Kurn|H>  and  India,  tu  fuUuw  the 
went  (;(>aHt  of  tlio  Canpiun  vid  liuku  iind  Lenkoran  to  IteNhd,  and  ho  on  acromi  the 
Ininiiin  plateau.  Meantime  the  nouthcrn  plateaux  ure  api)rouohed  by  one  go4Ml 
road  only,  the  military  route  U^twecn  Karn  and  Krzorum  forming  u  continuation 
of  that  between  Titlin  and  KarH  nVl  Alexandru]>ol.  One  branch  of  thi«  route 
dc8cendH  HouthwardH  towurdH  Krivun  and  tho  Persian  frontier  at  Jufu. 

Tho  general  trade  of  ('aucaniu  munt  long  roniuin  inudoquatc*  to  moot  thooxponiieN 
of  tho  intoruatiouul  highwuyH  tu  Aniu  Minor  and  I'erHia.     In  1878  tho  ini{)ort8  and 


Fig.  80.— Hhiahm  anu  Hunnitbm  in  Kabtbkn  Caucavia. 
rrom  OttoUl  Itctunu.    Hoala  1 :  3,00O,0U>. 


^^v 


«i«r"^;-y^^^^ 


\^ 


fJ'T^C' 


^5a 


-W- 


^ 


4& 


so*     E  of  G 


ChristUiu. 


Sbiaha.  SnnnltM, 

aOMfltt. 


exports  amounted  altogether  to  about  12,000,000  roubles,  or  less  than  4  roubles  per 
head  of  the  population.  Although  Persia  communicates  more  easily  with  Europe 
by  the  north  than  by  other  routes,  its  exchanges  with  Transcaucasia  and  Astrakhan 
fall  short  of  6,000,000  roubles. 

If  Caucasia  still  lacks  the  material  unity  imparted  by  a  well-developed  railway 


I'OI'ULATION  -INDUSTUIKH-TUADK-KDUOATION. 


167 


)|  't  han  been 
1,  tu  fulluw  the 

un  acroHa  th(< 
1  hy  onu  giMxl 
u  continuation 

of   thin  route 

Dt  tho  oxponseM 
bu  iuiiwrtH  and 


f<yiit«m  and  liir^j^*  connnori'iiit  miivtH,  it  \h  Mtill  ninr(«  ilrficiont  in  tliiii  nioml  unity 
which  flowN  from  the  M>ntiiri«'nt  of  ii  roninion  nationality  or  ^roup  of  MiitioniilitioN 
iM)HM(>HHin)f  the  Mun(>  intcn'Mtx  and  iiNpirutionN.  IiiNtruction  uIno  in  in  t(M)  Imckwiird 
11  Ntutu  to  allow  tho  yinith  of  the  vuriouM  ruccN  t(»u(><|uirc  that  fooling  of  hrothcrhoml 
drrivod  from  a  ooninuinity  of  idcniM.  Ni'V«>rtlu'l«'HM  n;r»>at  profi;n'H«  Iuim  In'm  nindo  in 
thiu  rcH|N)ct,  and  in  many  N<-h<M)lH  the  ArnuMiian  in  now  found  anHoriatrd  with  the 
Tatar,  tho  UuNNian  with  tho  Ooor^ian.  Moroovor,  a  larjfo  nundM<r  of  tho  middle 
and  upi)er  oIuhson  Hond  th(>ir  childron  abroad.  In  IH7U  there  wore  lU)  Iohh  than 
twouty-oight  Aruiouiuns  iu  tho  variuuH  mcUooIh  and  coUegvM  of  Zurich.    But  u  groat 


4r 


E.rG 


Fig.  81.— Baku  Hahhovb. 
S«d«  1 1  tso^'WO. 


'M^ 


<j|'ll  ,*0» 


131 


^'*m»-    — ■i 


EofG 


40*50  ■ 


50' 10' 


'<^;. 


0  to  in  Feot. 


V\  to  31  Fe«t.  8*  Ftat  kud  npwuds. 

— — — _  8  HUei. 


1  4  roubles  per 
y  with  Europe 
and  Astrakhan 

eloped  railway 


obstacle  to  instruction  in  common  is  caused  not  only  by  the  variety  of  languages, 
but  by  the  different  alphabets  in  current  use.  The  Abkhasians,  Osses,  and 
Daghestfr  Mghlanders  were  altogether  unlettered  until  Lhuillier,  Schiefner,  Uslar, 
and  otheru  invented  writing  systems  suitable  to  express  the  fifty  distinct  soimds  of 
their  languages.  Caucasia,  more  perhaps  than  any  other  region,  stands  in  need  of 
some  such  common  system  as  that  proposed  by  Lepsius  in  1852,  and  subsequently 
under  other  forms  by  Bell,  Coudereau,  and  others. 


168 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


i 
I 


'      Religions — Finance — ^Administration. 

But  Caucasia  is  noted  for  its  diversity  of  creeds  quite  as  much  as  for  its  great 
variety  of  speech.  Paganism  under  many  forms  still  survives  amongst  the  hillmen. 
Here  are  found  the  two  great  Moslem  sects,  numerous  especially  in  the  government 
of  Baku,*  where  they  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  cut  of  the  hair  and 
by  other  practices.  Here  also  dwell  Jews,  converted  Israelites,  and  Judaizing 
Christians,  besides  Orthodox  Greeks,  Georgian  and  United  Armenians,  which  aro 
the  prevailing  forms  of  Christianity.  But  dissidents  are  also  numerous,  far  more  so 
even  than  might  be  supposed  from  the  official  returns.  The  Molokanes  especially 
have  important  colonies  in  the  government  of  Stavropol,  near  Tiflis,  on  the  Akha- 
laki  plateau,  in  the  Milgan  steppe,  and  they  are  now  spreading  in  the  annexed 
territories. 

All  these  national  and  religious  differences  have  necessitated  different  theories 
and  practices  in  the  administration  of  justice.  Hence,  after  many  useless  efforts,  the 
Government  has  been  compelled  to  abstain,  at  least  for  the  present,  from  intro- 
ducing a  common  system  of  jurisprudence.  Amongst  the  Moslem  highlanders  two 
codes  are  still  maintained — the  ahariat,  or  religious  code  based  on  the  Koran,  and  the 
ttdot,  or  common  law.  The  former  is  appealed  to  only  in  religious,  family,  and 
testamentary  questions,  while  the  latter  regulates  the  ordinary  affairs  of  property 
and  communal  interests.  Its  decisions  are  pronounced  in  public  by  elected  judges, 
and  certain  villages  noted  for  their  scrupulous  administration  of  justice  have  been 
chosen  by  usage  as  veritable  courts  of  appeal  in  all  doubtful  cases. 

Most  of  the  hillmen  still  foster  a  feeling  of  animosity  against  their  conquerors, 
and  recall  with  pride  the  days  of  their  ancient  independence.  Amongst  the  low- 
landers,  some,  like  the  Nogai  Tatars  and  the  Tats,  know  that  they  have  kinsmen 
and  co-religionists  elsewhere,  and  regard  themselves  as  straligers  in  the  land. 
Others,  like  the  Kurd  shepherds,  are  immig^nt  nomads,  always  ready  to  strike  their 
tents.  The  Georgians  feel  that  their  destiny  is  raiher  to  serve  the  Russians  than 
become  their  equals,  while  the  Armenians  endeavour  to  m  Jce  themselves  masters  of 
all  by  the  power  of  money.  The  Slav  invaders,  although  already  the  most  numerous 
relatively,  have  not  yet  succeeded  m  giving  political  cohesion  to  the  population. 
Their  ascendancy  is  mainly  of  a  military  character,  and  Caucasus  remains  still  for 
them  campaigning  ground  quite  as  much  as  a  field  for  colonisatidn. 

From  the  strategic  point  of  view  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  are  completely  open  to 
the  armies  of  the  Czar.  The  Euxine  has  become  a  Russian  lake,  while  the  Caspian 
belongs  still  more  exclusively  to  the  northern  Power.  Here  the  fleet  at  anchor  in 
the  commodious  harbour  of  Baku  may  at  the  first  signal  ship  an  armed  force  for  the 
coast  of  Mazanderan.  Alexandrapol  and  Kars,  strongholds  and  arsenals  of  the  first 
importance,  threaten  the  upper  basin  of  the  Euphrates,  and  all  the  passes  are 
already  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians.  In  case  of  a  struggle  with  England  for 
supremacy  in  Western  Asia,  Russia  occupies  a  masterly  position.  The  Bosporus 
has  already  been  three  times  threatened  from  the  north ;  now  it  may  also  be  attacked 

*  Mohammedans  in  the  Baku  government  (1878)  :-«-Shiah  sect,  270,787;  Sun&ites,  206,121. 


^'    i^ii.iiitwtiix 


EELIGIONS— FINANCE— ADMINISTRATION. 


159 


luch  as  for  its  great 
imongat  the  hillmen. 
y  in  the  government 
3  cut  of  the  hair  and 
ilites,  and  Judaizing 
irmenians,  which  aro 
umeroiiB,  far  more  so 
Molokanes  especially 
Tiflis,  on  the  Akha- 
ling  in  the  annexed 


from  the  east.  If  England  reigns  supreme  in  the  Mediterranean,  she  would  still 
look  in  vaiii  for  armies  strong  enough  to  oppose  the  Russians  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  of 
which  she  has,  perhaps  imprudently,  guaranteed  the  present  limits.  Through  the 
Euphrates  valley  Russia  may  also  at  her  pleasure  advance  towards  the  "holy 
places  "  once  conquered  by  the  Crusaders,  and  over  which  Christians  of  all  sects 
are  endeavouring  to  acquire  a  religious  preponderance.  Is  it  not  further  evident 
that  the  influence  of  Russia  must  increase  in  that  direction  with  the  growth  of 
population  in  Caucasia  P  At  all  times  the  peoples  of  the  Ararat  and  Anti-Caucasus 
highlands  took  a  large  part  in  the  political  movements  of  Western  Asia,  and  these 
peoples  have  now  become  the  van  of  the  immense  Slavonic  nation.  Against  this 
formidable  power  the  only  barrier  would  be  an  alliance  of  free  peoples.  But  it  can 
scarcely  be  hoped  that  the  Armenians,  Kurds,  Turks,  and  Arabs  of  the  Tigris  and 


ted  different  theories 
ay  useless  efforts,  the 
present,  from  intro- 
iem  highlanders  two 
n  the  Koran,  and  the 
eligious,  family,  and 
y  affairs  of  property 
lie  by  elected  judges, 
of  justice  have  been 
,ses. 

inst  their  conquerors. 
Amongst  the  low- 
t  thoy  have  kinsmen 
aAgers  in  the  land. 
8  ready  to  strike  their 
ve  the  Russians  than 
themselves  masters  of 
ly  the  most  numerous 
n  to  the  population, 
isus  remains  still  for 
atidn. 

re  completely  open  to 
Ice,  while  the  Caspian 
the  fleet  at  anchor  in 
n  armed  force  for  the 
d  arsenals  of  the  first 
d  all  the  passes  are 
■le  with  England  for 
ition.  The  Bosporus 
b  may  also  be  attacked 

Sunnites,  206,121. 


Fig  82.— Stavropol. 
Soidel  :800,voa 


.*4^i^ 


■|^j^!".'vv  .-^b 


:^mm^ 


.  15  MOn. 


Euphrates  basins  will  soon  become  emancipated,  and  forget  thei '  religious  hatreds 
and  national  rivalries  sufficiently  to  unite  against  the  common  foe. 

The  Caucasian  peoples  possess  no  political  privileges  over  the  Slav  inhabitants 
of  the  empire.  All  alike  are  subjected  to  the  same  autocratic  will  of  the  Czar, 
whom  all  are  equally  bound  to  obey  "  in  spirit  no  less  than  in  act."  None  of  them 
enjoy  constitutions  guaranteeing  their  rights,  though  several  are  still  more  or  less 
protected  by  written  or  imwritten  codes.  The  Czar  is  represented  in  Caucasia  by 
a  lieutenant-general,  or  viceroy,  with  full  administrative  powers.  The  families  of 
the  former  native  rulers,  while  deprived  of  all  political  authority,  are  still  in  the 
enjojTnent  of  pensions,  privileges;  and  honours,  thanks  to  the  "  eternal  and  faithful 
submission  "  sworn  by  them  to  the  Czar. 

The  Caucasian  budget,  whose  receipts  amounted  in  1878  to  6,750,000  roubles, 
is  included  in  the  general  finances  of  the  empire.     Transcauoasia  alone,  including 


160 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


Daghestan,  has  a  general  budget,  which  increased  from  6,368,470  roubles  in  1870 
to  3,784,980  in  1880,  and  which  would  amply  suffice  for  the  local  expenditure, 
were  this  not  doubled  and  occasionally  quadrupled  by  the  maintenance  of  consider- 
able forces  in  the  frontier  fortresses.  The  deficit  thereby  created  varies  in  time  of 
peace  from  18,000,000  to  40,000,000  roubles,  rising  in  time  of  war  to  55,000,000  and 
upwards,  and  amounting  in  the  ten  years  between  1869  and  1878  altogether  to  no  less 
than  343,131,000.  The  receipts  in  the  whole  of  Caucasia  amounted  in  1878  to 
16,339,703  roubles,  and  the  expenditure  to  71,660,326,  leaving  a  deficit  of 
55,320,622.  The  chief  receipts  are  derived  from  the  excise  on  alcohol,  which 
averages  about  one-third  of  the  whole  income. 

Caucasia  is  administratively  divided  into  provinces  of  very  unequal  extent,  all 
of  military  origin,  and  officially  designated  either  as  governments,  provinces, 
circles,  or  divisions.  Tiflis,  capital  of  all  Caucasia,  is  at  the  same  time  the  chief 
town  of  Transcaucasia,  while  Stavropol,  advantageously  situated  on  the  line  of 
approach  to  the  centre  of  the  main  range,  is  the  chief  administrative  capital  of 
Ciscaucasia.  Daghestan,  which  would  seem  to  belong  properly  to  the  northern, 
has  been  included  in  the  southern  division.  So  also  the  district  of  Euba  is  com- 
prised in  the  Transcaucasian  government  of  Baku,  doubtless  owing  to  the  ethnical 
and  religious  unity  of  the  populations  dwelling  on  both  slopes  in  the  eastern 
division  of  the  range.  Derbend,  or  "  The  Gate,"  thus  remains  the  political  limit 
of  the  two  regions  north  and  south  of  the  Caucasus. 

The  Appendix  contains  a  table  of  all  the  provinces,  with  their  districts,  areas,  and 
populations  according  to  the  official  returns  for  1873 — 7 .  Here  Daghestan  has  been 
separated  from  Transcaucasia  proper.  The  Trans-Caspian  district,  depending 
administratively  on  the  military  government  of  Cauca^ii ,  and  comprising  a  portion 
of  the  still  unsettled  Turkoman  country,  belongs  geographically  to  the  Aralo- 
Caspian  region,  from  which  it  cannot  properly  be  separated. 


M^Mi— waiiimwMWii  /»'>i*wwtiji^M>wMWW!MweMe^uiw«»^tyT.«<i'tiw.<Jtw.^  ■MJtilwmimmm 


roubles  in  1870 
al  expenditure, 
ice  of  consider- 
aries  in  time  of 
65,000,000  and 
^ther  to  no  less 
ted  in  1878  to 
g  a  deficit  of 
alcohol,  which 

q[ual  extent,  all 
snts,  provinces, 
time  the  chief 
on  the  line  of 
itive  capital  of 
I  the  northern, 
Euba  is  com- 
to  the  ethnical 
in  the  eastern 
!  political  limit 

riots,  areas,  and 
bestan  has  been 
ict,  depending 
rising  a  portion 
to  the  Aralo- 


^iiM 

^m 

iiw^ljF 

^^M 

w^^^ 

!lBptf*>'^ 

^-^^i^ 

i 

'IImMB 

Hii 

M 

^ 

fFH^ 

f^^Sfii^ 

BBI 

wH 

Pi 

^gB 

#iil 

BklffiSS 

MMmEPHi^'^ 

iiS^-^»B 

jiiiiffiiii 

^ni^fli 

Wm 

o 

ifflPfWl 

ISh9 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  ARAL0CA8PIAN  BASIN. 

RUSMIAN  TVRKEITAN,  THB  TuHKOHAN  CoUMTBY,  KhIVA,  BOKHARA,   RkOION  07  TUB   UpPER  OxUS. 


I.— GEKJURAL   SURVEY. 


rr^;-'-^*.^  ?' 


EST  of  the  Caspian  the  limits  of  Europe  are  clearly  defined  by  the 
ancient  Ponto-Caspian  Strait,  which  runs  as  a  natural  dividing  line 
along  the  foot  of  ihe  Caucasus.  But  north  and  east  of  the  Caspian 
Europe  and  Asia  are  merged  together  in  a  vast  plain,  where  dreary 
wastes  of  sand,  clay,  or  rock,  saline  steppes  and  muddy  swamps, 
stretch  from  horizon  to  horizon.  Here  the  only  natural  limit  of  the  two  continents 
is  the  lowest  part  of  the  elevated  tract  between  the  Aral  basin  and  the  Ob  valley. 
Both  sides  of  this  ridge  are  studded  with  countless  ill-defined  lakelets,  the  remains 
of  dried-up  seas.  But  beyond  it  the  lowlands  stretch  away  to  the  foot  of  the 
plateaux  and  highlands  forming  part  of  the  main  continental  mountain  system. 

Thus  the  Aralo-Caspian  slope  of  the  Central  Asiatic  tablelands  blends  north- 
westwards with  the  Russian  steppes  between  Ural  and  Caspian,  while  scarcely 
separated  northwards  from  the  Ob  valley.  But  everywhere  else  it  is  sharply 
defined  westwards  by  tlie  Caspian,  southwards  by  the  highlands  separating  it  from 
Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  stretching  in  an  elongated  curve  from  the  south-east 
comer  of  the  Caspian  to  the  Hindu-Kush.  Eastwards  and  north-eastwards  rise  the 
upland  pastures  and  snowy  peaks  of  the  Pamir,  the  Tian-shan,  and  Tarbagatai 
ranges.  The  whole  region,  including  the  Russian  protected  states,  Wakhan, 
Badakshan,  Balkh,  and  the  Turkoman  country,  has  an  estinmted  area  of  over 
1,200,000  square  miles,  and  to  this  has  now  been  added  a  tract  of  over  400,000 
square  miles  in  the  Ob  basin,  henceforth  administratively  included  in  the  general 
government  of  Russian  Turkestan.* 

*  Area  and  population  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  landit : — 


RufBtan  posseauons  from  tho  Atrck  to  the  Irtish 

Khira 

Bjkiiax«       .        .         . 

Turkoman  country       .        i        .        .        . 

Afghan  Turkestan       ..... 

Total      ....        .        . 


AiaainSqnan 
HilM. 

1,620,000 

23,000 

96,600 

60,000 

64,000 

1,762,600 


Frobatde  F< 
in  1880. 

4,fi00,C00 
300,000 

2,160,000 
200,000 
960,000 

8,100,000 


ilation 


162 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


This  region,  which  slopea  westwards  and  northwards  to  the  Caspian,  Aral,  and 
Balkhash,  is  about  equally  divided  into  a  lowland  and  highland  district.  Climate, 
flora,  and  fauna  vary  as  much  as  the  geological  formations  in  a  land  rising  in  some 
places  to  elevations  of  20,000  and  22,000  feet ;  in  others,  as  along  the  Caspian  shores, 
sinking  l)elow  sea-level.  Nevertheless  a  certain  analogy  is  maintained  between  the 
eastern  highlands  and  the  western  lowlands.  In  both  cases  the  anniul  variation  of 
temperature  is  greater  than  in  Europe  or  any  other  sea-girt  land.  In  autumn  and 
winter  the  north-east  polar  blasts  prevail  on  the  plains  and  uplands,  giving  place 
in  spring  and  summer  to  the  hot  equatorial  winds  from  the  south-west.  Thus  the 
normal  climate  of  each  season  becomes  intensified  here  as  elsewhere  in  the  interior 
of  the  continent,  so  that  in  July  this  region  is  included  in  the  isothermals  of  20°  to 
25°  Centigrade,  a  temperature  answering  to  that  of  the  Cape  Verd  Islands, 
1,650  miles  nearer  to  the  equator,  while  in  January  the  isothermals  aro  those  of 
Canada,  South  Greenland,  and  Spitzbergen,  some  1,800  miles  nearer  to  the  North 
Pole.  But  the  variation  between  the  hottest  and  coldest  days  is  even  still  greater, 
averaging  no  less  than  130°,  or  from  about  111°  to  — 12°  and  even  — 20°  Fahr.  On 
the  plains  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  absence  of  dew  add  to  the  rigours  of 
the  climate.  Whole  years  have  passed  without  any  rainfall,  and  in  1868  the  rains 
lasted  only  four  hours  altogether  in  the  Kara-kum  Desert.  The  moisture  borne  by 
the  south-west  breezes  is  precipitated  on  the  slopes  of  the  Pamir  and  in  the  Tian- 
shan  valleys  ;  but  even  here  the  discharge  is  relatively  far  less  than  on  the  European 
and  Indian  highlands. 

Another  characteristic  of  Russian  Turkestan  is  the  continuous  drying  up  of  the 
soil  going  on  throughout  the  whole  of  the  present  geological  epoch.  The  twin  rivers, 
Oxus  and  Sir-daria,  flowing  from  the  Pamir  and  Tian-shan  nearly  parallel  to  each 
other,  at  present  discharge  their  waters  into  the  Aral  Sea ;  but  these  formerly  far 
more  copious  streams  imited  in  a  common  channel,  disemboguing  in  the  Caspian. 
Though  still  ranking  in  length  amongst  the  great  Asiatic  rivers — over  1,200  miles 
each — they  are  far  inferior  in  volume  to  the  Siberian,  Chinese,  and  Indian  streams 
flowing  seawards.  Their  basins  show  evident  signs  of  gradual  absorption — old 
channels  now  partially  filled  up,  numerous  rivers  formerly  reaching  the  main  streams, 
but  now  lost  in  the  sands,  or  expanding  into  brackish  morasses,  thousands  of  lakelets 
now  indicated  only  by  saline  incrustations.  Even  the  large  inland  seas,  such  as  Aral 
and  Balkhash,  have  diminished  in  size,  while  others  have  been  replaced  by  the  Eulja 
and  Ferghana  plains.  Owing  to  this  continually  increasing  dryness  a  large  portion 
of  the  country  has  been  transformed  to  steppe  lands  even  on  the  higher  grounds,  as 
on  the  Pamir,  Tian-shan,  and  Tarbagatai,  where  the  growth  of  vegetation  is  limited 
to  three  months,  partly  by  the  winter  snows,  partly  by  the  summer  droughts. 

Such  a  region  is  necessarily  but  thinly  inhabited,  the  average  being  rather  less 
than  four  persons  to  the  square  mile,  or  six  or  seven  times  less  than  in  Caucasia, 
notwithstanding  its  vast  extent  of  waste  lands.  But  the  local  traditions,  historical 
records,  and  the  ruins  of  nunaerous  cities  leave  no  doubt  that  the  coimtry  was 
formerly  far  more  densely  peopled.  The  inhabitants  have  disappeared  with  the 
running  waters.    The  powerful  empires  of  the  Oxus  and  Sogdiana  basins  have 


■*">/w^»W»>W<' 


^^iMgaitf^fe'aKiBgyas^aaaifeKig.^w.-i^idas 


GENERAL  SURVEY. 


168 


pian,  Arul,  aud 
rict.     Climate, 

rising  in  some 
Caspian  shores, 
ed  between  the 
lal  variation  of 
In  autumn  and 
s,  giving  place 
est.     Thus  the 

in  the  interior 
rmals  of  20°  to 

Verd  Islands, 
Is  aro  those  of 
ir  to  the  North 
9n  still  greater, 
20°  Fahr.  On 
)  the  rigours  of 

1858  the  rains 
isture  home  by 
id  in  the  Tian- 
1  the  European 

rying  up  of  the 
rhe  twin  rivers, 
parallel  to  each 
se  formerly  far 
n  the  Caspian, 
ver  1,200  miles 
Indian  streams 
ibsorption — old 
e  main  streams, 
lands  of  lakelets 
as,  such  as  Aral 
sd  by  the  Eulja 
1  a  large  portion 
;her  g^unds,  as 
kation  is  limited 
droughts. 
)ing  rather  less 
m  in  Caucasia, 
tions,  historical 
le  country  was 
leared  with  the 
aa  basins  have 


vanished ;  the  great  centres  of  Eastern  civilisation  have  bocomo  eclipsed ;  many 
cultured  peoples  have  "^verted  to  barbarism ;  and  the  nomad  has  triumphed  over  the 
agricultural  state.  Even  the  ruling  race  has  changed,  the  original  Aryan  element 
having  been  largely  replaced  by  Turkomans,  Kirghiz,  and  other  TArki  peoples.* 
The  upland  Pamir  valleys  from  Karateghin  to  Wakhan  are  still  occupied  by  Aryon 
agricultural  tribes,  some  probably  autochthonous,  others  driven  to  the  highlands 
when  the  plains  were  over- 
Fig.  88.— RouTcs  OF  EXFI.0BKR8  IN  THE  Aiulo-Caspiam  Baun. 

Scale  17  :  400,000 


5S 


run  by  the  nomads  from 
the  north-east.  The  ethnical 
evolution  begun  by  climatic 
changes  was  hastened  by 
wars  and  massacres.  But 
the  urban  populations  were 
rendered  partly  independent 
of  the  changed  outward 
conditions  by  trade  and  in- 
dustry, so  that  the  original 
stock,  diversely  intermingled 
with  the  intruders,  has  hero 
held  its  ground  to  the  pre- 
sent time.  Aryan  and  Tdrki 
peoples  thus  continue  to 
dwell  in  the  same  towns, 
forming  distinct  communi- 
ties, which  adapt  themselves 
to  the  surroundings  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  tem- 
peraments and  hereditary 
habits.  Hence,  in  a  political 
sense  alone,  the  Oxus  has 
for  ages  served  as  the  limit 
between  Iran  and  Turan. 
North  of  this  river  Iran  has 
at  all  times  maintained  a 
footing  in  the  midst  of  the 
Turanian  peoples. 

And  now  the  incentive  to  a  higher  development  flows  once  more  from  a  race  of 
Aryan  stock.  The  Russians,  strong  in  the  power  imparted  by  a  superior  culture, 
are  enabled  to  grapple  with  the  difficulties  of  climate  and  vast  distances  in  con- 
solidating their  new  Aralo-Caspian  conquests.     After  having  surveyed  the  land  us 

•  Throughout  this  work  the  term  TArki  U  to  be  taken  as  practically  synonymcus  with  the  popular 
but  less  accurate  Tatar,  or  "Tartar."  Farther  on  occurs  the  expression  "  Turanian,"  used  in  a  very 
vague  way  by  most  ethnologists.  Here  it  will  be  strictly  limited  to  the  Tiirki  nomad  as  opposed  to  the 
Iranian  settled  populations.— £u. 


E-otG. 


55' 


fltr 


.  aooMUss. 


fc 


164 


ASTATIC  EU8SIA. 


naturalists,  traders,  or  envoys,  they  have  settled  down  as  its  political  masters.  They 
establiHh  themselves  in  the  already  existing  towns,  found  others  on  more  favourable 
commercial  and  strategical  sites,  and  have  even  begun  a  more  systematic  colonisa- 
tion in  the  upland  valleys  east  of  the  Tatar  plains,  thus  assigning  definite  limits  to 
the  nomad  regions,  Lines  of  steamers  on  the  two  main  streams,  roads,  and,  later 
on,  railways,  will  cause  the  hitherto  insurmountable  distances  to  vanish,  thus 
enabling  the  Slav  element  all  the  more  easily  to  establish  its  political  and  social 
predominance.     In  the  midst  of  Tajiks,  Sartes,  and  Uzbegs,  Tashkend  and  Samar- 


Fig.  84. — Russian  E.ncroachmbmts  js  Tvrkehtan. 
Scale  1  :  23,000,000. 


VusMMions  In  1805 . 


lialSSl. 


aOOHilea 


kaud  are  becoming  Russian  cities,  just  as  Kazan  has  been  Russified  in  the  midst  of 
the  Tatars,  Chuvashes,  and  Cheremissians  of  the  Volga  basin. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  present  centiuy  the  Russian  power  has  rapidly  advanced 
in  this  region,  notwithstanding  the  final  limits  from  time  to  time  laid  down  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  authorities.  Since  the  capture  of  Ak-Mejid,  on  the  Sir,  in  1853,  a 
territory  of  about  460,000  square  miles  has  been  aeqmred,  partly  through  the 
caprice  of  some  ambitious  captain,  partly  under  pretext  of  chastising  some  unruly 
tribe.  Gorchakov's  circular  of  1864  limited  the  farther  advance  of  the  imperial 
arms  to  a  few  settled  tracts  beyond  the  nomad  districts,  "  where  both  interest  and 
reason  required  them  to  stop."  But  since  then  vast  strides  have  been  made  towards 
the  subjection  of  the  whole  Aralo-Caspian  basin,  and  by  the  fall  of  Geok-tepe  in 
January,  1881,  the  independence  x)f  Merv  and  of  the  few  remaining  Turkoman  tribes 
is  directly  menaced.  An  official  treaty  concluded  in  1873  between  Russia  and 
England  includes  a  large  portion  of  their  territory  in  the  Afghan  states.    But  such 


.j.i'iBaL'iij«waLiy.Ljmi 


•9am 


THE  PAMIB  AND  ALAl. 


166 


masters.  They 
lOre  favourable 
[natic  colonisa- 
iinite  limits  to 
>ad8,  and,  later 
vauish,  thus 
ical  and  social 
id  and  Samar- 


in  the  midst  of 

pidly  advanced 
i  down  by  the 
Sir,  in  1863,  a 
J  through  the 
^  some  unruly 
f  the  imperial 
kh  interest  and 
\  made  towards 
'  Geok-tepe  in 
irkoman  tribes 
en  Russia  and 
.tes.    But  such 


diplomatic  triflings  cannot  prevent  Russian  influence  from  making  itself  more  and 
more  felt  in  these  regions,  which  are  cut  off  from  Afghanistan  proper  by  the 
Hiudu-Eush,  and  which  belong  physically  and  ethnically  to  the  Aralo-Cucpiau 
basin.  All  the  lowlands  stretching  from  the  Caspian  to  the  foot  of  the  Pamir,  and 
from  the  Iranian  tableland  to  the  sources  of  the  Ob  and  Irtish,  may  already  be 
considered  as  practically  Russian  territory,  separated  by  a  single  range  from 
British  India  or  its  immediate  dependencies. 

East  of  Turkestan  the  Russians  have  for  neighbours  the  Chinese,  whose  empire 
is  separated  from  them  by  the  Pamir,  the  Tian-shan,  and  farther  east  by  a  con- 
ventional line  running  through  the  gates  of  Zungaria,  and  at  many  points  offering 
no  obstacle  to  invasion.  But  so  far  from  having  anything  to  fear  from  the  possible 
irruption  of  some  modem  Jenghis  £han,  here  the  advantage  is  entirely  on  the  side 
of  the  Russians,  both  in  arms,  resources,  strategical  positions,  and  military  science. 


II.— THE  PAMIR  AND  ALAl. 

The  Pamir  and  Tibet,  which  converge  north  of  India  and  east  of  the  Oxus,  form 
jointly  the  culminating  land  of  the  continent.  Disposed  at  right  angles,  and 
pr.rallel,  the  one  to  the  equator,  the  other  to  the  meridian,  they  constitute  the  so- 
called  "  Roof,"  or  "  Crown  of  the  World,"  though  this  expression  is  more  usually 
restricted  to  the  Pamir  alone. 

With  its  escarpments,  rising  above  the  Oxus  and  Tarim  plains  west  and  east, 
the  Pamir  occupies,  in  the  heart  of  the  continent,  an  estimated  area  of  30,000  square 
miles.  With  its  counterforts  projecting  some  300  miles,  it  forms  the  western 
headland  of  all  the  plateaux  and  mountain  systems  skirting  the  Chinese  Empire ; 
it  completely  separates  the  two  halves  of  Asia,  and  forms  an  almost  impassable 
barrier  to  migration  and  warlike  incursions,  Tet  notwithstanding  its  mean 
elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  arable  land,  it  has  been  frequently  crossed  by  small 
caravans  of  traders  or  travellers,  and  by  light  columns  of  troops.  The  attempt 
could  not  fail  to  be  frequently  made  to  take  the  shortest,  route  across  the  region 
separating  the  Oxus  from  Eashgaria,  and  Europe  from  China.  Hence  the  Pamir 
has  often  been  traversed  by  Greeks,  Romans,  Arabs,  Italians,  Chinese,  some  as 
traders,  some  as  explorers,  some  inspired  by  religious  zeal.  But  of  these  travellers 
very  few  have  left  any  record  of  their  journey,  and  all  took  the  lowest  routes 
across  the  plateau.  Here  are  neither  towns  nor  cidtivated  land,  so  that  it  becomes 
diflicult  to  identify  any  of  the  former  routes.  It  was  reserved  for  modem  explorers 
to  convey  a  general  idea  of  the  plateau,  by  their  methodic  surveys  introducing 
order  into  the  confused  nomenclature  of  the  ancients,  reconstructing  the  geography 
of  Central  Asia,  and  getting  rid  of  the  fanciful  mountain  ranges  traced  at  hap- 
hazard on  the  maps.  The  imaginary  "Bolor,"  which,  according  to  Humboldt, 
formed  the  axis  of  the  continent,  has  already  vanished,  at  least  as  a  line  of  crested 
heights,  and,  like  the  Imaus  of  the  ancients,  it  is  now  merged  in  the  broad  table- 
land of  the  Pamir.  The  name  itself  would  seem  to  have  been  restricted  to  a 
district  near  the  Hindu-Kush,  probably  identical  with  the  present  Dardistan. 


166 


ASIATIC  BTTHSU. 


Traders  from  Greece  bej^n,  about  the  twelfth  century  of  the  new  era,  if 
not  earlier,  to  become  acquainted  with  the  routes  over  the  Pamir  to  Sorica,  or 
"  the  Land  of  Silk."  Boinj?  already  established  in  Baktriana,  on  the  valley  of  the 
Middle  Oxus,  the  Greeks  naturally  sought  to  cross  the  plateau  by  ascending  the 
Oxus  until  stopped  by  some  impassable  gorge.  Ptolemy,  relying  on  older  documents, 
tells  us,  in  fact,  that  thoy  proceeded  northwards  to  the  country  of  the  Comedes, 
whose  name  possibly  survives  in  that  of  the  town  of  Kabadian.     Farther  on  the 

Fig.  85.— ROVTB*   OF  ExPLORBRa   IN  TUB   E*8TBItN    PaMIS. 
Stale  1  :  4,000,000. 


road  followed  the  foot  of  the  plateau  by  the  valley  of  the  Oxus,  and  probably  of 
its  tributary  the  Surgh-ab,  running  thence  towards  the  "  Stone  Tower,"  the  chief 
station  and  resting-place  on  this  dreary  journey.  This  tower  Rawlinson  seems 
inclined  to  identify  with  one  of  the  numerous  Imh-kurgan,  or  cairns,  scattered  over 
this  region.  It  stands  11,000  feet  above  the  sea,  on  a  head-stream  of  the 
Yarkand,  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Pamir  in  Sirikol.  But  it  does  not  seem 
probable  that,  in  order  to  pass  from  the  Surgh-ab  to  the  Tarim  (Oechardes)  valley, 


-%.i«iiato««»i»ieB«wwt.«<«»i'i'i'WW»i*i>a!*Mci»'J>j< 


THE  PAMIIl  AND  ALAt. 


167 


le  new  era,  if 
?  to  Serica,  or 
3  valley  of  the 
aHc-endiiig  the 
ier  doeumentB, 
the  Comeden, 
Farther  on  the 


40" 


\ 


fw 


tid  probably  of 
Rrer,"  the  chief 
kwlinson  seems 
scattered  over 
stream  of  the 
does  not  seem 
hardes)  valley, 


the  caravans  would  have  turned  so  fur  to  the  south-east,  besides  which  Gordon 
regards  this  cairn  as  in  any  case  of  recent  origin. 

Two  hundred  ,  j(irs  before  the  Greeks  hud  crossed  the  Pnmir  the  Chinese  had 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  peoples  dwelling  on  the  Sir  und  Oxus,  with  whom 
they  had  established  relations  through  the  pusses  of  the  Tsung-ling,  or  Pamir  of 
the  Russian  geographers.  After  Chang-Kien's  expedition  (probably  alxmt  128  a.d.) 
trade  was  rapidly  developed,  and  large  Chinese  caravans  soon  found  their  way 
directly  from  the  Tarim  to  the  Sir  basin  in  the  "Tavan"  country.  To  these 
caravans  has  been  attributed  the  introduction  into  China  of  the  vine,  walnut, 
pomegranate,  bean,  cucumber,  parsley,  lucem,  saffron,  and  sesame.  Coming  from 
the  Tarim  valley,  the  Chinese  traders  naturally  sought  to  cross  the  heights  at  their 
narrowest  point.  They  nkirted  on  the  north-east  the  Pamir  and  Alai  by  the  Terek- 
davan,  but  we  also  know  from  contemporary  records  that  they  crossed  the  Pamir 
directly  by  the  southern  passes  in  order  to  reach  the  Oxus  and  Ei-pin,  or 
Eabulistan. 

This  direct  commercial  movement  between  east  and  west  was  interrupted  by 
civil  wars  and  migrations.  But  the  routes  over  the  Pamir  were  reopened  by  the 
Buddhist  missionaries  and  pilgrims.  Hwen-T'sang,  the  most  famous  of  these 
pilgrims,  describes  the  journey  of  sixteen  years'  duration  which  he  made  across 
Central  Asia  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century,  and  a  sufficient  number  of 
names  in  his  itinerary  have  been  identified  to  enable  us  to  follow  him  over  the 
Southern  Pamir  through  Sirikol,  Wakhan,  and  Badakshan.  This  is  nearly  the 
same  route  as  that  taken  by  Marco  Polo  in  company  with  his  father  and  uncle  in 
1272 — 5.  But  this  traveller  seems  to  have  passed  more  to  the  north,  instead  of 
ascending  the  Upper  Oxus  crossing  the  Pamir  in  a  north-easterly  direction, 
travelling  "  twelve  days  on  horseback  "  in  a  region  "  without  dwellings  or  pasture." 
In  1603  the  Catholic  missionary,  Benedict  Goes,  also  crossed  the  Southern  Pamir, 
probably  by  the  same  route  as  Hwen-T'sang.  But  two  hundred  years  elapsed  before 
it  was  again  approached  by  a  European  traveller.  In  1838  Wood  ascended  a  head- 
stream  of  the  Oxus  to  the  Sari-kul,  or  Eul-kalian,  and  with  this  journey  begins  the 
era  of  modem  scientific  exploration.  In  1868  Hayward  visited  the  south-east  comer 
of  the  plateau ;  the  Hindu  emissaries  of  the  Indian  Topographic  Bureau  also  traversed 
the  "  Great "  and  "  Little  "  Pamir  ;  the  Greek  Potagos  penetrated,  in  1871,  from 
Badakshan  to  Eashgar ;  and  in  1873  Forsyth,  Gordon,  and  Trotter  crossed  the 
plateau  to  Badakshan,  and  sent  a  Hindu  geometrician  to  visit  Shignan  and  Roshan. 

But  the  Northern  Pamir  has  ceased  to  be  vasited  ever  since  the  epoch  of 
Chinese  supremacy.  The  Arabs.  mast«r8  of  the  Sir  valley,  sent  their  trading 
expeditions  by  relatively  easier  routes  round  the  northern  base  of  the  Tian-shan, 
and  the  same  route  was  followed  by  the  European  envoys  to  the  Mongol  court. 
The  rediscovery  of  the  Northern  Pamir  is  due  to  the  Hindu  Abdul  Mejid,  who 
was  the  first  to  cross  the  Pamir  from  south  to  north  in  1861,  and  to  the  Russian 
explorers,  Fedchenko,  Eostenko,  Mushketov,  Sieverzov,  Oshanin,  and  others.  Over 
four-fifths  of  the  whole  area  have  already  been  surveyed,  and  Sieverzov's  expedition 
of  1878  came  within  some  30  miles  of  the  English  exploration  of  1873.     About 


FLORA,  FAUNA,  LAKES  OF  THE  PAMIR. 


IM 


)  elevations  of 
ertain  that  no 


Although  rising  13,000  foot  above  the  TurkeHtan  ))1ainR,  the  Puunr  in  Hmitt>d 
north  and  south  by  ranges  towrring  7,000  and  even  10,000  feet  higher.  On  the 
Houth  the  Ilindu-Kush,  continued  by  the  mountains  connecting  it  with  the  Kucn> 
lun,  forms  the  great  parting-line  of  the  Indus  basin.  On  the  north  the  Trans- 
Alai  and  the  Alai,  forming  geographically  a  section  of  the  Tian-shan,  separate 
the  Pamir  from  the  slopes  draining  to  the  Sir-daria.  But  the  region  thus  com- 
prised between  two  escarpments  running  west-south-west  and  east-north-cast  is 
far  from  presenting  a  uniform  surface,  for  it  is  divided  into  a  number  of  smaller 
Pamirs  by  ridges  and  deep  ravines,  through  which  the  streams  drain,  west  to  the 
Oxus,  east  to  the  Tarim,  without  any  well-defined  water-parting.  The  relief  of 
the  uplands,  even  excluding  the  distinct  ridges,  presents  deviations  of  over  3,000 
feet,  which  suffice  to  produce  a  certain  variety  in  the  climate  and  scanty  flora  of 
the  plateau.  Still  the  ridges  offer  no  effectual  barrier  to  the  nomad  Kirghiz 
pastors  or  travellers,  and  the  Pamir  is  crossed  in  every  direction  by  a  thousand 
tracks.  In  the  north  the  eminences  attain  a  relative  height  pf  no  more  than  1,000 
to  1,600  feet,  while  in  the  centre  and  between  the  Rang-kul  and  Yashil-kul  the 
routes  may  be  compared  to  artificial  highways.  In  the  west  General  Abramov  was 
able  to  transport  a  battery  over  the  Alai,  so  that  with  modem  appliances  the  Pamir 
presents  no  insurmountable  obstacles  even  to  well-appointed  military  expeditions,  at 
least  during  the  four  months  from  June  to  September.  At  other  times  the  surface  is 
covered  with  snow  and  exposed  to  fierce  gales,  rendering  the  Pamir  uninhabitable. 

Below  the  upper  clays  and  sands  the  Alai  rocks  consist  of  granites  and  crystal- 
line schists.  The  granites  run  precisely  in  the  same  direction  as  the  Tian-shan 
and  the  spurs  projecting  westwards  into  the  Turkestan  lowlands.  But  the  inter- 
vening spaces  are  occupied  by  triassic  and  other  more  recent  formations.  The 
general  tilt  of  the  land  is  towards  the  west  and  south-west,  and  the  somewhat 
ill-defined  water-parting  lies  much  nearer  to  the  Eastern  Tarim  than  to  the 
Western  Aralo-Caspian  basin.  On  its  eastern  verge  also  rises  Mount  Tagharma, 
or  Taghalma,  culminating  point  of  the  land.  This  mountain,  known  also  aa  the 
Wi-tagh  ("  House  Mount ")  and  Muz-tagh-ata  ("  Father  of  the  Ice  Mounts  "), 
rises,  according  to  Trotter  and  Eostenko,  to  a  height  of  25,500  feet,  and  is  con- 
tinued south-eastwards  by  the  Chichiklik,  which  is  itself  about  20,000  feet  high. 
These  highlands,  which  run  transversely  with  the  Tian-shan,  are  the  Tsung-ling, 
or  "  Onion  Mountains,"  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  Kizil-art  of  the  Eashgarians. 

The  Pamir  is  often  swept  by  terrific  gales  from  the  north-east,  where  its 
sheltering  mountain  barrier  is  broken  at  several  points.  On  the  shores  of  the 
Eara-kul  and  in  the  sandy  gorge  of  the  Eizil-art  the  very  rocks  are  worn  by  the 
sands  incessantly  playing  on  them  from  the  north.  In  these  lofty  regions  the  air 
is  generally  very  dry  and  clear,  except  when  clouded  by  the  powdered  mists  of 
the  desert  winds.  The  extremes  of  temperature  occasioned  by  this  transparent 
atmosphere,  combined  with  the  snow-storms,  which  prevail  chiefly  in  February 
and  March,  are  amongst  the  principal  dangers  to  which  travellers  are  exposed. 
They  also  suffer  much  from  "  mountain  sickness  "  and  distressing  headaches. 
12 


170 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Flora,  Faina,  Lakkh  op  tup.  Pamir. 

The  Piiinir  in  froquontod  in  Numinor  by  Kirghiz  nnnmdn,  with  thoir  flnoki  irom 
Khoidind  and  Kumtoghin  in  the  north,  und  from  Shignun  in  tho  woiit.  Cuinifl  unt 
KattcrcMl  horo  and  thoro,  inurkinf^  old  cunipin)^  f^roundH,  or  tho  f^ravos  of  Kirghiz 
"  RaintH,"  dockod  with  Hhoep'n  honin  and  fluttoring  raga.  AIn>vo  tho  line  of 
arborcMtent  vogotution,  indicated  by  tho  willow,  dwarf  birch,  juniper,  and  thorny 
8hrul)H,  tho  only  available  fuel  in  that  afforded  by  tho  wood  of  r(x>tH  of  a  H|)oci(>N 
of  lavender,  while  t»till  higher  up  even  thiH  resource  fail*.  Yet  in  many  placcN, 
even  at  altitudoH  of  l.'i.OOO  foot,  the  gram  in  an  thick  an  on  the  groxing  grounds  of 
West  Europe,  and  perhaps  richer.  Marco  Polo's  statement  that  the  Pamir  affonls 
tho  best  pasture  in  the  world,  fattening  a  lean  hook  in  ton  days,  is  confirmed  by  recent 
explorers  and  their  Wakhi  guides.  In  the  upland  Sirikol  valley  sloping  towardu 
Kashgaria  borloy,  haricots,  and  other  plants  are  cultivated  as  high  as  10,300  feet. 
Yet  the  parallel  ridges,  especially  in  the  north,  are  almost  destitute  of  vegetation,  and 
here  nothing  grows  except  in  the  moist  hollows  on  the  banks  of  the  lakes  and  rivulets. 

The  fauna  is  much  richer  than  wa«  formerly  supposed.  Sieverzov  found  in 
1878  no  less  than  112  species  of  birds  at  an  elevation  at  whiqh  on  the  Alps  there 


Tig.  87. -KbLIIF  of  tub  HtOHLAirDI  and  PiATIIUX  IHTWMM  THH  HWBU-KfUM   AMD  TiAN-nUMr 

Seal*  t  :  18,800,000. 


i. 


^ 


r  A  t  »  n    -     S  h  m  H        Pamif  PLtitmwk 


/tJH^   fbtth 


.800  MUM. 


are  no  more  than  a  dozen.  The  muddy  shores  of  the  lakes  show  traces  of  the 
chamois,  hare,  deer,  fox,  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  leopard,  and  on  the  Great  Pamir  are 
wild  goats  like  those  of  the  Himalayas.  But  the  typical  animal  of  the  plateau  is 
the  80-caUed  kachkar,  or  arkhar  {Ovis  poU),  a  species  of  sheep  over  3  feet  high, 
weighing  from  400  to  430  lbs.,  and  distinguished  by  enormous  horns  inclined 
backwards  in  a  double  spiral.  Formerly  very  numerous,  the  kachkar  seems  d  be 
disappearing  frofti  the  Pamir,  and  in  the  north  it  was  nearly  swept  away  by  the 
epidemic  of  1869.  Potagos  appears  to  have  met  a  small  species  of  monkey  in 
the  upland  valleys  of  the  south ;  but  the  bear  has  vanished  from  the  north,  and  the 
tiger  spoken  of  by  some  travellers  was  more  probably  a  leopard. 

Traces  of  increasing  aridity  are  no  less  evident  on  the  Pamir  than  elsewhere  in 
the  Aralo-Caspian  basin.  A  great  many  lakes  have  already  ceased  to  overflow, 
and  have  been  gradually  changed  to  isolated  saline  or  brackish  tarns.    Such  fs  the 


7'Tg/A:*k»jav.^<TwwmwMBiKaB(y3>g 


TIIK  ALAl  IIIOIILAND. 


171 


loir  flnoki  irom 
•t.  Cttinm  am 
V08  of  Kirghiz 
re  the  line  of 
or,  and  thorny 
>tM  of  a  NpocicH 
n  many  pluccH, 
;ing  groundfl  of 
a  Pamir  affonln 
irmed  by  recent 
loping  towardH 
tt8  lO.aOO  feet, 
vegetation,  and 
:es  and  rivulets, 
arzov  found  in 
the  Alps  there 

AND  TlAN-RRAMr 


r  traoeB  of  the 
reat  Pamir  are 
I  the  plateau  is 
er  3  feet  high, 
horns  inclined 
tear  seems  t>'  be 
pt  away  by  the 
i  of  monkey  in 
)  north,  and  the 

lan  elsewhere  in 
led  to  overflow, 
IS.    Such  in  the 


Rtifwik-kul  in  the  Miuth,  though  th<>  lliing-kiil  Ntill  retain*  itii  RWoetneM,  thanks  to 
tho  Htrmni  through  which  it  dritiiiH  to  u  tributary  of  the  Oxun.  In  many  plucuH 
tho  old  lakcn  un)  now  intlicutiKl  by  incruHtationH  of  wit  und  inagnoHitt. 

Tho  Kurii-kul,  or  "  Hlu(!k  liuko,"  «>  cullwl  fntni  itH  ilonp  blun  (colour,  in  tho 
largest  on  the  I*amir,  but  noomH  ut  pri'Mcn'tf  to  Im<  paMning  through  u  tranNition 
period.  Situated  immodiat<»ly  south  of  tho  kkil-urt,  it  in  ovcrywhoro  oncloM<d  by 
unowy  mountainH,  but  its  vunt  ImHin  in  no  longor  entin^lv  fl'KMlcid.  Itn  proscnt  area 
in  about  l!iO  Mcpuiro  miloH,  but  its  former  exttnt  is  dourly  nmrkwl  by  iiutiuTous 
JNlandti,  poninHiilaN,  Hwnmpy  flats,  and  the  dnitTsling  ^hdo  iuoruHtationn  of  nkagnoitia 
met  with  ah>ng  its  shoroH.  It  in  dividtKl  iuu*  two  halves  by  a  rirlg<;  running  north 
and  south,  and  c<mnoctod  with  tho  mainland  by  u  strip  of  sand.  Its  f'^niors  no 
longer  compensate  for  tho  loss  by  evaporation,  the  rainfall  is  very  slight,  and 
noarly  all  tho  moisture  is  discharged  either  as  hail  in  summct  or  sii.  >w  in  winter. 
Before  Kostenko's  visit  tho  lake  was  represented  os  draining  either  to  tho  Kashgar 
or  to  the  Oxus,  or  even  to  both  basins.  Hut  if  it  over  oxisttnl  the  outlet  through 
tho  Markan-su  north-east  to  the  Kashgar  has  long  boon  dried  up,  while  that  flow- 
ing south  to  the  Oxus  seems  to  be  intormittent,  during  high  floods  still  sending  a 
little  water  through  the  Ohon-su  or  Ak-baital  to  that  river.  Doing  thus  without 
a  reg^ar  outflow,  its  waters  have  become  so  bitter  that  animals  will  only  drink 
them  when  suffering  from  extreme  thirst.  But  they  ore  always  clear,  and 
apparently  stocked  with  fish.  According  to  the  nomads  tho  level  of  the  lake  rises 
regularly  every  Friday,  a  belief  Kostenko  seems  half  inclined  to  credit.  Koros- 
tovzev  also  speaks  of  regular  risings,  without,  however,  indicating  their  duration. 

1 

The  Alai  Highland. 

North  of  the  Pomir.  the  two  parallel  ramparts  of  the  Trans- Alai  and  Alai 
belong  to  the  Tian-shan  system,  and  their  geological  structure,  according  to 
Mushketov,  is  the  same.  But  these  diorite  and  granite  mosses  being  separated  by 
the  Kog-art  and  Terek-davan  •  Passes  from  that  range,  they  may  bo  regarded  as 
forming  an  independent  system.  This  western  section  of  the  Tian-shan,  merging 
in  the  Turkestan  plains  between  the  Sir  and  Oxus  basins,  has  a  length  of  420  miles, 
and,  like  the  Tian-shan  proper,  consists  of  various  ridges  running  either  east-north- 
east or  north-west,  and  crossing  each  other  at  intervuls. 

At  the  north-east  comer  of  the  Pamir  the  two  ranges  present  a  remarkably 
regular  appearance.  The  Alai,  or  Kichi-Alai,  forming  the  water-parting  between 
the  Sir,  Oxus,  and  Tarim  basins,  sharply  limits  the  Ferghana  depression  by  a 
barrier  of  crests  with  a  mean  elevation  of  from  13,000  to  18,000  feet,  which 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  elevated  posses.  Of  these  one  of  the  lowest  is 
the  Isfoirom  Poss,  12,000  feet  high,  ot  one  of  the  "  breaks  "  in  the  Alai,  where 
the  chain  suddenly  tokos  o  westerly  direction.  From  a  neighbouring  bluff  o  view 
is  afforded  of  the  snowy  monarch  of  the  Trans- Aloi,  which  Fedchenko  hos  named 

•  The  Tian-shan  passes  hear  the  Tatar  names  of  davan  or  daban,  art  or  yart,  bel  and  kutal.  The 
(lavm  is  a  difficult  rocky  defile,  the  art  a  dungerous  gap  at  a  high  elevation,  the  bel  a  low  and  easy  pass, 
the  kutal  a  broad  opening  between  low  hills  (Fedchenko). 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


the  Kaufmann  Peak,  and  which  is  probably  the  culrainaliug  point  of  the  whole 
Tian-shan  system.  A  little  farther  east  rises  a  group  of  three  other  crests,  of 
nearly  equal  elevation,  the  Gurumdi  of  the  Kirghiz. 

The  space  between  the  Alai  and  Trans- Alai  is  regarded  as  forming  a  separate 
plateau,  a  sort  of  advanced  platform  or  landing-place  in  the  descent  from  the 
"  Roof  of  the  World  "  down  to  the  Ferghana  valley.  It  forms  the  bed  of  a  dried- 
up  lake,  at  its  most  elevated  place,  no  less  than  24  miles  broad,  and  stretching  in  a 
narrower  channel  north-east  and  south-west.  The  upper  part,  known  as  the 
Bash- Alai,  or  "  Head  of  the  Alai,"  is  the  "  Paradise  "  of  the  Kirghiz,  though  a 


Fig.  88 — Thb  Alai  Plateau. 

Boale  1 :  640,000. 

40 

40 

^.mM<%im  :^^^^'^^'  --^^s^. 

X  ,^if 

1 

^ 

%^^^m 

a^  vc^A\       \ 

''"  '^'  ilHiMv  ifHffTr  "^'IBiy 

^m^ 

^^^v^^^^wyi 

^jA^^^^nHH^B 

^^1  "^  fiwilBw 

'- '    „.v^$iilil 

IP^iPll^i     ^■-        ■'-■■-''     ... 

pjp^ "iMB 

■HHHp^i*r^' 

,,^Mi 

59 
50' 

HBfP^!SftiA&iiii 

59 

50 

E.oP  G.                   '7Q'00 

76*  so- 

12Mil«*. 


paradise  they  can  visit  only  for  three  or  four  months  in  the  year.  It  forms  the 
water-parting  between  the  Oxus  and  Kashgar  basins,  and  the  two  streams  that 
here  take  their  rise  are  both  called  the  Kizil-su,  or  "  Red  River,"  from  the  colour 
of  their  banks.  Most  of  their  tributary  rivulets  have  also  a  reddish  tinge,  due  no 
doubt  to  the  clays  deposited  by  the  old  glaciers.  In  those  flowing  towards  the 
Western  Kizil-su,  the  Surgh-ab  of  the  Tajiks,  Fedchenko  discovered  a  species  of  trout 
not  met  with  in  any  other  Turkestan  river,  and  probably  allied  to  that  found  by 
Griffith  in  another  tributary  of  the  Oxus  near  Bamian.  This  fish  seems  to  have 
been  driven  by  the  change  of  climate  from  the  plains  to  the  mpuntaiii  torrents. 


'-''.'"WSSt^SW 


MiW'.'llJM;,: 


-XJJWIIIIUUIMlfci 


urmiiiiiioi 


point  of  the  whole 
iree  other  crests,  of 

forming  a  separate 
e  descent  from  the 
J  the  bed  of  a  dried- 
,  and  stretching  in  a 
part,  known  as  the 
^  Kirghiz,  though  a 


72' 50- 


year.  It  forms  the 
le  two  streams  that 
er,"  from  the  colour 
■eddish  tinge,  due  no 
flowing  towards  the 
3red  a  species  of  trout 
ed  to  that  found  by 
8  fish  seems  to  have 
;>untaiii  torrents. 


tmmm 


mm 


JiitiWiNiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiBiii iiiiiiii,iirii»iiiiiiHiw[H«i 


4- 


THE  ALAl  HIGHLAND. 


17» 


West  of  the  Isfai'ram  and  Eara-kazik  Pass  the  Ala'i  rises  gradually  in  a  parallel 
line  with  some  northeni  ridges  traversed  by  the  streainb  flowing  to  Ferghana.  It 
is  connected  by  spurs  with  these  ridges,  the  whole  constituting,  north  of  the  sources 
of  the  Zarafshan,  a  highland  region  rising  6,000  or  7,000  feet  above  the  snow- 
line, and  sending  down  mighty  glaciers 


Fig.  80.' 


-Thb  Shchi'kotskiy  Glacier. 
Soale  1  :  820,000. 


to  the  surrounding  upland  valleys. 
From  the  highest  peak  of  these  high- 
lands, the  culminating  point  of  the  Ala'i 
proper,  the  Shchurovskiy  glacier  flows 
northwards,  while  from  the  slopes  of 
the  Ehotur-tau  and  neighbouring 
mountains  there  descend  nimierous 
torrents  and  cascades,  a  phenomenon 
elsewhere  as  rare  in  the  Central  Asiatic 
highlands  as  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Caucasus.  Here  the  forests,  far  inferior 
in  beauty  to  those  of  Europe,  are  com- 
posed largely  of  the  archa,  a  species 
of  juniper  (^Jtmiperut  pseudo-sabina), 
which  flourishes  at  an  elevation  of  5,000 
feet  and  upwards. 

The  Eara-tau.  which  forms  a 
western  continuation  of  the  Ala'i,  main- 
tains an  altitude  of  over  13,000  feet  to 
the  south  of  Tashkend,  beyond  which 
it  falb  somewhat  rapidly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Samarkand,  while  throwing  oif 
at  a  sharp  angle  another  spur  towards 
the  north-west.  The  various  sections 
of  these  mountains,  which  are  inter- 
rupted by  broad  gaps,  are  known  by 
different  names,  such  as  the  Fra-tepe, 
the  Julan  or  Sausar-tau,  Eara-tau,  and 
Nura-tau. 

The  parallel  ridges  running  between 
the  Alai  and  Western  Pamir  have  a 
greater  mean  altitude  than  the  outer 
chain ;  but  they  are  divided  by  mountain 
torrents  into  a  number  of  distinct  frag- 
ments, nowhere  forming  any  decided 

water-parting.  Thus  the  Trans- Ala'i  is  divided  on  the  west  of  the  Earateghin  Moun- 
tains by  the  Ters-agar,  whence  flow  two  streams  in  opposite  directions,  northwards  to 
the  Tuz-altin-dara,  a  tributary  of  the  Surgh-ab,  southwards  to  the  Muk-su.  Farther 
west  the  Surgh-ab  itself  pierces  Hxe  Earateghin  range  to  effect  a  junction  with  the 


.  BMfle*. 


174 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Muk-su,  which  is  formed  by  three  head-streams,  one  of  which  is  fed  by  a  glacier 
over  a  mile  broad,  and  at  its  lower  extremity  about  100  feet  thick.  The  Sel-su 
valley  is  filled  by  a  still  larger  glacier,  at  least  10  miles  long,  which  Oshanin,  the 
first  explorer  of  this  region,  has  named  after  the  celebrated  traveller  Fedchenko. 


"West  of  tiie  Alai,  where  all  the  parallel  chains  converge  in  a  snowy  plateau 
sending  down  glaciers  to  the  surrounding  cirques,  the  two  parallel  Zarafshan  and 
Hissar  ranges  are  also  pierced  by  river  valleys.  But  here  the  chains  begin  to 
branch  off  like  a  fan,  gradually  falling  towards  the  plains,  where  they  reappear 
here  and  there  in  isolated  rooky  eminences.    Between  Samarkand  and  Hissar  some 


by  a  glacier 
The  Sel-8u 
)8hanin,  the 
Bdchenko. 


THE  TIAN-SHAN. 


of  the  peaks  still  rise  above  the  snow-line,  and  although  less  elevated  than  the 
Kaufmann  Peak  of  the  Trans-AlaY,  they  perhaps  present  a  grander  appearance, 
thanks  to  their  greater  relative  height  above  the  surrounding  district.* 


III.— THE  TIAN-SHAN. 


Of  the  Asiatic  mountain  systems  sloping  northwards  this  is  the  largest  both  in 
extent,  elevation,  the  abundance  of  its  snows  and  glacier  masses.  The  title  of 
Tian-shan,  or  "  Celestial  Mountains,"  was  conferred  on  it  by  the  Chinese,  doubtless 
from  the  elevation  of  its  snowy  peaks  blending  with  the  fleecy  welkin.  Its  lofty  crests 
have  ever  formed  one  of  the  chief  barriers  to  migration,  conquest,  and  commercial 
intercourse,  and  these  mountains  have  at  all  times  been  avoided  eastwards  by  the 
Zungarian  passes.  Till  recently  the  Russians  themselves,  notwithstanding  their 
military  resources  and  superior  culture,  have  stopped  short  at  the  northern  base  of 


Fig.  01. — Bblatitb 


176 


OF  THK  TlAN-BHAW,  Au>«,  AND  PTRBKnS. 

Soale  1 :  MX)00.(MV«. 


Tian-ihan. 
.eooMilM. 


the  range,  which  for  thran  formed  the  limit  of  the  known  world,  and  which  was 
masked  by  vast  deserts,  Bwamps,  and  shallow  lakes.  Its  passes  are  approached 
by  no  great  river  valley  except  that  of  the  Sir-daria,  which,  like  all  the  other 
streams  flowing  from  the  Tian-shan,  is  lost  in  a- land-locked  lake.  Although 
forming  the  chief  moimtain  mass  of  Asia  north  of  the  Himalayas  and  Kuen-lun, 
this  range  is  nevertheless  of  far  less  hydrographic  importance  than  the  secondary 


*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Pamir  and  Alai  system :  — 
Pamir. 


Fcrt. 

14,240 

13,400 

16,100 

16,600 


Bash-Alai 

Alal-tagh,  highest  point 
Alai'-tagh,  mean  height .... 
Shchurovskty  Glacier,  lower  extremity . 
Kaufmann  Peak,  Trsns-AM 

Ters  agar  Pass 

Trans- Ala!  snow- line     .... 

Shelveli 

Saudal 

Chabdara  (Hissar  Mountains) 
Hasreti-Sultan 


Feet. 
11,000 
19,380 
16,000 
11,900 
26,000 

9,860 
14,160 
26,000 
26,000 
18,600 
16,000 


■I 


176 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


masses,  where  rise  the  gi-eat  Siberian  rivers — Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena.  The  Tian- 
shan  is,  in  fact,  entirely  comprised  within  the  central  region  of  the  continent,  which 
has  an  exclusively  inland  drainage.  It  belongs  to  the  region  of  steppes,  deserts, 
half  dried-up  lakes  and  saline  marshes,  which  form  the  "  inner  (routinent"  enclosed 
within  the  Asiatic  mainland.  Nor  is  it  inhabited  except  very  thinly  in  the  valleys, 
on  its  outskirts,  and  on  some  of  its  plateaux,  so  that  while  twenty-five  times  larger, 
it  has  less  than  one-tenth  the  population  of  the  Swiss  Alps.  It  also  forms  an 
ethnical  and  political  parting-line,  on  the  one  hand  limiting  the  domain  of  the 
Mongolians,  Kirghiz,  Zimgarians,  and  Tajiks,  on  the  other  forming  abnost  every- 
where the  political  frontier  of  the  Russian  and  Chinese  Empires. 

According  to  the  most  recent  surveys  this  system  forms  altogether  a  more 
extensive  highland  mass  than  all  the  European  mountains  collectively,  from  the 
Eastern  Carpathians  to  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  term  Tian-shan,  restricted  by 
Semyonov  to  the  crests  north  of  the  Issik-kul,  and  by  Humboldt  to  the  chains 
between  the  rivers  Narin  and  Kashgar,  is  extended  by  Hwen-T'sang  to  the  region 

Rg.  02.— Rbiativb  Relief  of  the  Tian-shan,  Alps,  and  Pybbnibb. 

Soale  1  :  24,000,000. 


Veitieal  fifty  times  laiger  than  the  Horiiontal  Soato. 

^_____i_i.^— i_-^—  600  Miles. 

east  of  the  Khan-tengri,  and  the  geographic  unity  of  the  vast  highland  tract 
stretching  from  Zungaria  to  the  Turkestan  ranges  has  now  for  the  first  time 
been  recognised  by  Sieverzov.  "As  I  proceeded  south-westwards,"  says  this 
traveller,  "I  had  snowy  crests  for  months  together  on  my  left.  After  passing 
the  Ala-tau  of  Semirechinsk,  I  sighted  the  white  Talgar  and  the  other  peaks  of  the 
Ala-tau  beyond  the  Ili.  The  Alexander  Chain  was  succeeded  still  by  others  and 
others,  and  the  Celestial  Mountains  seemed  to  continue  in  an  endless  line  of  sierras." 

Orographic  System. 

The  Tian-shan  begins  in  Mongolia  with  a  simple  rocky  crest  rising  above  the 
bed  of  the  "  Dried-up  Sea,"  the  Han-hai  of  the  Chinese.  But  this  crest,  which 
nms  west-south-westwards,  is  soon  joined  by  a  second,  and  then  by  several  others, 
connected  by  intermediate  plateaux,  and  broadening  their  bases  till  they  have 
stretched  across  8°  of  latitude.  Tqv.  ards  the  centre  the  plateau  supporting  the  ranges 
gradually  narrows,  and  the  parallel  ridges  become  reduced  in  numbers,  until  at 
last  the  Tian-shan,  towards  its  western  extremity,  loses  its  name  and  merges  with 
a  few  rocky  eminences  in  the  Turkestan  lowlands.    The  various  chains  running 


IHi 


mmm 


OROnRAl'HIC  MYSTEM. 


177 


The  Tian- 
tinent,  which 
ppes,  deserts, 
;nt"  enclosed 
n  the  valleys, 
times  larger, 
Iso  forms  an 
omain  of  the 
abnost  every- 

ther  a  more 
ely,  from  the 
restricted  by 
to  the  chains 
to  the  region 


SISB 


-m 


ighland  tract 
le  first  time 
B,"  says  this 
Lfter  passing 
*  peaks  of  the 
by  others  and 
le  of  sierras." 


ng  above  the 
crest,  which 
jveral  others, 
U  they  have 
ig  the  ranges 
lers,  until  at 
merges  with 
Eiins  running 


east  and  west  are  collectively  about  1,500  miles  long,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  at 
least  240  miles,  and  a  total  area  of  400,000  square  miles. 

All  the  ridges  do  not  run  uniformly  east-north-east  and  west-south-west,  or 
simply  east  and  west,  for  several  stretch  in  parallel  lines  south-east  and  north-west, 
or  else  east-south-east  and  west-south-west.  These  last  are  formed  of  diorites,  while 
the  main  chain  consists  of  granites  and  syenites.  The  whole  system  is  intersected 
by  one  only  of  the  secondary  chains,  that  which  skirts  the  Ferghana  plains  on  the 
east,  forming  the  western  escarpment  of  all  the  central  plateau.  The  outer  chains 
spread  out  like  a  fan  beyond  the  main  range,  thus  enclosing  valleys  of  triangular 
shape.  The  Sir-daria  and  its  tributaries,  like  the  other  streams  flowing  to  the  steppe 
lakes,  run  first  eastwards  through  one  of  the  intermediate  valleys  of  the  Tian- 
shan  proper,  and  are  then  deflected  north-west  by  the  outer  chains.    In  the  heart 

Fig.  93.— Chibf  Chests  of  thb  Tian-buan. 
Scale  1  :  22,000,000. 


00 


40 


C"--'^'- 


90 


7/-/>""'"" 


to 


E.ofG         70' 


00' 


O  OULtltes. 


aoOMlfas. 


of  the  system  all  the  valleys,  like  those  of  the  Alai,  Pamir,  and  East  Siberia,  belong 
to  very  old  geological  epochs,  for  triassic  and  Jurassic  strata  have  here  been  regularly 
deposited  between  the  crystalline,  Devonian,  and  carboniferous  crests  of  the  main 
ranges.  Here  are  also  vast  layers  of  loess,  in  some  places  1,000  feet  thick,  and  by 
their  uniform  yellow-g^y  colour  imparting  a  wearisome  monotony  to  the  landscape. 
Till  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  Tian-shan  was  one  of  the  least-known 
regions  on  the  globe.  But  since  then  the  steady  progress  of  Russian  power  and 
influence  has  enabled  many  explorers  to  traverse  it  in  every  direction,  so  that 
little  remains  to  be  done  beyond  making  a  more  exhaustive  study  of  its  structure 
and  products.  The  work  of  exploration  begun  in  1856  by  Semyonov  has  been  ably 
continued  by  Valikhanov,  Golubev,  Venyukov,  SieverzDv,  Reinthal,  Mushketoy, 
Prejvalsky,  Hegel,  &c.  Valuable  itineraries  remain  still  to  be  published,  which  will 
probably  clear  up  many  doubtful  points,  and  help  to  remove  the  confusion  occasioned 


178 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


by  the  various  Tutar,  Zungarian,  Russian,  and  Chinese  nomenclatures.  Great  uncer- 
tainty also  sometimes  prevails  regarding  measurements,  the  various  barometrical  and 
other  estimates  of  altitudes  often  presenting  discrepancies  of  several  hundred  feet. 

The  Tian-shan  proper  begins  about  120  miles  east  of  the  town  of  Hami 
(Khamil),  and  soon  reaches  an  elevation  of  from  7,000  to  10,000  feet.  The 
Kosheti-davan  Pass,  on  the  route  between  Hami  and  Barkul  north  and  south,  is  no 
less  than  9,100  feet  high,  an  altitude  probably  maintained  as  far  west  as  the  Bogdo 
Mountains.     But   immediately  beyond  this  point  there  occurs  a  profound   gap 


Fig.  04.— Eabteun  Chains  or  tri  Tun-bhan. 

Penlo  1  :  8,601,000. 


/ .  Oy/oumg 


/•^*/AA»aA 


^ 


i^aizt^      f^fS. 


TXAff-  SA*n  ^/ot* 


„.^AjgrgtM|L-^^^,^ 


HupoiuitiL 


-*6mr 


Sfgmf^r^ 


fJ^rMamfc* 


Akteu 


aa 


S'^* 


■  y 


40> 


E  ofG. 


80' 


85' 


340MilM. 


through  which  runs  the  road  from  Urumtsi  (Umritsi)  to  Turfan  and  Pishan.  All 
this  section  is  encircled  by  a  narrow  belt  of  verdure,  watered  by  streams  flowing  in 
parallel  channels  from  the  gorges,  and  soon  losing  themselves  in  the  sands,  or 
expanding  into  morasses  on  the  lowlands.  Around  this  green  belt  there  stretch 
westwards  two  inlets  of  the  old  Asiatic  Mediterranean,  which  have  been  gradually 
changed  to  gohi,  or  deserts.  The  hills  between  Barkul  and  Hami,  thus  rising 
like  a  headland  above  the  wastes,  have  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  Standing  like  a  barrier  between  two  great  historical  highways,  they 
deflected  the  westward  waves  of  migration,  some  to  the  Tarim  basin  and  Eaahgaria, 


"=^^i3i.'il6ti8!iS3i^''i!"i(lilll,'i'l 


g^afgiiMMmiMMMt'ilJlMIMi 


KATOn  and  Yin.DUZ  HIOHIiANDS. 


170 


Great  uncer- 
metrical  and 
indrcd  feet. 
vn  of  Hami 

0  feet.     The 

1  south,  is  no 
18  the  Bogdo 
rofound   gap 


40: 


others  through  the  narrow  Nomin-iningin-gobi  gateway  between  the  Barkul  Hills 
and  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Altai  north- west wanlM  to  Zunguriu.  Hero  the 
Mongolians  were  easily  enabled  to  skirt  on  the  north  the  whole  Tian-shan  system 
by  availing  themselves  of  the  numerous  passes  opening  westwards  to  the  Hi  basin, 
north-westwards  to  Lake  Balkhash,  northwards  to  the  Black  Irtish  and  Luke  Zaisan. 
These  depressions  between  Mongolia  and  Siberia  have  a  mean  altitude  of  probab^  * 
not  more  than  3,300  feet,  and  the  highest  point  on  the  route  from  Barkul  north 
west  to  the  Black  Irtish  is  only  2,545  feet.  The  existence  of  an  oblique  chain,  sup- 
posed by  Richthofen  to  run  north-west  from  Barkul  to  the  Tarbagatui  Mountains, 
has  not  been  confirmed  by  Potantin's  explorations,  though  a  small  ridge  runs  from 
the  extremity  of  the  Tian-shan  at  Barkul  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  again  joining 
the  main  range  west  of  the  town.  This  is  the  outer  rim  of  an  ancient  lake,  of 
which  nothing  now  remains  except  the  small  Barkid  basin,  to  which  this  town  owes 
its  Tatar  name.  Beyond  the  Barkul  heights  nothing  occurs  in  the  north-west  as  far 
OS  the  valley  of  the  Black  Irtish,  except  irregular  masses  representing  the  islands 
and  peninsulas  of  the  old  sea  flowing  between  the  Altai  and  Tian-shan  highlands. 


rgiyglaL 


K/W.^ 


iff 


Pishan.  All 
ns  flowing  in 
:he  sands,  or 
there  stretch 
en  gradually 
,  thus  rising 
L  the  history 
B^hways,  they 
d  Eaahgaria, 


KatCn  and  Yulduz  Highlands. 

i 

"West  of  the  TJruratsi  defile  and  of  the  old  Turfan  inlet  the  main  range  rises 
above  the  snow-line,  and  takes  the  name  of  EatQn,  or  Eatin.  This  section,  one  of 
the  least  known  in  the  system,  is  probably  one  of  the  highest,  and  undoubtedly 
exceeds  16,000  feet.  No  mention  is  made  by  the  Chinese  writers  of  any  pass  over 
it,  and  all  the  caravan  routes  skirt  it  east  and  west,  while  the  lakes  on  both  sides 
of  the  chain  seem  to  point  at  extensive  snow-fields  on  the  uplands.  Regel  recently 
found  vast  glaciers  about  the  sources  of  the  Eash,  which  flows  from  the  EatCkn 
highlands  westwards  to  the  Eunges  and  Ili.  Here  the  Tian-shan  system  develops 
into  several  parallel  ridges,  while  south  of  the  Eatdn  runs  another  chain  through 
whose  gorges  the  torrents  from  the  main  range  escape  to  the  plains.  West  of  one 
of  these  gorges,  traversed  by  an  affluent  of  Lake  Bogla-nor  (Bostan-nor,  or 
Bagrach-kul),  the  Tian-shan  forms  four  parallel  snowy  ridges,  known,  like  the 
neighbouring  lake,  by  several  different  names,  and  enclosing  two  vast  basins  over 
7,000  feet  high.  These  so-called  "■  stars  "  (Great  and  Little  Yulduz)  are  the  beds 
of  old  lakes,  which  now  form  natural  pasture-lands  watered  by  streams  flowing  to 
Lake  Bogla-nor.  It  was  in  one  of  these  vast  cirques  that  Tamerlane,  on  his  expe- 
dition against  Eashgaria,  assembled  five  armies  from  five  different  points  of  the 
Tian-shan,  and  ordered  them  to  exterminate  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  between 
Lakes  Zaisan  and  Bogla-nor  north  and  south.  The  imperial  tent  stood  in  the 
middle  of  the  plain,  and  the  "  Destroyer  of  the  Universe  "  ascended  his  golden 
throne  glittering  with  gems,  and  round  about  were  the  less  sumptuous,  but  still 
gorgeous  tents  of  his  emirs.  All  received  rich  presents,  and  the  troops  were 
inflamed  with  rapture.  These  grazing  grounds  are  the  "  Promised  Land  "  of  the 
nomad  pastors,  who  here  find  the  richest  pastures  for  their  flocks,  and  the  finest 
climate,  free  even  in  summer  from  flies  and  mosquitoes.   Yet  Prejvalsky  found  this 


w««?^>.<mii^  ^^f^v- 


ii5i#£gl^^®^^'^~^4 


IfiO 


AfiUTIO  RUSSIA. 


magnificent  region  completely  abandoned  in  1876.  Plundered  in  1865  by  the 
Moslem  Zungarians,  the  60,000  Yulduz  nomads  had  been  driven,  some  south-east- 
wards to  Lake  Dogla-nor,  others  north-westwortls  to  the  Hi  valley.  Left  thuw 
masters  of  the  wilderness,  the  wild  ruminants  have  hero  become  very  numerous. 
Among  them  are  the  Ovi«  poli  in  flocks  of  thirty  to  forty,  the  mountain  goat  {Capra 
Sihirica),  the  maral,  a  species  of  deer.*  But  neither  the  Oci»  karelini,  the  Ocin  poli, 
nor  the  argali  is  anywhere  met  in  the  Eastern  Tian-shan.  The  wolf,  fox,  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  are  also  numerous  in  this  section  of  the  range,  which  is  the  exclusive 
home  of  the  white-clawed  boar  (  Unus  kucomjx). 

According  to  their  aspect,  the  mean  direction  of  the  winds,  and  amount  of  rain- 


Fig.  95.— ROUTBH  OF  EXPLOHBRS  IN  THE  EAaTlUN  TlAM-IHAN. 
8oaU  1  : 9,070,030. 


^•m-m-»^w  PrejTsldir,  1870. 
— «    I    I    I    '  KaropktldD,  1876-7. 
.._....._  RaiUlor,  1874. 


~~  SoMUwkjr,  l87i-4. 

'— •  Bagal,  1874-0. 

«->  OtMtCUneM  Hlflnny. 


.110  MOM. 


fall,  the  slopes  of  the  Eastern  Tian-shan  present  many  striking  contrasts.  The 
southern  and  generally  more  abrupt  slopes,  being  unable  to  retain  much  moisture, 
are  nearly  all  treeless,  while  the  northern  are  well  wooded,  the  pine  flourishing  in 
some  places  as  high  as  8,000  feet,  the  upper  limit  of  arborescent  vegetation.  On 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Narat,  or  Nara-tau,  running  north  of  the  Little  Yulduz, 

*  Sieverzov  tells  us  that  the  young  horns  of  the  maral,  while  still  filled  with  Mood  and  not  yot 
hardened,  are' highly  esteemed  by  the  Chinese,  who  pay  from  £6  to  £20  the  pair  for  them  on  the  Siberian 
frontier.  Hence  the  maral  has  always  been  eagerly  chased ;  and  since  the  wild  animal  has  become  rare, 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Kiakhta  district  have  succeeded  in  domesticating  it.  Polakoff  has  recently  stated 
that  this  industry  has  become  widely  diffused  in  Western  Siberia,  where  tame  herds  of  fifty  to  seventy 
head  are  now  to  be  met.  Unfortunately  the  horns  of  the  domesticated  animal  have  lort  many  of  the 
qualities  for  which  they  are  chiefly  valued  as  an  article  of  trade. — Editor. 


jnwTfflifMTiiWMi'aiitf 'r'liiMiii  iiii  iiiKumiiiriiiMiiiiiriHiniii'  Biffiaaafais 


1865  by  the 
le  Bouth-eaat- 
Left  thiiH 
ry  numerous, 
goat  {^Capra 
the  Oeinpoli, 
'ox,  and  other 
the  exclusive 


18a 


ASIATIC  RU8HIA. 


Skmirkchinhk  Hkoion. 

After  bruiK^hing  off  towardn  tho  north-wont  from  tho  main  range  tho  northern 
Hoction  of  the  Tiun-nhan  taken  nueecuivoly  vuriouH  numcH,  nuch  uh  thoao  of  the 
Iren-khubirgun,  Horo-khoro,  and  Talki.  North  of  the  Kulja  plain,  Hcparating  it 
from  tho  Tian-nhnn  proper,  it  uniton  with  other  puruUel  ridgen  in  a  hilly  plateau 
furrowo<l  by  running  waters,  and  forming  a  pronumtory  alK)vo  tho  plains  and 
Bteppes  of  HemirechinHk,  tho  "Country  of  tho  Seven  lliverH."  Wostwoi-dH  thin 
plateau  ramifioH  into  jieninHular  chains  continued  by  isolated  mosHos,  Iwtwccn 
which  tho  streams  flow  to  Luko  Ualkhush,  or  uro  lost  in  the  desert.  Tho  principal 
of  those  masses,  which  still  attain  an  elevation  of  over  H.OOO  foot,  rises  like  a  rocky 
wall  between  Semirochinsk  and  the  Hi  valley,  but  is  crossetl  by  several  availabUt 
passes.  Liko  tho  main  range,  it  runs  south-west  and  north-east,  and  this  is  also 
the  direction  of  tho  Zungarian  Ala-tau,  which  branches  from  tlio  plateau  at  an 
acute  angle  with  tho  Iren-khabirgan  chain.  This  range,  which  is  over  180  miles 
long,  forms  the  natural  frontier  of  tho  Russian  and  Chinese  Empires,  and  is  crossed 
only  by  two  serviceable  passes,  those  of  Tentek  and  Lepsa.  The  system  is  con- 
tinued through  Chinese  territory  eastwards  to  the  Tarbagatai  Mountains  by  the 
Barluk  range,  which  is  over  6,000  feet  high. 

Tho  space  between  the  Zungarian  Ala-t«u  arid  the  Tian-shan  proper  forms  the 
Tian-shan-pelu  plain,  formerly  a  marine  basin,  which  rises  gradually  westwards  to 
the  elongated  plateau,  whose  northern  and  southern  escarpments  are  formed  by  the 
Ala-tau  and  tho  Boro-khoro  with  the  Talki  respectively.  Lake  Sairam,  occupying 
a  depression  between  wooded  heights  in  this  plateau,  is  scarcely  700  feet  from  the 
Talki  Pass,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  escarpment,  formerly  followed  by  the  imperial 
route  from  Pekin  to  Kulja.  The  lake  is  slightly  brackish,  and  is  160  square  miles 
in  extent,  with  an  altitude,  according  to  Matveyev,  of  6,000  feet.  It  is  very  deep, 
and  exposed  to  fierce  storms,  much  dreaded  by  the  Mongolians,  who  call  it  the 
Seri-ob-nor,  or  "  Great  Water." 

One  of  the  most  majestic  ranges  in  the  whole  Tian-shan  system  is  the  Nian- 
shan,  or  Temurlik,  rising  abruptly  above  the  Kulja  plains  over  against  the  Boro- 
khoro  escarpments.  It  is  sharply  defined  east  and  west  by  the  rivers  Tekes  and 
Kegen,  flowing  from  the  south.  The  Tekes  valley  commiinicates  with  the  Issik-kul 
basin  by  the  low  Santash  Pass,  on  which  stands  a  huge  tan-feu,  or  cairn,  traditionally 
attributed  to  the  army  of  Tamerlane.  Xorth  of  this  pass  the  K^^n  escapes  from 
its  upper  valley  through  the  most  formidable  gorge  yet  discovered  in  the  Tian-shan. 
This  cleft  in  the  rocks  has  a  depth  of  from  1,000  to  1,600  feet,  between  walls  in  many 
places  rising  vertically  from  the  foaming  stream.  The  Kegen  is  here  joined  by 
three  other  torrents,  the  three  Merke,  also  rushing  through  profound  cafions  of 
crystalline  conglomerates.  Through  the  greater  part  of  the  gorg^  the  main  stream, 
here  known  as  the  Aktogoi,  and  lower  down  as  the  Charin,  falls  from  ledge  to  ledge 
in  white  masses  of  foam,  while  elsewhere  its  black  waters  are  collected  in  deep  and 
apparently  motionless  pools.  From  the  bottom  of  this  abyss  the  projecting  rocks 
completely  shut  out  the  heavens,  and  the  explorer  seems  lost  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 


ALA-TAU  IIIOnLANI). 


tho  northoni 

those  of  the 

M'piiruting  it 

hilly  plut(>iui 

^  plaiiiH  uiul 

('NtwaitlH  thin 

twoH,  l)ctweon 

rho  principal 

a  like  a  rocky 

oral  avuiluhlo 

1(1  thin  in  altto 

plateau  at  an 

vor  180  milcB 

and  ia  crossed 

lystom  is  con- 

atains  by  the 

per  forms  the 
westwards  to 
formed  by  the 
tm,  occupying 
feet  from  the 
y  the  imperial 
9  square  miles 
t  is  very  deep, 
ho  call  it  the 

I  is  the  Nian- 
inst  the  Boro- 
ers  Tekes  and 
L  the  Issik-kul 
I,  traditionally 
1  escapes  from 
the  Tian-shan. 
walls  in  many 
lere  joined  by 
md  cations  of 
!  main  stream, 
ledge  to  ledge 
d  in  deep  and 
ejecting  rocks 
Is  of  the  earth. 


The  Churin,  which  in  the  Iar^i<Nt  nlHiioiit  of  th«<  Ili,  in  uccutnimiiicil  mi  tlut  went 
by  another  rivor,  the  (-hilik,  m<|Miriit(<<l  from  it  by  tho  JulaniiMh  pliitoou,  a  lofty 
Hteppe  luiid  to  be  4,000  feet  high,  and  contruntiiig  with  tlut  Hurroiiniliiig  iiiountaina 
in  tho  total  absonco  of  trrcn  and  tho  gonorul  }K)v(>rty  of  it.s  fuiitiu  and  tiura. 

Al,A-TAU   HlOIII.AND. 

The  two  parallel  rongps  running  north  of  the  rHHik-kul  bnnin  are  both  known  by 
the  somewhat  common  Tatar  name  of  Ala-tau,  or  "  Chequcroil  MountuiuN,"  that  on 
the  north  l)eing  tho  Ala-tuu  U-yond  tho  Tli,  tho  other  tho  Ala-tau  Kungoi.  They 
really  form  but  one  grauito    ulgo,  int<>rHooti>d  longitudinally  by  u  limestone  valley, 


Fig.  07.-Tm«  Aktoooi  DiriLi. 

BmI*  1  1  »0(MMO. 

WM 

BBHlllHliffiBSffi 

4? 

9 

jJIpbII^^IIIP 

^pps 

nHj 

w/l^milBm^i^^lJ^^^B^B^mm 

Rp^9w|l 

1 

ffM^^m^iStK^^^^^K^^^^^KBI^^A 

H 

'^y^,3e^Z^.^I^^^ 

:*PG. 

^^^L^^^is^m 

L 

'78'eO' 

70 

191 


whence  flow,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Chilik,  on  the  other  the  Great  Eebin,  a  main 
head-stream  of  the  Chu.  Thanks  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Yemiy,  these  highlands  are 
amongst  the  best  known  in  the  whole  Tian-shan  system.  Consisting  chiefly  of  granites, 
with  some  metamorphous  schists,  limestones,  and  sandstones,  the  Northern  Ala-tau 
is  flanked  towards  the  steppe  by  low  porphyry  hills  strewn  with  erratic  boulders 
from  the  main  range.  The  remains  of  moraines  are  still  visible  in  several  valleys, 
and  an  enormous  glacier  formerly  filled  all  the  upper  cirques  whence  flows  the 
Turgen.  At  presept  there  is  not  a  single  glacier  in  either  of  the  Ala-tau  ranges, 
although  rising  towards  the  centre  above  the  snow-line,  which  is  here  about 
11,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Here  the  pine  flourishes  between  5,800  and  8,600  feet. 
But  the  apple  and  other  leafy  trees  have  been  mostly  destroyed  by  the  improvident 
Cossacks  and  other  Russiau  settlers  in  this  region. 


iflKSSSS 


184 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Tlie  two  Ala-tau  chains,  which  have  a  total  length  of  about  150  miles,  are 
limited  eastwards  by  the  San-tash  Pass  and  the  Aktogoi  defile,  westwards  by  the 
Biiam  defile,  which  is  traversed  by  the  river  Chu,  and  which  separates  them 
abruptly  from  the  Alexander  Mountains.  This  gloomy  gorge  is  strewn  with 
enormous  blocks,  between  which  rise  fantastic  porphyry  pillars.  But  it  lacks  the 
savage  grandeur  of  the  Aktogoi  gorge.  Below  the  junction  of  the  Great  Eebin  the 
Chu  crosses  the  western  continuation  of  the  Northern  Ala-tau,  after  which  it  receives 
the  Little  Kebin  at  the  head  of  a  broad  plain  skirted  by  two  detached  branches  of 
the  Tian-shan,  which  merge  gradually  with  the  desert.  The  southernmost  of  these 
chains,  another  Ala-tau,  now  more  usually  known  as  the  Alexander  Mountains,  is 
a  snowy  range  running  east  and  west  over  180  miles,  and  culminating  with  the 
Hamish,  or  Mount  Semyonov  of  the  Russians. 

Lake  Issik-kul  and  Western  Tian-shan  Highlands. 

The  geographical  centre  of  the  whole  Tian-shan  system  is  the  Great  Issik-kul,  or 
"  Hot  Lake,"  as  it  is  called  by  the  natives.  It  is  encircled  on  all  sides  by  mountains, 
on  the  north  by  the  Ala-tau  Kungei,  on  the  south  by  the  Ala-tau  Terskei,  the  vast 
amphitheatre  forming  an  oval  tract  of  over  400  miles  in  circumference.  The  Issik- 
kul  is  not  only  the  largest  lake  in  the  Tian-shan  highlands,  but  the  only  great 
survivor  of  the  numerous  reservoirs  that  formerly  filled  the  basins  between  the 
parallel  ridges.  But  it  was  at  one  time  far  larger  than  at  present,  as  shown  by  the 
water  marks  on  the  hillsides  200  feet  above  its  actual  level,  and  in  the  Buam  defile, 
30  miles  west  of  its  present  limits.  Even  in  the  ten  years  from  1867  to  1877  it  has 
fallen  nearly  7  feet,  implying  at  least  a  temporary,  if  not  a  permanent,  drjring  up 
of  the  land.  The  river  Chu,  which  formerly  flowed  to  its  western  comer,  now 
reaches  it  only  through  the  sluggish  and  intermittent  Eutenuddi,  which  is  flooded 
only  during  the  freshets  and  melting  of  the  anows.  Av^cording  to  a  Kirghiz 
tradition  the  Eutemaldi  was  dug  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  anxious  to  get 
rid  of  the  Issik-kul,  but,  owing  to  a  miscalculation,  they  gave  a  new  afiiuent  instead 
of  an  outlet  to  the  lake.  Yet,  although  it  has  no  present  outflow,  it  is  about  ten 
times  larger  than  Lake  Geneva,  its  area  being  estimated  at  2,300  square  miles. 

It  stands  some  5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  but  never  freezes,  whence,  according 
to  Sieverzov,  its  name  the  "  Hot  Lake,"  though  this  title  is  more  probably  due  to 
the  numerous  hot  springs  round  its  shores.  The  lake  is  slightly  brackish  and  teems 
with  fish,  of  which,  however,  not  more  than  four  species  have  been  discovered  in  its 
clear  blae  waters.  In  1872  the  first  boat  worthy  of  the  name  was  launched  on  its 
surface  ;  yet  its  desert  shores  seem  to  have  been  formerly  thickly  peopled.  Crania, 
bones,  and  various  objects  of  human  industry  are  occasionally  thrown  up  b3*  the 
waves,  and  bits  of  iron  and  potsherds  have  been  found  by  Kolpakovsky  at  a  depth 
of  3  or  4  feet. 

East  of  Lake  Issik-kul  are  grouped  the  Khan-tengri  Mountains,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  dominant  mass  of  the  whole  Tian-shan  system.  Although  exceeded 
in  height  by  the  principal  Trans- Ala'i  peaks,  the  Ehan-tengri  contains  the  greatest 


wmmtm 


LAKB  ISSIK-KUL. 


188 


tut  150  miles,  are 
westwards  by  the 
h  separates  them 
:e  is  strewn  with 
But  it  lacks  the 
e  Great  Eebin  the 
)r  which  it  receives 
ached  branches  of 
themmost  of  these 
ider  Mountains,  is 
ninating  with  the 


AMDS. 

Great  Issik-kul,  or 
ides  by  mountains, 
u  Terskei,  the  vast 
(rence.  The  Issik- 
tut  the  only  great 
asins  between  the 
t,  as  shown  by  the 
n  the  Buam  defile, 
L867  to  1877  it  has 
manent,  drying  up 
jstem  comer,  now 
Li,  which  is  flooded 
ing  to  a  Kirghiz 
try,  anxious  to  get 
lew  affluent  instead 
aw,  it  is  about  ten 
square  miles, 
whence,  according 
re  probably  due  to 
t)racki8h  and  teems 
m.  discovered  in  its 
iras  launched  on  its 
'  peopled.  Crania, 
thrown  up  bj'  the 
ikovsky  at  a  depth 

lins,  which  may  be 
Although  exceeded 
ntains  the  greatest 


number  of  snowy  crests,  glaciers,  and  streams  flowing  to  the  four  points  of  tho 
compass,  and  it  is  also  crossed  by  the  most  frequented  pass  between  the  northern 
and  southern  slopes,  and  leading  from  Eulja  to  Eastern  Turkestan. 

The  Ehan-tengri  forms  part  of  the  southern  chain,  which  begins  south  of  the 
Great  Yulduz  basin,  and  runs  under  divers  names  thence  westwards.  To  tho 
Kok-teke  succeeds  the  Geshik-hashi,  beyond  which  follow  tho  Shalik-tau  and  the 
3[uz-art-tau,  which  last  is  crossed  by  the  broad  but  dangerous  Muz-art  Pass,  at  a 
height,  according  to  Regel,  of  about  11,600  feet.  The  passage  is  easier  in  winter 
than  summer,  the  crevasses  being  then  filled  with  frozen  snow,  but  although  it  has 
been  crossed  by  Eaulbars,  Kostenko,  Dilke,  Regel,  and  others,  no  European  traveller 
has  hitherto  continued  the  journey  soutli  wards  to  Eashgaria. 

"West  of  the  Muz-art  stretches  a  world  of  glaciers  and  lofty  crests  in  a  highland 
region,  of  which  little  is  known  beyond  the  fact  that  several  of  its  glaciers,  especially 
that  at  the  source  of  the  Sari-jassi,  a  tributary  of  the  Tarim,  are  comparable  in 
length  to  the  Aletsch  glacier  in  the  Valais  Alps.  From  the  Muz-art-tau  to  the 
western  extremity  of  the  Sari-jassin-tau  the  snowy  range  maintains  for  over 
60  miles  a  mean  elevation  of  more  than  16,500  feet.'  All  the  peaks  overtop  Mont 
Blanc  by  at  least  3,000  feet,  and  southwards  rises  in  solitary  grandeur  the  Ehan- 
tengri,  or  Eara-giil-bas. 

Beyond  a  chaos  of  peaks,  whence  flow  the  head-streams  of  the  Tarim  and  Sir, 
the  mountains  resume  their  normal  direction  from  east  to  west.  They  form  with 
their  parallel  chains  an  enormous  mass,  no  less  than  210  miles  broad  north  of 
Eashgar.  The  outer  are  far  more  elevated  than  the  central  ridges,  between  which 
flows  the  Narin,  the  chief  affluent  of  the  Sir.  Although  pierced  at  intervals  by 
streams  running  south-eastwards  to  Eashgaria,  the  Eok-shaal,  or  southern  range, 
maintains  a  mean  altitude  of  over  15,000  feet,  while  several  smnmits  in  the  Eok- 
kiya  section  exceed  16,'600  feet.  These  highlands,  whose  e8cai*pments  slope 
towards  Chinese  Turkestan,  are  amongst  the  least-known  regions  of  the  continent, 
although  crossed  towards  their  western  extremity  by  the  Turug-art,  an  easy  pass 
well  known  to  traders.  It  is  a  very  barren  region,  with  bare  hills  and  scattered 
ridges,  between  which  are  the  channels  of  dried-up  rivers.  The  slope  is  very  gentle 
even  northwards  to  the  Ak-sai  plateau  and  the  Chatir-kul.  This  lake,  which  is 
said  to  be  destitute  of  fish,  is  all  that  remains  of  an  extensive  inland  sea  formerly 
flowing  between  the  southern  range  and  the  parallel  Eubergenti,  Ak-bash,  and 
Eara-koin  chains  on  the  north.  Although  it  has  no  apparent  outlet,  its  waters  are 
still  quite  fresh.  The  hills  skirting  it  northwards  are  crossed  by  the  Tash-robat. 
Pass,  which,  like  the  Turug-art,  is  open  all  the  year  round  to  tho  caravans  between 
Vemiy  and  Eashgaria. 

West  of  the  Turug-art  the  southern  range  attains  a  great  elevation,  and  from 
a  pass  on  a  parallel  chain  north  of  it  Osten-Sacken  distinguished  no  less  than  sixty- 
three  snowy  peaks.  It  runs  at  first  north-east  and  south-west,  then  turning  west  and 
north-west  in  a  line  with  the  extreme  spurs  of  the  northern  chains,  and  intersecting 
the  parallel  ridges  of  the  Central  Tian-shan  in  such  a  way  as  to  intercept  their 
waters.  But  the  innumerable  lakes  thus  formed  have  now  run  dry,  mainly  through 
18 


186 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


the  defile  by  which  the  Narin  escapes  westwards.  Here  the  Tian-shan  system  is 
completely  limited  by  the  Ferghana  plains,  but  at  the  south-west  comer  of  the 
Tian-shan  proper  yarious  offshoots  run  south-westwards,  connecting  the  main 
range  with  the  Alai  and  the  Pamir.  But  till  the  Beginning  of  the  tertiary  periotl 
a  large  marine  strait  still  connected  Ferghana  and  Kashgaria  through  the  Kog-art, 
thuB  completely  separating  the  Pamir  from  the  Tian-shan  plateau.  The  whole 
Tian-shan  system  was  at  that  time  crossed  from  north-east  to  south-west  by  u 

Fig.  98.— WiBTKHN  Chains  op  the  Tian-bhait. 
Btwle  1 : 9,000,000. 


•  MOMUm. 


chain  of  inland  seas,  of  which  all  that  now  remains  is  the  Issik-kul.    Those  of 
Eulja  and  Ferghana  have  long  been  drained  off. 

North  of  the  Upper  Narin  valley  the  main  range  is  known  as  the  Terskei  Ala-tau, 
or  Ala-tau  "  of  the  Shade,"  in  contradistinction  to  the  Eungei  Ala-tau,  or  Ala-tau 
"of  the  Sun,"  skirting  the  other  side  of  the  Issik-kul.  Owing  to  the  greater 
moisture  of  its  slopes  the  former  is  far  better  wooded,  the  pine  forests  and  pastures 
at  many  points  reaching  the  snow-line.  It  ciUminates  with  the  Ugus-bas,  which 
attains  an  elevation  of  over  16,500  feet.  Near  the  Barskadn  Pass,  on  its  southern 
slopes,  rises  the  Narin,  chief  head-stream  of  the  Sir,  while  other  affluents  flow  from 
the  southern  region  of  the  Ak-shiirak  glaciers,  south  of  which  rise  the  farthest  sources 
of  the  Eashgarian  Ak-su.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  comprised  between  the 
Terskei  Ala-tau  and  the  Eok-shaal  north  and  south  formB  an  extensive  plain,  or 


iiSi&,3^i^ 


mmmimmmmm 


WESTEEN  TIAN-SHAN. 


187 


n-shan  system  is 
[jst  comer  of  the 
icting  the  main 
le  tertiary  period 
ugh  theKog-art, 
eau.  The  whole 
south-west  by  a 


Akrmf 


44? 


Kuli|ai> 


k-kul.    Those  of 

3  Terskei  Ala-tau, 
ia-tau,  or  Ala-tau 
g  to  the  greater 
"ests  and  pastures 
Ugus-bas,  which 
8,  on  its  southern 
fiuents  flow  from 
le  farthest  sources 
rised  between  the 
ctensive  plain,  or 


hIH,  strewn  with  sandstones,  many-coloured  marls,  gypsum,  and  saline  incrustations, 
and  studded  with  tarns,  but  nearly  destitute  of  vegetation.  This  bleak  region  is 
exposed  to  snow-storms  even  in  June  and  Jxily,  md  in  some  years  the  snow  never 
melts  in  the  hollows  throughout  the  summer. 

The  Terskei  Ala-tau  is  continued  westwards  under  divers  names,  as  are  all  the 
parallel  chains  with  which  it  is  connected  by  transverse  ridges.  The  lacustrine 
plains  are  probably  more  numerous  here  than  elsewhere  in  the  Tian-shan  system. 
But  of  all  the  formerly  flooded  basins  one  only  remains,  the  Son-kul,  a  fresh-water 
lake  about  the  size  of  Lake  Geneva,  encircled  by  steep  sides  of  green  porphyry,  and 

Fig.  99.— ItouTis  OP  ExpLouHB.iN  TRB  Wktbhm  Tiam-shak. 
Soa]el:90oaooa 


Foafad  Higinnqn. 
iJiven  Bontm. 
ValikhanoT,  18S6. 
Oolnber,  law. 
VenynkoT,  18se-«). 
SieTeraoT,  ISM-es. 
Orten-Soaken,  1887. 


,  laOUOM.. 


Beinihal,  1866. 
KanllMin,  1869. 
KMtenko,  1876. 
KaropatUn,  1876-7. 
Prejralikr.  1877. 
Begcl,  1876-9. 
Fwqrtb,  18T4. 


draining  through  a  small  stream  to  the  Narin.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
these  dried-up  plains  is  the  Kashkar  valley,  somve  of  the  Eashkar,  the  main  head- 
stream  of  the  Chu.  It  communicates  by  the  Shamsi  Pass  with  the  northern  plain. 
North  of  Kokan  the  Tian-shan  is  continued  by  the  Talas-tau,  from  2,500  to 
3,000  feet  high,  which  branches  o£E  in  several  ridges  from  the  Alexander  Mountains, 
and  falls  gradually  south-west,  west,  and  north-westwards  to  the  steppes.  The 
Eara-tau,  or  "  Black  Mountain,"  the  last  spur  of  the  Tian-shan  towards  the  north- 
west, seldom  exceeds  6,500  feet  in  height,  but  is  geographically  of  great  importance, 
as  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Sir  and  Chu  basins.  It  also  abounds 
most  in  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  argentiferous  lead. 


188 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


The  contrast  between  the  Eastern  and  "Western  Tian-shan  highlands  is,  on  the 
whole,  obvious  enough.  The  former  are  far  more  compact,  with  fewer  lateral 
ridges  and  valleys,  and  presenting  more  the  appearance  of  a  plateau  crossed  by 
lofty  parallel  chains.  Notwithstanding  the  great  age  of  its  rocks,  the  Tian-shan 
has  preserved  its  primitive  aspect  far  better  than  the  Swiss  Alps.  It  is  less  worn 
by  rains,  snows,  and  glaciers,  and  its  slopes  have  been  clothed  with  a  broad  belt  of 
forest  vegetation  rising  at  least  2,600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  seas,  which 
formerly  washed  its  base.  Hence  considerable  differences  have  arisen  in  the  way  in 
which  its  flora  and  faima  have  been  distributed.  "Whilst  the  Alps  have  been 
invaded  by  the  forest  species  of  the  surrounding  plain  after  the  retreat  of  the  ice, 
the  lower  zone  of  the  Tian-shan  has  been  the  point  of  dispersion  for  the  species 
spreading  upwards  to  the  higher  valleys,  and  downwards  to  the  surroimding  steppes, 
according  as  the  waters  subsided. 

The  history  of  their  inhabitants  may  also  be  explained  by  the  relief  and 
geographical  position  of  these  highlands.  The  steppes,  or  ancient  lacustrine  basins 
encircling  them,  being  mostly  incapable  of  cultivation,  are  mainly  occupied  by 
nomad  pastors,  who  have  even  prevented  agricultural  peoples  from  settling  in  the 
upland  valleys.  Hither  they  resort  themselves  with  their  flocks  in  summer,  so  that 
the  whole  region  has  been  held  by  these  nomad  tribes  from  time  immemorial. 
Split  up  into  small  communities  by  their  conflicting  interests,  and  constantly  at 
feud  for  the  possession  of  the  richer  pastures,  they  were  unable  to  unite  in  compact 
masses  against  the  common  enemy,  and  Chinese,  Mongolians,  and  Russians  have 
thus  easily  succeeded  in  successively  subduing  the  Tian-shan  highlands.  The 
Russians  took  a  hundred  years  to  subdue  the  Caucasus,  whereas  a  few  sotnias  of 
Cossacks  overran  the  valleys  of  the  boundless  Tian-shan  almost  without  exchanging 
a  shot.  Historically  as  well  as  hydrographically  this  region  belongs  to  a  land- 
locked basin.* 


*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Tian-shan  system :  — 


Eattern  Tian-ihan. 
Kosheti  Pass  .... 
Katiin  Mountoins 
Little  Yulduz  Plateau  .  .  . 
Great  Yulduz  „  .  .  . 
Xarat  Pass 


Tiati'Shan,  north  of  Ku(/a. 
Boro-khoro  Mountiiins,  mean  height 

Sitirti  Pass 

TalK      , 

Altin-imel  Pass    .... 

Kaptaga'i       .,      . 

Town  of  Kulja     .... 

Central  Ttan-ikiiH, 
8an-ta8h  Pass  .... 
Khan-tengri         .... 

Muz-art 

UguB-bas 

B.jr8kau  Pass        .... 
Zaiika       „  .... 


Feet. 

0,100 
1-5,660 
8,000 
6,000 
9  960 

6,600 
6,860 
6,360 
6,060 
4,430 
2,100 

6,75j 
24,000 
11,160 
17,760 
12,000 
12,976 


Upper  Nflrin  "Valley    . 
Talg^r  (Ala-tan  beyond  the  Hi) 
Almati  „  „ 

Lake  Issik-kul 
Fort  Narin  . 
Vemiy         , 


Feet. 

11,660 

16,300 

14,000 

4,380 

6,870 

3,100 


Wettfrn  Tian- 
Turiig-art  Pass    . 
Kara-bel      „        .        . 
Kog-art       „ 
'I'ash  robat  ., 
Chatir-kul     , 
Son-lral        „ 
Shamsi        „ 

Haniish  (Alexander  Chain) 
Kara-bura  (Talas-taii) . 
Min-jilke  (Kara-tau)    . 
Koknn 
'i'ashkend     . 
Upper  limit  of  trees 


than. 


11,660 

12,940 

10,676 

13,100 

11,130 

9,660 

12,026 

16,660 

11,000 

7,000 

1,310 

1,606 

9,000  to  10,000 


.T'»feB!iCT^KB«rig'~>jss5»'v:-iJTlBJi^»'awa^ 


TARBAQATAI  UIQHLANDS  AND  BALKHASH  BASIN. 


189 


ids  18,  on  the 
fewer  lateral 
u  crossed  by 
he  Tian-shan 
t  is  less  worn 
broad  belt  of 
seas,  which 
in  the  way  in 
)s  have  been 
3at  of  the  ice, 
)r  the  species 
iding  steppes, 

le  relief  and 
ustrine  basins 

occupied  by 
lettling  in  the 
mmer,  so  that 

immemorial. 

constantly  at 
ite  in  compact 
Russians  have 
hlands.  The 
few  sotnias  of 
ut  exchanging 
igs  to  a  land- 


Feet. 

11,660 

IS,300 

14,000 

4,380 

6,870 

3,100 

11,660 

12,940 

tO,67o 

13,100 

11,130 

9,650 

12,025 

16,650 

11,000 

7,000 

1,310 

1,606 

9,000  to  10,000 


IV.— TARBAGATAI  HIGHLANDS  AND  BiU.KHASH  BASIN. 

Thk  space,  about  240  miles  broad,  separating  the  extreme  Eastern  Tian-shan  and 
the  Zungarian  Ala-tau  from  the  Altai  system,  doubtless  oifers  wide  openings 
between  Mongolia  and  Asiatic  Russia.  But  apart  from  these  historically  impor- 
tant routes,  the  plateaux  and  mountains  are  so  disposed  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
isthmus  between  the  Tian-shan  and  Altai'  highlands.  Of  this  isthmus  the  cen- 
tral mass  is  the  Tarbagatai — that  is,  the  "Tarbagan,"  or  "Marmot  "  Mountains — 
which  run  mainly  east  and  west,  and  are  about  equal  to  the  Pyrenees  in  length 
and  elevation,  their  chief  peaks  scarcely  exceeding  the  Nethu  or  Mont  Perdu  of  that 
range. 

Like  the  Tian-shan,  the  Tarbagatai  presents  two  different  axes,  one  running 
north-east  and  south-west,  the  other  north-west  and  south-east.  The  first,  which 
is  parallel  with  the  Southern  Tian-shan,  is  followed  by  the  Barluk  and  Ur-koshar, 
forming  the  southern  range,  and  with  some  of  its  crests  reaching  the  region  of 
perpetual  snows.  The  northern  or  main  chain  runs  parallel  with  the  Northern 
Tian-shan,  and  both  axes  converge  eastwards,  here  culminating  above  the  plains 
of  the  Irtish  with  Mounts  Sai^ru  and  Muz-tau.  The  ravines  of  these  snowy  moun- 
tains are  filled  with  glaciers,  which  at  some  points  descend  below  the  forest  zone. 
But  in  all  other  directions  the  range  rapidly  falls,  westwards  with  the  volcanic 
Muntak,  eastwards  with  the  Kara-adir  ridges,  and  northwards  offering  an  easy 
passage  from  the  Balkhash  slope  to  that  of  the  Orkhu-nor  in  Mongolia. 

The  Tarbagatai  proper  is  separated  from  the  other  chains  by  low  depressions, 
scarcely  more  than  3,300  feet  above  sea-level.  Here  we  ascend  the  streams  flow- 
ing from  the  water-parting  almost  imperceptibly,  and  no  moimtains  are  visible 
except  at  a  great  distance ;  but  the  heaps  of  stones  disposed  like  moraines  bear 
evidence  of  former  glacial  action.  West  of  these  depressions  the  Tarbagatai  rises 
gradually,  though  even  here  few  of  its  peaks  reach  the  snow-line.  On  the  southern 
slope  the  only  snowy  crest  is  the  Tas-tau,  culminating  point  of  the  Marmot  system. 
Except  along  the  bonks  of  the  torrents  the  heights  are  mostly  treeless,  but 
covered  with  rich  Alpine  pastures,  the  common  resort  of  the  nomads  from  both 
slopes. 

The  Tas-tau,  which  has  been  ascended  several  times  since  the  journey  of 
Schrenck  in  1840,  ends  in  two  peaks,  one  of  which  is  known  to  the  Chinese  as 
the  Bannar  Mount,  from  the  yearly  practice  they  had  of  hoisting  a  flag  on  its 
summit.  Both  are  composed  of  dolomite  and  argillaceous  schists.  Granites  and 
porphyries  also  enter  largely  into  the  constitution  of  the  Tarbagatai  rocks,  though 
the  most  extensive  formations  seem  to  be  carboniferous  limestones,  schists,  and 
sandstones.  Coal  has  been  discovered  on  the  southern  slope  near  the  Chinese 
town  of  Chuguchak,  and  the  Russian  explorers  have  found  large  masses  of  native 
copper  and  iron  ores  in  the  ravines.  In  the  northern  valley  of  the  Ters-airik, 
sloping  towards  Lake  Zaisan,  about  one  hundred  Chinese  gold- washers  are  employed 
in  collecting  the  gold  dust  here  mixed  with  the  old  alluvia.  Some  of  the  numerous 
mounds  scattered  over  the  heights  and  plains,  and  which  have  caused  the  term  obo, 


100 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


or  oha  (tomb,  cairn),  to  enter  so  largely  into  the  local  geographical  nomenclature, 
still  contain  many  gold  objects,  often  collected  by  the  Kirghiz. 

The  Turbagattti  is  usually  supposed  to  termiiiate  at  the  Kara-kol  Pass,  or 
farther  west,  at  the  hhiSa  overlooking  the  town  of  Sergiopol.  But  the  system  is 
still  continued  westwards  by  the  Denghiz-tau,  running  north  of  Lake  Balkhash,  and 
merging  with  the  water-parting  between  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob  basins.  To 
this  system  also  belong  the  picturesque  Arkat  rocks  stretching  nort^hwards  in  the 
direction  of  Semipalatinsk.  All  these  mountains  are  crossed  by  easy  passes,  allow- 
ing travellers  to  avoid  the  higher  portion  of  the  range  between  the  plains  of  the 
great  liakes  Ala-kul  and  Zaisau.     Nevertheless  this  very  section  is  crossed  by 


Fig.  100.— SaAbu  AMD  Tabbaoatai. 
Scale  1 : 1,900,000. 


80  HUM. 


Ihe  Ehabar-assu,  the  most  frequented  and  historically  the  most  important  of  all 
the  passes.  It  runs  east  of  the  Tas-tau,  and  has  always  been  much  used  by  the 
Eashgar  traders  proceeding  to  the  Troitzk,  Orenburg,  and  Irbit  fairs,  and  by  the 
Tatars  and  Bussians  making  their  way  southwards  from  the  Siberian  lowlands. 
Factories  of  Bukhariot  merchants  were  formerly  established  at  Tumen,  Tobolsk, 
Tara,  and  Torusk,  and  a  colony  of  300  Mohammedans  near  Tomsk  still  recalls  these 
commercial  relations.  But  the  progress  of  this  country  was  arrested  in  1745  by 
the  vexatious  measures  of  the  Hussian  Government,  which  established  frontier 
custom-houses,  prohibited  the  trade  in  rhubarb  under  pain  of  death,  and  finally 
put  a  stop  to  all  passenger  traffic.  But  trade  has  since  somewhat  revived,  and  a 
rich  Kirghiz  has  built  a  caravanserai  on  the  pass  for  the  convenience  of  the 


SiM 


iGBai 


LAKE  DALKUASII. 


101 


Harto  morchantM,  who  serve  aa  ugentit  for  tho  cxchungoa  betwoon    Uumia  uiid 
(Jhiim.* 

The  Puinir  uiid  Tian-Hhan  huvu  l)oth  uii  inland  druinn^  castwardH  to  tho  Tarini, 
wostwardH  tu  tho  Arulo-CuHpiun  ImMin.  Tho  TarlMi{|;utiii  ulono  Hcndn  ountwanlH  a 
fow  struums  to  tho  IrtUh,  thuH  bolongin^  partly  tu  tho  Arctic  buain.  With  thia 
single  exception  all  the  Turkestan  highlandn  are  compriitod  in  tho  Central  AHiatio 
inland  water  RyHtoma.  Moat  of  their  atreama  flow  naturally  from  tho  convex  aide 
of  tho  vaat  croacent  of  plateaux  and  mountaina  facing  the  moiat  weat  wiuda.  Ilonce 
the  largcat  rivora  flow  to  the  Turkeatan  and  SeminK-honak  plaina,  and  here  alao  are 
the  largoat  lukca,  aomo  of  which  are  vaat  enough  to  deaervo  the  name  of  aeoa. 
Nevertholeaa  thia  hydrographic  ayatem  ia  far  leaa  important  even  than  that  of  £aat 
Ruaaia,  whore  the  Caapian  ia  fed  by  the  Volga,  whercaa  hero  tho  Sir  and  Oxiu  are 
loat  in  the  Aral,  and  the  Hi  in  Lake  Balkhaah. 


Lake  Balkhanh. 

But  tho  geological  structure  of  tho  bnd  ahowa  that  it  waa  formerly  far  more 
abundantly  watered.  Apart  from  the  aeaa  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  it  ia  certain  that 
even  recently  the  Bulkhaah  atretched  240  milea  farther  eaat  and  aouth-eost  to  the 
deproaaion  of  the  plateau  now  partly  tilled  by  the  Ebi-nor,  and  that  towarda  the 
weat  it  was  four  timea  broader  than  ut  preaent.  At  that  time  the  Zungariim  Alu- 
tttu  projected  like  a  promontory  in  tho  middle  of  a  continuoua  aea,  now  divided 
into  a  number  of  distinct  lakea  and  moraaaes.  The  rogiona  formerly  under  water 
are  indicated  by  their  argillaceous  soil,  saline  wastes,  and  shifting  sands.  Even 
within  the  historic  p  >riod  the  Balkhash  formed  a  single  sheet  of  water  with  the 
Saasik-kul,  Ala-kid,  aad  Jalanaeh-kul.  In  the  seventeenth  century  it  ia  aaid  to 
have  filled  all  the  cavity  aeparating  it  from  the  Aral,  according  to  one  authority 
sending  two  aflluents  to  thia  baain.  But  thia  atatement  ia  highly  improbable,  for 
certain  apociea  of  ita  fauna  imply  a  long  period  of  isolation. 

The  Balkhash  has  still  a  very  large  area.  The  Chinese  knew  it  as  the  Si-hai, 
or  "  Western  Sea,"  though  this  name  has  also  been  applied  to  the  Aral  and  the 
Caspian.  The  neighbouring  Kirghiz  tribes  call  it  either  the  Denghiz,  or  "  sea " 
aimply,  as  if  there  were  uo  other,  or  the  Ak-denghiz  or  Ala-denghiz,  the  "  White 
Sea,"  or  "  Motley  Sea,"  probably  on  account  of  the  islands  by  which  its  surface  is 
diversified.  Third  in  size  of  the  land-locked  basins  of  the  contment,  it  has  an 
estimated  mean  area  of  about  8,700  square  miles.  But  no  very  exaui  measure- 
ment can  be  taken  of  a  lake  without  well-defined  contours  or  sr/lid  banks,  whose 
Bouthem  shores  especially  shift  with  the  shifting  north  and  south  winds.    Its  limits 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Tarbagstai  :— 


Vtti. 

Barluk  Mountains,  mean  height  .  4,660 

JairskyPass 6,036 

Huz-taa  ((JaAru) 11,330 

Manrsk,  highest  peaks                  .  6,000 

Chagan-obo  Pass  4,766 

Khabar-asau    „ O/iTi) 

Tas-tau »,860 


AletPass     . 
Tarbagatai,  mean  height 

„  snow-line  . 

Sa&ru,  snow-line  . 
Denghis-taa,  mean  height 
Arkat  .... 


Beet. 
6,000 
6,000 
0,200 
10,066 
4,000 
2,560 


^^s^^^^^i^s^^^sssms^n^^m^mwi^^m^x^^s^^^^^s^^^^imsSf^i 


102 


ASIATIC  BU88IA. 


iiro  lout  in  one  \thwo  in  oxtoUHivo  inurHhoH  iind  flatH,  in  another  in  forciitit  of  ro<><lrt 
fnnn  12  to  1((  feet  high,  thu  huunt  of  the  wild  Inmif  und  of  niyriiulH  of  wut«r-fowl. 
Hut  tluf  nortiicrn  Nhorun,  fonntnl  by  the  oM'urpmontH  of  u  plutruu  rininff  in  two 
torraocH  uIm>v(>  thu  wat«r,  arc  moru  ithur])ly  defined,  und  urc  oven  variinl  by  a  fuw 
nM;ky  heudlundH.  Hero  the  hike  in  deep,  but  eliwwhero  it  iit  no  nbullow  tu  to  pn^- 
m>nt  thu  apiicarunco  rather  of  a  vuHt  fliKxlud  moruiw.  The  depth  nowhere  oxcihhU 
70  feet,  und  im  tlie  uverugo  aooini  to  be  about  30  feet,  its  volume  muy  bo  eatiniuted 
at  Homu  200,000,000  of  cubic  yards,  or  twice  that  of  Luke  Geneva,  which  i«  never- 
thelosH  thirty-Hix  timcH  leu  extonHive  in  superficiul  area.  ltd  water,  which  in 
UHUully  ice-botind  from  the  end  of  November  to  the  beginning  of  April,  in  cluar, 
und  uboundH  in  fiHh,  but  in  bo  salt,  especially  in  its  southbm  division,  that  it  proves 
futul  to  uniraulH  driven  by  thirst  to  drink  it.  Of  the  other  reservoirs  in  this  lucus- 
trinu  region  the  Alu-kul  is  the  most  saline,  while  the  Sussik-kul  is  scarcely  brackish. 
The  contrast  presented  by  the  two  shores  of  the  Balkhush  is  chietly  due  to  the 
relative  amount  of  running  water  discharged  into  each.  Along  the  whole  northern 
couHt,  which,  oven  excluding  the  thousand  little  inlets,  is  about  420  miles  long,  the 
lake  d(H>8  not  receive  a  single  permanent  stream.  The  Tokrun  runs  completely  dry 
after  pcri(xls  of  long  drought,  and  the  same  is  the  cose  with  the  steppe  "  wudies  " 
of  the  southern  shore.  Dut  the  Zunguriun  and  Trnns-IIian  Alu-tuu  ulso  drain  to 
these  i)luinH,  und  the  streams  sent  down  by  them  are  sufficiently  copious  to  reach 
the  luke  with  their  alluvia.  The  vast  semicircle  of  low  tracts  formed  by  these 
du|K)HitH  is  u  striking  witness  to  the  influence  these  waters  have  hud  iu  modifying  the 
geological  aspect  of  the  lund.  At  no  distnnt  future  the  suud  und  soil  brought  down 
cannot  fail  to  divide  the  Balkhash  into  separate  basins,  such  as  those  of  the  hicus- 
triue  Alu-kul  group. 

Semirechinsk  River  System — The  III 

The  Hi,  chief  affluent  of  the  Balkhash,  is  a  large  river,  at  least  as  regards  its 
course,  which  is  no  loss  than  900  miles  long.  Formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Tekes  and  Eunges,  it  receives  through  the  first  the  icy  waters  of  the  Muz-art  and 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  Central  Tian-shun,  while  the  Eunges  brings  it  the  torrents 
from  the  Narat  and  other  chains  of  the  Eastern  Tian-shan.  In  the  Eulja  plain 
the  Hi  flows  in  a  rapid  stream  in  a  bed  200  to  400  yards  wide,  and  from  3  to  20 
feet  deep,  skirted  northwards  by  a  high  cliff,  which  is  formed  by  the  counterforts 
of  the  Altin-imel  chain.  It  is  navigable  for  small  boats  for  over  half  its  course, 
and  Iliisk,  where  it  is  deflected  north-westwards  by  the  outer  Tian-shan  ridges,  is 
reached  during  the  floods  by  larger  craft  from  the  lake.  At  a  defile  marking  the 
limit  of  its  middle  and  lower  course  certain  Buddhist  tig^ures  and  Tibetan  inscrip- 
tions on  the  porphyry  rocks  seem  to  indicate  that  the  empire  of  the  Dunguns 
formerly  stopped  at  this  point.  Farther  down,  the  stream,  already  reduced  by 
evaporation,  enters  its  delta,  which  during  the  floods  covers  a  triangular  space  of 
over  5,000  square  miles,  although  at  other  times  the  southern  branch  alone  is  filled. 

Of  the  other  feeders  of  the  Balkhash  none  are  navigable  for  any  considerable 
portion  of  the  year,  and  several  are  even  cut  off  from  the  lake  by  strips  of  sand 


m 


TllH  AUALO-CAUi'UN  UYDllOUBAI'HIC  BYSTKli. 


lOB 


r«fH  of  rWHlfl 
wutor-fowl. 
NJii^  in  two 
wl  by  a  fow 
w  aa  to  pro- 
hero  oxcihhIm 
bo  oatiniutiHl 
ich  M  never- 
er,  which  in 
)ril,  id  oluar, 
hut  it  pruvuH 
11  thiu  lucuH- 
oly  bruckiHh. 
y  due  to  the 
tolo  northern 
iloH  long,  the 
niplotely  dry 
po  '*  wttdies  " 
aim  drain  to 
ious  to  reach 
aed  by  theHO 
nodifying  the 
iroughi  down 
of  the  locus- 


as  regards  its 
iction  of  the 

Muz-art  and 
t  the  torrents 
I  Eulja  plain 
from  3  to  20 
)  counterforts 
ill  its  course, 
lan  ridges,  is 

marking  the 
jetan  inscrip- 
the  Dunguim 
Y  reduced  by 
ular  space  of 
ilone  is  filled. 
'  considerable 
trips  of  sand 


for  sevwrol  inonthH  together.  Tlio  Kara-tal,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Zungn.ian 
.\la-tuu,  Ih  one  of  the  "  m>veii  riv»>rH,"  whence  the  region  c«)inprimNl  iM'twccii  that 
range  and  the  HulkhaMh  takes  the  nunie  of  HeinirechinNkiy  Krai,  though  tlu^  tt-rniH 
(!ountry  of  the  Three,  Ten,  or  Twenty  Rivers  might  \w  juHtaa  appropriate  according 
to  the  number  of  NtreaniH  taken  into  account.  The  Noven  more  im|Mirtant  are  the 
Karu-tul  and  its  tributary  the  Kok-nu,  the  Jliyeii,  Ak-su  and  Harkan,  HaHkan 
and  Lepsd.  The  Hi  is  sometimes  added  to  the  nuinlwr,  l>ecause  the  ailminiMtrative 
province  of  SemirechiiiNk  also  comprises  that  basin.  The  Kara-tal,  the  longest, 
though  not  the  most  copious,  of  the  seven  streams,  .leems  to  have  lHH.>n  fonnerly 
largely  utilised  for  irrigating  purposes.  The  Iie|Mia,  which  is  the  largtmt  in  volume 
of  the  Alu-tuu  rivers,  unites  with  the  Ak-su  at  its  mouth,  and  fonns  a  vast  delta  of 
shifting  channels.  Its  swamps  are  the  most  northern  haunts  of  the  tiger.  The 
Aya-gun,  sometimes  included  in  the  number  of  the  "  seven  rivers,"  flows  from  the 
Tarbagutai  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  lake,  to  which  it  carries  down  some  gold 
dust.     Its  now  desert  banks  are  strewn  with  the  ruins  of  ancient  Jiuddhist  cities. 

Lakes  8assik-kul  and  Ala-kul  are  also  fed  by  streams  frem  the  Ala-tau,  though 
the  largest  affluent  of  this  double  basin  is  the  Churtu,  Kmil,  or  Iniil,  flowing  west- 
wards from  the  Tarbagatai.  Notwithstanding  the  general  tendency  to  subsidence, 
these  streams  occasionally  produce  the  op{M)site  phenomenon  in  the  Ala-kul,  whose 
level,  according  to  the  Kirghiz,  steadily  n)se  from  the  year  I860  to  1802.  The 
districts  formerly  under  water  ore  usually  the  most  sterile,  owing  to  the  sands  and 
hard  clays  mixed  with  saline  particles  of  which  they  largely  consist.  The  lakes 
have  thus  become  deserts,  and  vegetation  has  ceased  along  the  shores  of  the  old 
lacustrine  basin.  West  of  the  Balkhash  the  contours  of  a  dried-up  sea,  equal  in 
extent  to  that  lake,  may  still  bo  traced  north  of  the  Western  Tian-shan  from  the 
Alexander  Mountains  to  the  advanced  spurs  of  the  Eara-tau.  This  basin  is  now 
replaced  by  the  sands  and  clays  of  the  Muyun-kum,  or  Ak-kum  steppe. 


v.— THE  ARAL0-CA8PIAN  HYDROGRAPHIC  SYSTEM. 

Tmi  Pi*  and  Oxvs,  ths  Abal  Sia  aitd  TaANi-GAiPiAir  Disthict. 

The  wilderness  of  lakes,  swamps,  and  streams,  which  run  dry  in  summer,  and 
which  are  partly  avoided  even  by  the  nomads,  fonns,  at  the  foot  of  the  wooded 
Tian-shan  slopes,  the  approach  to  the  vast  region  of  lowland  steppes  stretching 
thence  across  the  whole  of  Turkestan,  and  beyond  the  river  Ural  into  the  heart  of 
Russia.  These  steppes  present  almost  everywhere  the  appearance  of  boundless  and 
{)erfectly  level  arid  tracts,  though  most  of  them  are  really  rolling  lands  undulating 
as  regidarly  as  a  tropical  sea  under  the  influence  of  the  trade  winds.  But  the  very 
uniformity  of  these  waves  tends  to  conceal  the  intervening  troughs,  and  the 
traveller  is  often  startled  by  the  sudden  disappearance  of  horsemen,  and  even  of 
whole  caravans,  in  these  depressions.  The  absence  of  any  landmarks,  trees,  or 
buildings  which  might  serve  as  points  of  comparison,  prevents  the  eye  from 
forming  any  estimate  of  the  heights  and  hollows,  while  the  refraction  of   the 


104 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


luminous  rays  in  the  morning  sun  tends  to  magnify  the  size  of  every  conspicuous 
object.  Hillf'cks  scarcely  200  feet  high  appear  like  imposing  eminences,  an  eagle 
on  the  wing  revives  our  reminiscences  of  the  fabulous  roc,  tiifts  of  herbage  assume 
the  proportions  of  forest  trees.  With  the  rising  sun  the  heated  and  mostly 
cloudless  atmosphere  quivers  incessantly  like  the  blasts  of  a  furnace,  imparting 
to  everything  a  waving  and  shifting  form,  and  when  the  sky  is  overcast  the  dense 
clouds  of  burning  sands  envelop  all  objects  in  a  ruddy  glamour. 

The  monotonous  appearance  of  the  steppes  is  intensified  in  winter,  when  the 
broken  surface  is  smoothed  over  by  the  snows.  But  their  diverse  aspects  are 
revealed  in  the  early  spring,  when  the  swollen  streams  and  meres  have  assumed 
their  normal  level,  and  the  nomads  have  fired  the  dry  brushwood  of  the  pastures. 
Now  the  young  plants  spring  up  rapidly,  and  the  arid  surface  of  the  land  is 
clothed  as  by  enchantment  with  verdure  and  prairie  flowers.  The  variety  is 
enhanced  by  the  varying  tints  of  sands,  clays,  rocks,  sweet  and  saline  waters,  and 
the  different  character  of  the  soil  is  clearly  reflected  in  its  diversified  fauna  and  flora. 

But  this  springtide  splendour  and  wealth  of  colour  soon  disappear.  The 
extremes  of  temperature,  sultry  in  the  hot  season,  and  Arctic  in  the  cold,  allow 
but  a  few  species  of  plants  to  flourish,  and  even  these  are  presently  burnt  up  by  the 
scorching  suns.  Many  grey  and  dusty  tracts  then  resume  their  monotonous  aspect, 
again  broken  only  by  a  brief  revival  of  vegetation  during  the  few  rainy  days  of 
autumn.  But  this  promised  return  of  spring  is  soon  arrested  by  the  keen  winter 
blasts,  nipping  the  tender  herbage  and  muffling  all  nature  in  a  snowy  mantle.  The 
absence  of  running  waters  and  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  tend  to  increase  the 
uniformity  imparted  to  the  land  by  the  boimdless  extent  of  the  plains.  The  desert 
begins  within  1  or  2  miles  of  the  river  banks,  stretching  thence  beyond  the  horizon 
in  a  dreary  succession  of  moving  sands,  reedy  tr^ts,  saline  moors  or  muddy 
swamps,  treacherous  quagmires  in  winter,  baked  hard  as  the  rock  in  summer.  Yet 
with  endless  labour  and  a  careful  system  of  irrigation  the  Kirghiz  contrives  to 
bring  a  few  strips  of  land  imder  cultivation.  By  a  system  of  low  embankments 
the  land  is  parcelled  into  a  nimiber  of  square  plots  like  those  of  marine  salines,  and 
when  these  are  flooded  they  are  successively  drained  off  by  openings  in  the  parting 
dykes.    The  method  of  cultivation  somewhat  resembles  that  practised  in  Egypt. 


The  Turkestan  Deserts. 

The  deserts  properly  so  called  occupy  probably  about  half  of  the  whole 
Turkestan  steppe  between  the  Ob  basin  and  the  Iranian  plateau.  In  the  north  the 
region  limited  by  the  lower  course  of  the  Chu  and  Sari-su  is  usually  known  to  the 
natives  as  the  Bek-pak-dala,  and  to  the  Russians  as  the  Golodnaya  steppe,  or 
"Hunger  Steppe."  South  of  the  Chu  stretches  the  Ak-kum  ("White  Sands"), 
while  a  large  portion  of  the  country,  limited  by  the  Sir  and  Oxus  north  and  south, 
is  occupied  by  the  Eizil-kum,  or  "  Red  Sands."  Between  the  Sir  and  Ural  Rivers 
are  the  Kara-kum,  or  "  Black  Sands,"  but  another  and  far  more  extensive  region 
of  "  Black  Sands  "  occupies  most  of  the  triangular  space  bordered  north-west  by 


every  conspicuouR 
[ninences,  an  eagle 
)f  herbage  assume 
euted  and  mostly 
himace,  imparting 
overcast  the  dense 

1  winter,  when  the 
iverse  aspects  are 
teres  have  assumed 
od  of  the  pastures, 
ice  of  the  land  is 
}.     The  variety  is 

saline  waters,  and 
Led  fauna  and  flora. 
L  disappear.     The 

in  the  cold,  allow 
ly  burnt  up  by  the 
monotonous  aspect, 
}  few  rainy  days  of 
by  the  keen  winter 
lowy  mantle.  The 
jnd  to  increase  the 
plains.  The  desert 
beyond  the  horizon 

moors  or  muddy 
k  in  summer.  Yet 
[irghiz  contrives  to 
:  low  embankments 
marine  salines,  and 
ings  in  the  parting 
ctised  in  Egypt. 


FLOBA  AND  FAUNA  OF  TUBEESTAN. 


a96 


the  Uzboi  valley,  north-east  by  the  Oxua,  south  by  the  oases  stretching  along  the 
foot  of  the  Iranian  plateau.  Several  other  smaller  sandy  wastes  are  scattered  over 
the  rest  of  Turkestan. 

Of  these  desert  regions,  which,  notwithstanding  thoir  different  names,  are  all 
alike  of  a  greyish  colour,  few  are  more  dreaded  by  the  £irghi/  than  the  Bek-pak- 
dola,  whose  limestone  or  argillaceous  bed  is  here  and  there  crossed  by  barkham,  or 
sandy  dunes.  It  is  traversed  by  the  road  from  Tashkend  to  Akmolinsk,  but  the 
absence  of  water  and  fodder  obliges  the  caravans  to  make  long  detours.  Here  the 
summer  temperature  rises  iu  th«  shade  of  the  tent  to  97°  Fahr.,  and  in  the  open  to 
111°  and  112°.  Even  in  the  cool  of  the  evening  the  soles  of  the  wayfarer's  feet 
become  scorched,  and  the  dog  accompanying  him  finds  no  repose  till  he  has 
burrowed  below  the  burning  surface.  Some  of  the  southern  deserts  are  still  more 
terrible.  During  the  early  expeditions  against  the  Tekke  Turkomans  hundreds  were 
killed  by  the  heat  of  the  sands,  while  the  mortality  of  those  mounted  on  camels 
was  still  greater.  The  "Black  Sands"  north  of  the  Aral  are  more  easily 
accessible,  thanks  to  the  parallel  depressions  running  north-west  and  south-cast 
between  lines  of  dunes  25  to  30  feet  high.  These  depressions  are  covered  with  a 
fine  herbage,  and  even  with  a  few  plants,  such  as  the  sand  osier  and  the  wild  olive. 
They  were  formerly  cultivated,  as  appears  from  the  still  visible  traces  of  irrigating 
canals.  The  dunes  themselves  have  a  flora,  consisting  of  plants  whose  roots 
penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil  in  search  of  moisture.  Springs  of  pure  water,  supplied 
by  the  infiltratiop  ^*  <mow  and  rain,  occur  here  and  there  at  their  feet.  In  some 
places  frozen  maa^^  '  vt  even  been  discovered  beneath  the  acciunulated  sands,  bv 
which  they  were  p'    «.  vt  d  for  years  from  the  summer  heats. 

Many  of  the  argillaceous  and  salt-strewn  steppes  are  dreaded  even  far  more 
than  the  sandy  wastes.  Here  are  the  most  dangerous  quagmires,  where  the  camels 
sink  in  the  mud  after  the  slightest  shower.  Here  also  the  caravans  suffer  most 
from  thirst,  and  although  the  stages  are  marked  by  weUs,  it  often  happens  that 
the  water  has  been  poisoned  by  the  carcasses  of  animals.  The  wells  are  usually 
sunk  about  12,  but  occasionally  to  a  depth  of  40  feet. 


Flora  and  Fauna  of  Turkestan. 

The  feeble  Aralo-Caspian  flora  is  limited  chiefly  to  shrubs  and  thorny  plants, 
the  soil  being  neither  rich  nor  moist  enough  to  develop  a  forest  vegetation.  True 
forests  occur  only  in  the  north-western  tracts  watered  by  the  Ural  and  Emba. 
The  Russians  everywhere  fell  the  trees  improvidently,  while  the  Kirghiz  are 
never  at  their  ease  till  they  have  cleared  the  land  of  its  timber.  But  both  races 
alike  will  respect  and  regard  with  a  sort  of  veneration  the  few  solitary  trees 
occurring  at  intervals  in  the  desert.  The  branches  are  often  covered  with  ribbons, 
horsehair,  medals,  and  other  votive  offerings,  and  in  passing  every  devout  Kirghiz 
will  piously  mutter  the  name  of  Allah. 

While  in  some  respects  resembling  those  of  Russia,  the  Orenburg  steppes  have 
a  far  less  varied  flora      As  we  proceed  eastwards  and  southwards  in  Turkestan  the 


m 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


vegetation  everywhere  becomes  poorer,  until  we  reach  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
whore  another  zone  beginH.  In  the  whole  of  this  region  no  more  than  1,152  species 
of  plmnorogamic  plants  have  been  discovered,  and  in  the  open  steppe  far  from  the 
rivers  the  flora  is  reduced  to  a  few  typical  species,  "  brown  as  the  camel's  hair," 
covering  hundreds  and  thousands  of  square  miles.  In  certain  tracts  nothing  is  met 
except  a  mugwort  of  a  blackish  colour ;  in  others  the  soil  is  covered  with  a  blood-red 
alkaline  vegetation.  In  the  space  comprised  between  the  Aral  and  Caspian  east  and 
west,  and  stretching  from  the  Emba  to  the  Atrek  north  and  south,  there  are  only 
329  species  altogether,  less  than  are  found  in  the  smallest  French  canton. 

The  Turkestan  flora,  such  as  it  is,  is  geologically  of  recent  origin.     The  species 
have  all  advanced  from  the  surrounding  regions  according  as  the  waters  subsided. 

Fig.  101.— VaoETATiow  or  tkb  Kuil-kvm. 


But  in  the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  land  the  southern  have  prevailed  over 
the  northern  species.  Thus  the  aaksaul  (^Anabtuia  ammodendron)  and  the  jida,  or 
wild  olive,  are  constantly  advancing  from  Persia,  and  driving  the  poplars  back  to 
their  northern  homes.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  all  these  plants  adapt 
themselves  to  the  changed  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  the  steppe.  To  resist 
the  wind  they  acquire  a  more  pliant  stem,  or  present  a  smaller  surface  to  its  fury 
by  dropping  their  foliage.  To  diminish  the  evaporation  their  bark  becomes  a 
veritable  carapace,  and  their  pith  is  mingled  with  saline  substances.  They 
clothe  themselves   with  hairs  and  thorns,  distilling  gums  and  oils,  whereby  the 


9ft*cwera!tea3i2s?i^'i 


i^^'.«»sii«;-tvja;-pl'V^-iSK^^ 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  OF  TURKESTAN. 


197 


e  mountains, 
1,152  species 
far  from  the 
amel's  hair," 
othing  is  met 
th  a  blood-red 
pian  east  and 
lere  are  only 
ton.  _> 

The  species 
ters  subsided. 


^^[ 


prevailed  over 
d  the  Jida,  or 
>plar8  back  to 

plants  adapt 
pe.  To  resist 
ice  to  its  fury 
rk  becomes  a 
inces.      They 

whereby  the 


evaporation  is  still  further  reduced.  Thus  are  able  to  flourish  far  from  running 
waters  such  plants  as  the  Bak8a(^l,  which,  though  perfectly  leafless,  i)roduce8  both 
flowers  and  fruits.  So  close  is  its  grain  that  it  sinks  in  water,  and  omits  sparks 
when  struck  with  the  axe.  The  grassy  steppes  are  not  covered  uniformly  with 
herbage,  as  in  the  western  prairies,  but  produce  isolated  tufts  occupying  scarcely  a 
third  of  the  whole  surface.  The  short  period  of  growth  and  bloom  is  utilised  by 
the  plants  with  remarkable  energy.  With  the  first  warm  days  of  spring  the 
Orenburg  steppes  become  covered  with  tulips,  mingled  here  and  there  with  the  lily 

Fig.  102. — Ranob  of  Vbobtation  in  Turkestan. 
Soale  1 :  15,000,000. 


Qnmr        ArfdliMMiii         SiUim 
Bteppe.  DaaerU.  Dueitt. 


Sandi. 


ZnndUwa 

Flan. 
300  MUM. 


Khtran 
OmIi. 


TVweshk 


and  iris.    But  in  a  few  weeks  the  land  has  resumed  its  wonted  dull  grey  aspect ; 
the  plants  have  withered  and  been  scattered  by  the  winds. 

Like  its  flora,  the  Turkestan  fauna  presents  a  singular  uniformity  of  tyjies  through- 
out vast  spaces.  But  thanks  to  the  variety  of  relief  between  the  steppe  and  the 
mountains,  the  species  are  relatively  more  numerous.  lu  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin 
alone  Sieverzov  reckons  forty-seven  species  of  mammalia  and  ninety-seven  of  birds, 
while  all  the  crevasses  in  the  ground  are  alive  with  snakes,  lizai-ds,  and  scorpions. 
The  thickets  skirting  the  rivers  harbour  most  of  the  quadrupeds — tiger,  ounce. 


jBlMiiiiiBigiiaii'i'in'i  Ji'irin  i"»  i 


108 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


wild  cat,  wolf,  fox,  wild  boar;  but  on  the  open  plain  nothing  lives  except  {j^egariouN 
animals,  such  as  the  gaeelle  and  wild  ass,  which  are  able  rapidly  to  traverse  great 
distances  in  search  of  food  and  moisture.  The  domestic  animals  are  limited  by  the 
nature  of  the  climate  to  the  camel,  horse,  ass,  and  sheep.  The  only  settled  parts  of 
the  land  consist  of  narrow  oases  constantly  threatened  by  the  sands,  and  often  wasted 
by  the  locust.  But  the  whole  country  is  inhabited,  or  at  least  traversed,  by  the  nomads 

Fig.  108.— Pbtbot  Olaoibr. 

Scale  1  :  218,000. 


SMilM. 


shifting  their  camping  grounds  with  the  seasons,  and  tending  their  flocks  now  in  the 
open  plain,  now  at  the  foot  of  hills  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  streams  and  wells. 

"Water  System — ^The  Sir. 

The  Aralo-Caspian  basin  is  studded  with  lacustrine  spaces,  remnants  of  the  old 
inland  sea  of  Turkestan.  Numerous  funnel-shaped  cavities  also  occur,  especially 
north  and  north-east  of  the  Aral,  many  from  80  to  100  feet  deep,  and  filled  mostly 
with  salt  or  brackish  water,  while  marine  shells  are  embedded  in  the  clays  and 
sands  of  their  sides.  Saline  marshes,  strewn  over  the  steppe  side  by  side  with  the 
fresh-water  lakes  and  tarns,  also  contain  thick  layers  formed  by  the  remains  of 
marine  organisms.  These  shells  of  the  cardium,  mytilus,  turritella,  and  others  still 
common  in  the  Aral,  seem  to  prove  that  this  sea  formerly  reached  nearly  to  the 
present  water-parting  between  the  Ob  and  Aralo-Caspian  basins.  This  is  a  strong 
argument  in  favour  of  the  theory  that  the  Caspian  itself  was  at  one  time  connected 
by  a  marine  inlet  with  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Of  the  former  influents  of  the  Aral,  the  Sir  and  Oxus  alone  now  reach  its  shores. 
The  Sir,  or  Yaxartes  of  the  ancients,  and  the  Shash,  or  Sihun  of  the  Arabs,  rises  in 
the  heart  of  the  Tian-shan.  One  of  its  head-streams  flows  from  a  lake  in  the 
Ala-tau  Terskei  on  the  Barskaun  Pass ;  another  drains  the  marshes  of  the  Zanka 
Pass.  But  the  most  copious  torrent  escapes  from  the  Petrov  glacier,  whose  crystal- 
line mass,  some  9  miles  long,  and  scored  by  five  moraines,  fills  a  crevasse  of 
astonishing  regularity  in  the  Ak-shiirak  Hills.    Another  glacier  of  smaller  propor- 


mi''}:^!l'?!it'w^^^S^iMM 


WATEB  SYSTEM— THE  SIB. 


lUU 


)t  (p^gariouR 
•averse  great 
mited  by  the 
ttled  parts  of 
often  wasted 
y  the  nomads 


|4I< 


ks  now  in  the 
ms  and  wells. 


its  of  the  old 
lur,  especially 
[  filled  mostly 
lie  clays  and 
side  with  the 
le  remains  of 
id  others  still 
nearly  to  the 
lis  is  a  strong 
mo  connected 

ich  its  shores. 
Lrabs,  rises  in 
I  lake  in  the 
of  the  Zanka 
rhose  crystal- 
I  crevasse  of 
laller  propor- 


tions, the  lir-tash,  is  remarkable  for  the  shape  of  its  basin,  the  entrance  of  which 
is  blocked  by  rocks. 

In  its  upper  course  the  Sir  changes  its  name  with  every  fresh  tributary.  On 
leaving  the  Petrov  glacier  it  is  the  Yak-tash,  then  the  Taragai  to  the  junction  of 
the  Earasai,  and  after  receiving  the  Earakol  it  becomes  the  Great  Narin.  Below 
the  double  confluence  of  the  Ulan  and  Eurmekti  the  Narin  enters  the  Eapchcgai 
defile,  which  no  explorer  has  yet  succeeded  in  penetrating  to  survey  the  falls, 
which  must  here  be  very  fine,  for  the  river  descends,  in  this  space  of  about  46  miles, 
altogether  from  3,000  to  3,220  feet. 

United  with  the  Little  Narin,  the      *'»K-  i04.— Lowi»  Pakt  op  the  Iiu-tabh  Glacibb. 
stream   flows   successively  through  ' '  '"'"'"■ 

several  of  those  ancient  lacustrine 
beds  which  are  so  common  in  the 
Western  Tian-shan,  and  then  passes 
through  two  other  romantio  gorges 
before  emerging  from  the  highlands 
on  to  the  Ferghana  plains.  South 
of  the  town  of  Namangan  it  receives 
the  muddy  Eara-daria,  at  whose  con- 
fluence it  at  last  takes  the  name  of  Sir. 

But  no  sooner  does  it  acquire 
majestic  proportions  than  it  begins 
to  be  impoverished.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  tributaries  still  flowing  to  it 
from  the  mountains  skirting  it  on 
the  north,  its  volume  is  continuously 
diminished  in  the  Ferghana  plain 
and  lower  down.  In  the  vast  amphi- 
theatre of  plateaux  and  hills  en- 
closing Ferghana  its  affluents  are 
mostly  absorbed  in  a  system  of  irri- 
gation works,  which  has  converted  a 
large  portion  of  the  plain  into  a 
blooming  garden.  The  triangular 
space  comprised  between  the  Sir  and 
the  Eara-daria  is  the  most  fertile 

tract  in  all  Turkestan.  But  most  of  the  streams  are  absorbed  in  irrigation  works  before 
reaching  the  banks  of  the  Sir.  The  climate  of  Ferghana,  though  severe,  is  subject  to 
less  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  than  the  more  exposed  lowland  steppes.  Here  the  pre- 
vailing colour  is  blue  "  Everything,"  says  M.  de  Ujfalvy,  "  assumes  a  turquoise  hue — 
sky,  rocks,  the  plumage  of  raven  and  blackbird,  and  even  the  walls  of  the  buildings." 

Above  Ehojend  the  Sir  escapes  from  the  old  Ferghana  lake  by  skirting  the 
Choktal  Mountains,  thence  pursuing  a  north-westerly  course  parallel  with  the  Oxus 
and  the  Eora-tau  range.    It  seems  to  flow  farther  north  than  formerly,  and  at  one 


,  eeofcet. 


mmmmmmmmnmm 


mSIMLJSSH 


tiiikmtaP't 


200 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


OH 


tiino  probably  travor(«e<l  the  Tus-kano  morasa,  which  forms  a  curve  of  over  120  mil 
north  of  the  Nuru-tau  MouiitaiiiH,  mid  which  prcHcnts  the  appearance  of  a  river 
bed.  It  Hconis  to  have  then  effected  a  junction  with  the  (Jxus,  near  the  Sheik-joili 
eminence,  where  traces  still  remain  of  an  old  channel.  Like  the  Chu,  its  lower  courw 
at  present  describes  a  wide  circuit  round  the  basin  of  an  ancient  sea,  for  the  Kizil-kuni, 
no  less  than  the  Ak-kum  and  the  Kara-kum,  is  u  dried-up  sea-bed,  formerly  united 
in  a  single  sheet  of  water  with  the  Aral. 

.  The  Chu,  which  is  the  main  stream  of  the  Terskei  Ala-tauand  Alexander  range, 
no  longer  reaches  the  lower  course  of  the  Sir.  Although  very  copious  in  its  upper 
reaches,  it  receives  no  permanent  afHuents  below  Karagati,  where  it  branches  off  into 
several  channels,  which  gradually  run  dry  in  the  sands.  The  Talas  also,  which  escapes 
from  the  Tian-shan  through  the  A(ili-ata  defile,  expands  into  extensive  morasses 
before  reaching  the  Chu.  But  below  both  of  these  rivers  fresh  water  is  found  at  u 
depth  of  from  4  to  6  feet,  showing  that  their  streams  still  filter  through  under- 
ground. West  of  the  Chu  the  Sari-su,  known  in  its  upper  course  as  the  Yamun-su, 
and  in  its  lower  as  the  Yan-su,  was  also  at  one  time  a  tributary  of  the  8ir,  but  is 
now  lost  in  the  steppe  sands  after  a  course  of  over  480  miles.  It  rises  north  of  Lake 
Balkhash,  on  a  plateau  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Ob  basin  and  the  region 
of  inland  drainage.  Several  other  rivers  rising  in  the  same  diptrict  become  exhausted 
before  reaching  the  Sir  or  the  Aral  Sea.  Amongst  them  are  a  number  of  Kara-su,  or 
"  Black  "Waters,"  flo\dng  through  peat  beds,  and  noted  amongst  all  the  Turkestan 
streams  for  their  resistance  to  the  action  of  frost,  apparently  never  freezing  in  winter. 

Throughout  its  lower  course  the  Sir  has  frequently  shifted  its  channel  evcTi  in 
recent  times.  Sultan  Baber,  who  flourished  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  tells  us 
that  the  Sihun  (Sir)  at  that  time  ran  dry  in  the  sands  before  reaching  any  other 
body  of  water.  At  present  the  Yani,  or  Jani-daria,  branches  off  from  the  main 
stream  about  7  miles  below  Fort  Perovsky,  and  disappears  intermittently  with  the 
natural  changes  of  the  principal  current  and  the  irrigation  works  of  the  Kirghiz. 
After  ceasing  to  flow  from  1820  to  1848  it  resumed  its  south-westerly  course  in  the 
latter  year,  without,  however,  reaching  either  the  Oxus  or  the  Aral,  and  at  present  it 
is  lost  in  Lake  Kukcha-denghiz  after  a  course  of  some  180  miles.  But  below  this  basin 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that  it  formerly  flowed  to  Lakes  Eungrad  and  Daft-kara 
in  the  Oxus  delta.  On  the  other  hand,  the  present  relief  of  the  land  is  altogether 
opposed  to  the  statement  of  old  writers  that  at  one  time  the  Sir  even  reached  the 
Caspian.     At  least,  it  can  have  done  so  only  through  the  Yani-daria  and  the  Oxus. 

The  main  channel  of  the  Sir  at  present  ramifies  again  a  little  below  the  Yani- 
daria  outlet  into  two  streams,  both  of  which  have  changed  their  course  and  volume. 
The  southern  branch  was  formerly  the  more  copious,  but  it  has  gradually  fallen  off 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  now  known  as  the  Jaman-daria,  or  "Bad  River," 
mostly  evaporating  in  the  swamps.  The  Eara-uzak,  or  northern  branch,  at  first  a 
mere  irrigation  canal,  now  carries  the  main  stream  north-west  to  the  north-east  end 
of  the  Aral.  The  average  amoimt  of  water  discharged  into  this  sea  is  at  present 
estimated  at  no  more  than  one-half  of  its  whole  volume  above  the  triple  ramification 
at  the  head  of  the  delta.    Here  the  discharge  at  low  water  seems  to  be  alwut 


'-•-"sIc^SIB** 


THE  OXUS  BIVEB  SYSTEM. 


201 


ver  120mflc(i 
le  of  a  river 
le  Sheik-jeili 
lower  courH<> 
lo  Kizil-kmn, 
merly  united 

Sander  range, 
in  its  upper 
nches  oif  into 
which  escapoH 
sive  morusscH 
is  found  at  a 
rough  undcr- 
le  Yuman-Hu, 
he  Sir,  but  in 
north  of  Lake 
ind  the  region 
)me  exhausted 
of  Eara>8u,  or 
the  Turkestan 
sing  in  winter, 
onnel  even  in 
ntury,  tells  us 
ling  any  other 
Tom  the  main 
»ntly  with  the 
the  Kirghiz. 
'  course  in  the 
d  at  present  it 
3low  this  basin 
and  Dad-kara 
1  is  altogether 
n  reached  the 
and  the  Oxus. 
low  the  Yani- 
e  and  volume, 
tally  fallen  oif 
'Bad  River," 
inch,  at  first  a 
lorth-east  end 
.  is  at  present 
ie  ramification 
3  to  be  almut 


1)1,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  the  mean  about  90,000  cubic  feet.  But  farther 
down  a  vast  amount  is  lost  by  evaporation  in  the  channels,  false  rivers,  and  extensive 
marshes  of  the  delta.  This  is  the  paradise  of  hunters,  abounding  in  wolves,  deer, 
the  wild  boar,  fox,  hare,  wild  goat,  badger,  besides  the  pheasant,  heron,  ibis,  crane, 
goose,  duck,  und  a  species  of  flamingo.  But  the  tiger  seems  to  have  disappeared 
nince  the  middle  of  the  present  century. 

The  navigation  of  the  I^wer  8ir  is  at  once  uncertain  and  'dangerous.  The 
Russian  flotilla  is  seldom  able  to  cross  the  bar,  which  at  times  has  scarcely  8  foot  of 
water.  The  steamers  often  run  aground  on  the  sand-banks,  the  stream  is  blocked 
by  ice  for  four  months  in  winter,  and  infested  by  dense  clouds  of  midges  in  summer, 
while  the  rapid  current  and  the  wont  of  fuel  increase  the  obstacles  opposed  to  a  regiUar 

Fig.  1U6.— Thk  Sih  Delta. 

Snlr  1  :  712,000. 


ttoiePMt. 


16  Feet  und  upwards. 
— .^  IS  Mile*. 


system  of  navigation.  The  attempts  hitherto  made  have  been  in  tlie  interests  of  war 
and  conquest  rather  than  of  trade,  and  in  the  actual  conditions  the  waters  of  the  Sir 
are  much  more  capable  of  being  utilised  for  irrigation  than  for  any  other  purpose. 
By  a  well-devised  system  vast  tracts  might  be  reclaimed  from  the  desert,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  cultivated  land  was  formerly  far  more  extensive  than  at  present.  A 
network  of  canalisation  has  already  been  projected,  which,  if  carried  out,  will  draw  off 
over  2,000  cubic  feet  per  second  in  order  to  water  about  250,000  acres  of  waste  lands. 

The  Oxus  River  System. 

he  western  slope  of  the  Pamir  drains  entirely  to  the  Amu-daria,  or  Oxus,  whose 
head-streams  thus  occupy  a  space  over  180  miles  broad  betv/een  the  Hiudu-Eush  and 
the  Alai'  south  and  north.     From  this  region  come  all  the  supplies  of  the  main 
U 


I 


aoa 


ASIATIC  BU8SIA. 


fltrouin,  which  for  over  ono-hulf  uf  u cuurou oatinuitod  altoguthor  at  abo'it  1,000 iiiilis 
d(>oH  nut  rocct'vo  a  einiflo  tributary. 

The  chiof  nourco  of  thiH  fumoun  rivor,  known  to  tho  Arobfl  as  the  Jihftn,  still 
romuinn  to  bo  (lotor"un«d.  The  rclutivo  nizo  of  itn  Pamir  houd-NtrouniH  huH  not  yet 
boon  uHcertainod.  When  WmA  viMitnl  Luko  Viotoriu  (Huri-kul)  in  18.'W,  ho  had 
no  doubt  that  he  had  dinoovorofl  tho  long-Hought  houtoo  of  thoOxua;  but  it  now 
HOoniH  more  probable  that  the  chief  branch  is  tho  Ak-su,  or  "  White  River"  of  thi 
Kirjfhiz,  which  riHos  east  of  tho  Great  Pamir  and  of  Lake  Victoria.  This  Ak-8ii 
may  possibly  Ixi  tho  Vak-shu  of  Hanscrit  writor-,  which  name  moy  hiivo  Ikh-ii 
changed  to  Oxsos  (Oxus)  by  tho  Greeks.  If  so,  this  plateau  must  have  Ixjeii 
froquentod  by  Kirghiz  or  other  T(^rki  nomads  long  before  tho  time  of  Alexander,  for 
thu  name  of  tho  river  has  no  meaning  except  in  their  language. 

Southernmost  of  tho  Upper  Oxus  head-streams  is  the  Sarhod,  a  rivor  of  the  liittle 
Pamir,  first  scientifically  explored  by  the  Mirza  Suja,  in  tho  service  of  the  ludiuii 
Oovomment.  It  rises  in  the  same  depression  as  the  Ak-su,  but  flows  in  tho  opposite 
direction  south-wostwards  to  the  main  stream  at  Langar-kisht.  Tho  Ak-su  itself, 
known  in  a  portion  of  its  course  as  the  Murgh-ab,  rises  in  Ijoko  Gaz-kul,  or  Oi-kul, 
which  often  disappears  under  tho  avalanches  of  snow  from  the  Ak-tush  and 
neighbouring  hills.  Flowing  from  this  lake,  first  eastwards,  as  if  to  the  Tariin 
basin,  tho  Ak-su  soon  trends  northwards,  and  after  receiving  a  tributary  from 
Mount  Tagharma  takes  a  westerly  course,  joining  the  Southern  Oxus  after  it  has 
traversed  the  Wakhan,  Badakshan,  Shignan,  and  Iloshan  highlands.  Farther 
down  the  united  streams  are  joined  by  their  last  great  affluent,  tho  Surgh-ab, 
flowing  from  tho  Trans- Ala'i  and  Earatoghin  Mountains.  Beyond  this  point  tho 
Oxus,  escaping  from  the  gorges  of  the  advanced  Pamir  plateaux,  receives  no  more 
contributions  from  tho  south,  and  very  little  on  its  right  bank. 

Even  the  Zarafshan  is  exhausted  before  reaching  the  Oxus.  It  rises  at  the  foot 
of  tho  Zarafshan  glacior,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Ala'i-tagh,  which,  according  lo  Mishen- 
kov,  is  30  miles  long.  From  every  snowy  cirque  of  the  surrounding  moimtains 
the  Zarafshan  receives  numerous  torrents,  besides  a  considerable  tributary  which 
flows  at  an  elevation  of  7,350  feet  through  the  romantic  Lake  Iskander,  so  named  in 
memory  of  Alexander  the  Great.  This  fresh- woter  basin,  which  is  encircled  by  hills 
over  3,000  feet  high,  has  a  present  depth  of  200  feet,  but  the  water-marks  on  the 
surroimding  slopes  show  that  its  former  level  was  over  300  feet  higher.  After 
entering  the  Samarkand  plain  the  Zarafshan,  whose  Persian  name  means  the  "  Gold 
Distributor,"  in  reference  either  to  its  auriferous  sands,  or  more  probably  to  the 
fertilising  properties  of  its  waters,  is  divided  into  countless  irrigation  rivulets, 
watering  over  1,200,000  acres  of  arable  land.  Within  60  miles  of  the  Oxus  it  is 
completely  exhausted,  though  the  extent  to  which  its  natural  and  artificial  channels 
are  flooded  varies  considerably  with  the  amount  of  snow  and  rain,  and  even  with 
the  vicissitudes  of  peace  and  war,  by  which  agricultural  operations  are  so  largely 
affected. 

South  of  the  Oxus  .-.n'-ther  large  river,  the  Murgh-ab  of  Merv,  also  runs  dry  long 
before  reaching  the  main  stream,  of  which  it  was  formerly  an  affluent,  but  from 


•--^  vtr  Jtt«l«  *«7-!;<jfei>'cw«iwi'?i3»»T  -r- 


It  1  ,/>00  mills 

ho  Jihftn,  Ntill 
iiH  huH  not  yet 
IHijH,  ho  hiK 
IB ;  but  it  now 
River"  of  tht 
This  Ak-su 
ay  huvo  Iwoii 
UMt  have  boon 
Aloxauder,  for 

or  of  the  liittlc 

of  the  Indian 

in  the  opposite 

0  Ak-8U  itself, 

kul,  or  Oi-kul, 

Ak-tash  and 

to  the  Tariui 

tributary  from 

us  after  it  ha» 

nds.      Farther 

the  Siu-gh-ab, 

this  point  tho 


rises  at  the  foot 
ling  U)  Mishen- 
Ung  mountains 
tributary  which 
ler,  so  named  in 
icircled  by  hills 
tr-marks  on  tho 
higher.  After 
Leans  the  "  Gold 
probably  to  the 
gation  rivulets, 
the  Oxus  it  is 
tificial  channels 
,  and  even  with 
1  are  so  largely 


904 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


ultimately  losing  itself  in  the  sands  beyond  the  Merv  oasis.  To  the  same  basin  also 
belongs  the  Heri-r(id,  or  river  of  Herat,  whicn  pierces  the  border  range  of  the 
Iranian  plateau,  but  rims  dry  before  reaching  the  Murgh-ab.  The  sands  blowni 
about  by  the  wiads  north  of  the  irrigation  deltas  of  these  two  rivers  have  so 
completely  effaced  the  ancient  beds  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  tell  in  which 
direction  they  ran.  Judging  from  the  general  tilt  of  the  land  towards  the  north- 
west, parallel  with  the  Oulistan  and  Turkmenian  Mountains,  thej"^  would  seem  to 
have  flowed  not  to  the  present  Oxus,  but  to  the  western  branch,  which  at  one  time 
reached  the  Caspian.     The  lines  of  wells  across  the  desert  follow  the  same  direction. 

Throughout  its  lower  course  below  Balkh  the  Amu  follows  a  normal  north- 
westerly course.  At  Eilip,  where  the  Russians  have  commenced  its  regular 
embankment,  its  bed  is  narrowed  to  about  1,000  feet  by  the  last  advancing  spurs  of 
the  Hissar  Mountains.  But  in  the  plains  it  broadens  to  an  average  width  of  over 
2,300  feet,  with  a  depth  of  20  feet,  and  a  velocity  in  the  flood  of  from  5,500  to 
11,000  yards  per  hour.  In  some  places  it  is  considerably  over  a  mile  wide  even  at 
low  water ;  but  here  it  is  studded  with  low  islands  overgrown  with  willows  and  tall 
grasses.  Its  banks,  eaten  away  by  the  current,  are  nearly  everywhere  steep,  and 
before  reaching  the  cultivated  districts  it  even  passes  a  belt  of  fossiliferous  chalk 
rocks,  pierced  by  a  gorge  1,100  feet  wide  at  Toyu-boyin.  The  current  presses 
generally  on  the  right  bank,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Volga  and  Siberian  rivers,  all 
being  alike  affected  by  the  lateral  movement  pi"oduced  by  the  rotation  of  the 
earth. 

The  Amu  brings  down  a  considerable  quantity  of  alluvia,  causing  its  waters  to 
be  usually  of  a  muddy  yellow  colour,  though  not  depriving  them  of  their  pleasant 
taste.  Like  the  Nile,  it  has  its  regular  risings,  caused  by  the  melting  of  the  snow, 
and  lasting  from  May  to  October.  During  the  cold  season  it  is  at  times  completely 
ice-bound,  and  may  then  be  crossed  by  the  caravans  proceeding  from  Merv  to 
Bokhara.  Since  1874  regular  measurements  have  been  taken  of  its  discharge, 
which  at  Pitniak,  just  below  Toyu-boyin,  is  estimated  at  125,000  cubic  feet  per 
second.  For  its  total  area  of  drainage,  amounting  without  the  Zarafshan  and 
Murgh-ab  to  about  120,000  square  miles,  this  would  represent  an  annual  rainfall  of 
about  12  inches  per  square  mile  in  excess  of  the  quantity  lost  by  evaporation,  an 
excess  mainly  due  to  the  abundant  snows  of  the  Pamir.  The  actual  discharge  is 
exceeded  in  Europe  only  by  the  Volga  and  Danube,  and  while  only  one-half  that 
of  the  Shat-el-Arab  (Euphrates  and  Tigris),  it  nearly  equals  that  of  the  Nile. 
During  exceptional  floods,  such  as  that  of  1878,  it  even  surpasses  the  mean  of  the 
Mississippi.  - 

At  Nukus,  where  it  ramifies  into  several  branches  to  reach  the  Aral,  it  has 
already  lost  half  the  voltmie  discharged  at  Toyu-boyin,  a  loss  due  mainly  to  the 
amoimt  diverted  from  its  left  bank  to  water  the  oasis  of  Ehiva.  During  the 
ii-rigating  season,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  end  of  July,  the  cultivated  lands 
of  Eharezm,  estimated  at  about  4,250  square  miles,  absorb  some  250  billion  cubic 
feet  of  water,  or  one-seventh  of  the  entire  annual  discharge,  while  the  sedimentary 
deposits  are  estimated  at  16,660,000  tons,  a  quantity  sufficient  to  raise  the  level  of 


?*P?1 


H^IS^^^^S 


he  same  basin  also 
rder  range  of  the 
The  sands  blown 
(vo  rivers  have  so 
e  to  tell  in  which 
towards  the  north- 
liey  would  seem  to 
which  at  one  time 
the  same  direction. 
3  a  normal  north- 
lenced  its  regpilar 
advancing  spurs  of 
rage  width  of  over 
of  from  5,500  to 
1  mile  wide  even  at 
th  willows  and  tall 
•ywhere  steep,  and 
fossiliferous  chalk 
he  current  presses 
Siberian  rivers,  all 
le  rotation  of  the 


using  its  waters  to 
a  of  their  pleasant 
elting  of  the  snow, 
it  times  completely 
ing  from  Merv  to 
1  of  its  discharge, 

000  cubic  feet  per 
the  Zarafshan  and 

1  annual  rainfall  of 
by  evaporation,  an 
actual  discharge  is 
only  one-half  that 

that  of  the  Nile. 
IS  the  mean  of  the 

h  the  Aral,  it  has 
due  mainly  to  the 
hiva.  During  the 
he  cultivated  lands 
e  250  billion  cubic 
ile  the  sedimentary 
to  raise  the  level  of 


I 


lU-ViJU^ 


THE  OXUS  EIVER  SYSTEM. 


206 


the  land  eight-tenths  of  a  millimetre  every  year.  But  while  the  alluviti  thus 
deposited  in  the  artificial  canals  are  anniially  cleared  out,  never  obstructing  the  froe 
circulation  in  the  irrigating  rills,  the  natural  bed<n  winding  towards  the  Aral 
become  yearly  more  and  more  choked  up.  Here  are  formed  sand-banks  and 
shifting  bars  dangerous  to  navigation,  and  imparting  to  the  stream  a  natural 
tendency  to  overflow  into  the  irrigating  works. 

Geologically  speaking,  the  Oxus  delta  consists  properly  of  the  alluvial  plain 
yearly  fertilised  by  its  waters.  The  triangular  space  comprised  between  the  Aral 
and  the  two  exterior  branches,  Taldik  on  the  west  and  Yani-su  on  the  east,  is  a 
delta  only  in  appearance,  for  this  tract  does  not  consist  of  alluvial  deposits  at  all. 
They  are  older  formations,  through  which  the  stream  has  cut  various  fortuitous 
channels,  and  in  which  the  mean  slope  is  much  greater  than  in  the  true  alluvial 
plains.  From  Nukus  to  the  mouths,  a  distance  of  over  70  miles  in  a  straight  line,  the 
total  fall  exceeds  60  feet,  whereas  from  New  Orleans  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  a 
much  greater  distance,  it  amounts  to.  no  more  than  a  few  inches  at  low  water.  True 
deltas  are  formed  only  at  the  mouths  of  the  several  branches  in  the  Aral,  where 
the  bars  already  exclude  vessels  drawing  over  4  feet  of  water,  while  farther  up  the 
dense  growth  of  reeds,  from  20  to  25  feet  high,  stops  all  craft  except  the  skiffs  of  the 
Ehiva  fishermen.  Nevertheless  the  steamer  Perovsky,  drawing  rather  more  than 
40  inches,  succeeded  in  1875  in  forcing  its  way  by  the  Yani-su,  Lake  Dati-kara,  and 
the  Kuvan-jerma,  or  "  New  Cut,"  up  to  Nukus,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the 
natives.  Since  then  the  navigation  of  the  Lower  Oxus  has  never  been  interrupted, 
notwithstanding  the  obstacles  at  the  entrance  and  the  swift  current,  which  the 
steamers  often  find  great  difficulty  in  surmounting.  Formerly  the  Taldik,  or  western 
branch,  was  the  deepest ;  but  like  the  Darialik,  lying  still  farther  westwards,  it 
has  been  gradually  choked  up  by  the  natural  tendency  of  the  river  to  be  deflected 
more  and  more  towards  the  east. 

The  great  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  the  course  of  the  Oxus  within  the 
historic  period  are  amongst  the  most  remarkable  physiographic  phenomena,  com- 
parable in  recent  times  only  to  the  periodical  displacements  of  the  Hoang-ho.  That 
the  region  of  the  Lower  Oxus  is  not  a  true  delta,  and  that  the  river  has  not  yet  cut 
regular  channels  through  it,  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  Amu  has  flowed  in 
this  direction  only  during  a  recent  epoch,  or  probably  for  not  over  three  himdred  and 
fifty  years.  During  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was,  in  fact,  an  affluent 
of  the  Caspian.  But  even  that  was  but  a  temporary  phenomenon,  the  Oxus  having 
oscillated  twice  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Aral  since  the  time  of  the  Greek  historians. 

In  the  days  of  Strabo  the  Oxus,  "  largest  of  all  Asiatic  rivers  except  those  of 
Lidia,"  flowed  to  the  Caspian,  and  the  trade  between  the  Euxine  and  India  followed 
this  river,  continuing  the  valley  of  the  Kur  eastwards  of  the  Hyrcanian  Sea.  But 
in  the  time  of  the  fii*st  Arab  and  Turkish  writers  the  Oxus,  described  by  Edrisi  as 
"superior  in  volume,  depth,  and  breadth,  to  all  the  rivers  of  the  world,"  had  been 
diverted  northwards  to  the  Aral.  In  the  fourteenth  century  it  had  again  resumed 
its  course  to  the  Caspian,  towards  which  there  is  a  relatively  steep  incline,  for  the 
bifurcation  of  the  present  and  the  old  bed  below  Yani-urgenj  is  140  feet  above  the 


imf 


206 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


level  of  the  Aral,  und  880  feet  above  that  of  the  Caspiun.  The  new  channel  waH 
blocked  for  about  two  hundre<l  years ;  but  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  Amu,  for  the  second  time  during  the  historic  epoch,  shifted  its  course  from  the 
Caspian  to  the  Aral. 

Few  geographical  questions  have  g^ven  rise  to  more  discussion  than  these 
periodical  displacements  of  the  Oxus.  Some  have  even  denied  that  it  reached  the 
Caspian  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  attributing  the  old  bed  to  prehistoric  times. 
The  dunes  and  clay  eminences  here  and  there  obstructing  the  channel  have  been 
appealed  to  in  proof  that  the  Caspian  branch  has  been  dried  up  for  ages,  notwith- 
standing the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  natives  to  the  contrary.  The  difference 
in  the  faunas  of  the  two  seas,  which  have  in  common  only  one  species  of  salmon, 
have  also  been  referred  to  in  support  of  the  same  view.  Nevertheless  the  historic 
evidence  on  the  subject  is  complete,  and  the  docimients  quoted  by  Rawlinson,  Yule, 
and  others  place  it  beyond  doubt  that  the  Western  peoples  were  perfectly  acquainted 

Fig.  107.— Map  in  thb  Catalohmn  Atla*  or  1375. 
Bcdnoed  Soal*. 


with  the  "river  of  Urgenj " — that  is,  the  Oxus — as  a  tributary  of  the  "  Sea  of  Baku" — 
that  is,  the  Caspian.  A  map  in  the  Catalonian  atlas  of  1375  even  shows  the  Sir 
and  Amu  as  united  in  one  stream,  and  this  is  in  accordance  with  contemporary  state- 
ments. At  the  same  time  it  is  impossible  to  fix  the  precise  date  of  the  return  of  the 
Oxus  to  the  Aral.  In  1559,  when  Jenkinson  visited  Turkestan,  it  had  already 
ceased  to  flow  to  the  Caspian,  but  it  still  watered  the  fields  west  of  Eunia-urgenj, 
and  the  traveller  himself  was  able  to  embark  at  this  city.  A  little  later  on  Abul- 
Ghazi,  Khan  of  Urgenj  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  tells  us  that  about 
1575  the  river,  being  deflected  constantly  eastwards,  at  last  abandoned  the  Urgenj 
oasis  and  discharged  all  its  waters  into  the  Aral. 

The  old  Caspian  branch,  which  has  on  average  width  of  1,100  yards,  has  now 
been  thoroughly  surveyed,  and  is  as  well  known  as  if  it  were  still  flooded.  Its 
steep  argillaceous  banks  are  cut  by  the  stream  to  a  depth  of  from  60  to  70  feet ; 
the  sand-banks  rising  to  the  surface  and  the  islands  in  the  midst  of  the  river  may 
fitiU  be  recognised,  while  the  deeper  depressions  arc  often  filled  with  long  lakes 


THE  0XU8  BIVER  SYSTEM. 


807 


channel  was 
Esnth  century 
lurse  from  the 

m  than  these 
(it  reached  tho 

listoric  times. 
|nel  have  becu 

iges,  notwith- 

?ho  difference 
;ie8  of  saknon, 
(b8  the  historic 

rlinson,  Yule, 
tly  acquainted 


ea  of  Baku" — 
shows  the  Sir 
nporary  state- 
)  return  of  the 
t  had  already 
Kunia-urgcnj, 
later  on  Abul- 
i  us  that  about 
3d  the  Urgenj 

ards,  has  now 
flooded.  Its 
0  to  70  feet; 
the  river  may 
th  long  lakes 


following  the  windings  of  the  stream.  But  the  water  has  mostly  become  suit,  and 
the  banks  arc  covered  with  crystalline  deposits.  A  few  fresh- water  pools  even  remain, 
often  surrounded  with  poplar  and  wild  olive  thickets.  The  Uzboi,  as  this  branch  is 
called,  was  at  one  time  supix>sed  to  have  a  second  mouth  south  of  the  island  of 
Cholokcn,  in  the  so-called  Khiva  Buy.  But  Stebnitzky  failed  to  discover  oiiy 
traces  of  this  branch,  though  another,  forming  the  true  delta  of  the  Old  Anni, 
certainly  flowed  south  of  the  Darju  jM^ninsula.  The  Turkomans  still  show  the 
traces  of  the  irrigating  rills  diverted  from  the  Lower  Oxus,  which  did  not  end  its 
course  in  the  plain,  but  made  its  way  through  a  defile  flanked  north  and  south  by  the 
Great  and  Little  Balkan  respectively.  The  different  sections  of  this  abandoned 
branch  were  formerly  known  by  various  names — La(idan,  Darialik,  Eunia-daria, 
Uzboi,  Engiftnj,  De(^dan ;  but  it  is  now  generally  named  the  Uzboi  from  the  Khiva 
country  to  the  Balkan  Gidf .   It  begins  east  of  the  Amu  delta  with  three  channels,  the 

Fig.  108 — Vallit  of  thb  Uzboi  at  tub  AtoiK  Wrllb. 
Scale  1 :  146,240. 


SMilM. 


Darialik,  Def^dan,  and  Tonu,  of  which  the  first  two  reunite  near  Lake  Sari-kamish. 
Beyond  this  double  lake,  which  was  formerly  a  vast  lacustrine  basin  far  more  salt 
than  the  sea  itself,  the  Uzboi  flows  southwards  -to  turn  the  Ust-urt  escarpments, 
after  which  it  trends  westwards,  piercing  the  mountain  chain  which  forms  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Caucasus  east  of  the  Caspian.  Beyond  this  point  it  joins  the  Ak- 
tam  "  wady,"  and  falls  into  the  fiord-like  Gulf  of  Balkan  in  the  South  Caspian, 
after  a  total  course  of  about  480  miles.  The  ruins  of  towns  and  villages  on  its 
upper  course  between  the  Amu  delta  and  Sari-kamish  belong  evidently  to  two 
epochs  answering  to  the  two  periods  during  which  it  flowed  to  the  Caspian.  The 
older  towns  imply  a  far  higher  degree  of  culture  and  wealth  than  the  more  recent, 
which  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  of  the  modem  khanate  of  Khiva.  Accord- 
ing to  the  natives  another  channel  branched  off  near  Charjui  far  above  the  present 
delta,  and  flowed 'due  west  across  the  now  desert  Kara-kum  steppes. 


MMHkl 


„     iii-iai 


208 


ASIATIC  RU88U. 


The  Aral  Sea. 


The  Balkan  Gulf  penetrates  far  inland,  and  the  sandy  tracts,  saline  depressions, 
and  extensive  morasses  found  along  the  course  of  the  Uzboi  give  it  rather  the  appear- 
ance of  an  old  marine  strait  or  chain  of  lakes  than  of  a  simple  river  bed.  At  some 
remote  geological  epoch,  and  before  serving  to  carry  off  the  waters  of  the  Oxus,  the 
Uzboi  probably  received  those  of  the  Aral  Sea,  which  at  that  time  stood  at  a 
higher  level  than  at  present,  and  may  have  thus  communicated  directly  with  the 
Caspian.  When  this  region  was  well  wooded,  as  is  expressly  stated  by  Strabo  and 
repeated  by  the  Arab  writers  of  the  tenth  century,  the  Aral  basin  no  doubt 
stretched  south-westwards  to  the  Ust-urt  plateau.  Its  level  was  naturally  subject 
to  considerable  vicissitudes  from  century  to  century,  not  only  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  rainfall,  but  also  in  consequence  of  the  changes  in  the  course  of  the 
Oxus.     Hence,  while  some  features  point  at  a  higher,  others  imply  a  lower  level 

Fig.  100.— Tub  Balkav  Gulp. 
BMOe  1 : 1,760^000. 


t.clC. 


'^i* 


40- 


i 


5Q*50' 


54'00 


aoiIilM. 


than  at  present.  It  no  doubt  takes  the  title  of  "  sea,"  which  it  in  some  respects 
deserves,  if  not  for  its  depth,  at  least  for  its  extent.  Still  it  depends  for  its  very 
existence  on  its  two  great  feeders,  the  Oxus  and  the  Sir,  and  should  these  shift 
their  course  again  to  the  Caspian,  it  would  disappear  in  a  few  years.  But  the 
Oxus  has  certainly  failed  to  reach  it  twice  in  historic  times,  while  one  branch  of 
the  Sir  has  also  flowed  through  the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian.  Consequently  there  can 
be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  Aral  has  at  various  times  been  reduced  to  the 
proportions  of  a  small  steppe  lake.  In  1870  Stebnitzky  estimated  its  area,  exclusive 
of  its  four  chief  islands,  at  26,300  square  miles.  Its  deepest  part,  washing  the 
eastern  cliffs  of  the  Ust-urt  plateau,  is  nowhere  more  than  225  feet ;  in  the  centre 
it  falls  to  170  feet ;  but  elsewhere,  and  especially  on  its  southern  and  eastern  shores, 
it  is  little  more  than  a  flooded  morass,  shifting  its  limite  with  the  direction  of  the 
winds.    Taking  iike  mean  depth  at  40  or  even  50  feet,  its  volume  cannot  exceed 


depressions, 
;r  the  appear- 
ed. At  some 
the  Oxus,  the 
e  stood  at  a 
ctly  with  the 
•y  Strabo  and 
sin  no  doubt 
irally  subject 
>rding  to  the 
course  of  the 
a  lower  level 


iiu»«rtiiiiii»iiiiMrtrHyi»ii«iiiiaiaffi«»iMMS«lWi^ 


THE  ARAL  SEA. 


200 


1,233,434,000,000  cubic  yarda,  or  only  1 1   timcn  that  of  Lake  Oonevu,  which  in 
nevorthdcM  110  times  Htnullor  in  extent. 

The  mean  diflchurgo  of  the  (  )xuh  umounting  to  .'W,000,  and  of  the  Hir  to  42,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  the  quantity  contributed  by  Imth  of  thcue  feeders,  inde- 
pendently of  smaller  affluents,  which  are  dry  for  most  of  the  year,  is  conMe({uontIy 
about  77,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  But  this  is  precisely  the  quantity  which 
would  be  lost  by  a  yearly  evaporation  of  1,020  millimetres.  The  actual  evaporation 
is  estimated  by  Schmidt  and  Dohrandt  at  1,150  millimetres,  so  that  even  after 

Fig.  no.— Inunuatiun  ov  tiie  Uxvt  in  1878. 

Seal*  1  :  3,000,000. 


I«ad  flooded. 


.seMilM. 


allowing  for  the  slight  rainfall  on  the  basin  the  evaporation  must  be  in  excess  of 
the  inflow.  Hence  the  lake  is  diminishing  in  size,  and  the  Gulf  of  Aibughir,  west 
of  the  Oxus  delta,  which  had  nearly  4  feet  of  water  in  1848,  had  been  reduced  in 
1870  to  a  mere  swamp,  completely  separated  from  the  Aral  by  an  isthmus  of  mud 
and  reeds,  and  in  1872  it  had  disappeared  altogether.  It  is  now  partly  wooded, 
and  occasionally  flooded  from  the  Oxus.  The  basin  has  thus  in  a  few  years  been 
reduced  in  size  by  about  1,400  square  nailes.  A  vast  extent  of  sands  on  the 
northern  shores  forms  part  of  the  lake  on  Gladishev  and  Muravin's  map  prepared  in 
1740,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  western  cliffs  the   old  water-marks  are  visible 


THE  A  UAL  SEA. 


HI 


Iho  Kirj^:hiz 
nmiiy  iniloH 
^torn,  1111(1  the 

NuilM'»^Ur 


'^ 


44 


SQ* 


)  TArki  name 

IS  shifted  its 
lid  lose  one- 
i  century  the 


wntor  would  hnvo  cvorywhcro  cliNa|>iM<ur(<d  except  from  five  dcproHnioiiH  rMluccd  to 
tho  i>n)|M>rtionN  of  tho  other  HtcpiM*  luk<>H.  The  (irtrk  aiwl  llonmii  writiTN,  who 
(Icwrilx)  tho  ( )xuH  iiH  iin  iitHuont  of  tho  (.'iiNpiuii,  iimku  no  iiu'iition  ut  all  of  tlio  Aral, 
w!»i«'h  t hoy  could  not  have  iM>HNihly  ovorhmked,  hud  it  at  that  tiimMM>cu|)ii>daiiythiii^ 
liko  NO  liir^'o  un  uroa  uh  ut  prcNcnt.  Hut  at  tho  tinu)  of  tho  Arab  <-oii(|ui>Mt,  whon  the 
OxuN  had  af^ain  uhundoiH'd  t]w  CuNpian,  tho  Aral  ih  known  to  contoiii|M)rary  writorN, 
ono  of  whom,  Khorozmi,  u  native  of  tho  country,  ^ivon  it  a  oircumforciico  of  alxxit 
100  IcuffuoN.  Thin  iH  al)out  (mo-third  of  itH  u<!tual  |K<r'phory,  which,  apart  from 
tho  smaller  indontutious,  muy  bo  ustimutod  at  HOO  nulus.     liut  with  tho  return  of 

Fig.  113.— Old  River  Dim  or  thi  Aralo-Canpian  Oaiix. 
Soain  1  ;  18,900,000. 


Old  WatoroonnM. 


the  Oxus  to  the  Caspian  the  Aral  again  drops  out  of  sight.  Even  Marco  Polo,  who 
crossed  from  the  Volga  to  the  Oxus  steppes,  makes  no  allusion  to  its  existence. 
Hence  we  may  conclude  that  with  the  shifting  of  its  affluents  the  Aral  oscillated 
between  the  conditions  of  a  sea  and  a  steppe  swamp. 

The  quantity  of  salt  contained  in  its  waters  also  depends  upon  its  volume.  At 
present  it  is  so  slightly  brackish  that  wild  and  domestic  animals  freely  drink  it, 
and  11  in  1,000  may  be  taken  as  the  mean  proportion  of  all  the  salts  held 
in  solution,  which  is  about  one-third  less  than  in  the  Caspian,  while  it  contains 
nearly  three  times  the  quantity  of  g3rpsum.  Hence  the  composition  of  its  waters 
shows  clearly  that  the  Ai'al  is  not  a  remnant  of  an  oceanic  basin.     In  its  faima, 


212 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


which  has  only  recently  heen  carefully  studied,  both  fresh  and  salt  water  species 
are  represented.  The  former,  however,  prevail,  although  not  including  the  sturgeon 
and  sterlet  of  the  Caspian.  Falk,  Pallas,  and  others  have  spoken  of  seals,  which 
would  have  a  more  intimate  connection  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Caspian.  But 
Maksheyev  has  shown  that  this  animal  is  unknown  in  the  Aral,  which  has  altogether 
only  one-third  of  all  the  species  found  in  the  Caspian.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Kcaphirhynchus,  a  species  of  fish  supposed  to  have  been  exclusively  American,  has 
been  found  both  in  the  Sir  and  the  Oxus. 

The  shallows,  sudden  storms,  and  scanty  population  of  its  shores  prevent  the 
navigation  of  the  Aral  from  acquiring  any  great  expansion.  Hitherto  it  has  been 
utilised  mainly  for  military  purposes ;  but  a  project  has  been  spoken  of  which  woxdd 
connect  this  basin  with  the  inland  navigation  of  Europe  by  restoring  the  old  course 
of  the  Uzboi  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Balkan.  This  project,  already  entertained  by 
Peter  the  Great,  has  even  been  partly  commenced,  and  a  portion  of  the  Oxus  has 


Fiij.  113.— Ak-tad  and  MoBTviY-KtriToit. 
Scale  1 : 4,000,000. 


eoMUe*. 


again  been  directed  towards  the  Caspian.  During  the  gpreat  floods  of  1878  the 
Uzboi  received  a  discharge  of  31,500  cubic  feet  per  second,  most  of  which  was  lost 
in  the  siin'ounding  swamps,  a  current  of  13  feet  alone  reaching  the  Sari-kamish 
lakes.  In  1879  the  supply  from  the  canal  constructed  to  the  Uzboi  scarcely 
exceeded  2,100  cubic  feet  per  second,  but  by  means  of  side  dykes  the  new  river  was 
diverted  to  the  Sari-kamish  basins.  Nevertheless,  these  brains  being  nearly  50  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Caspian,  it  would  be  necessary  to  flood  a  space  of  about  400 
square  miles  before  their  waters  would  be  raised  high  enough  to  flow  to  the  Caspian. 
They  might  doubtless  be  avoided  by  means  of  an  artificial  canal.  But  unless  the 
bars  of  the  Amu  are  removed,  and  the  course  of  this  river  and  of  the  Sir  regulated 
by  embankments,  the  advantage  of  restoring  the  Uzboi  is  not  apparent.  In  a  region 
where  the  few  oases  are  exposed  to  the  advancing  sands  every  drop  of  water  should 
be  employed  for  irrigation  purposes. 


salt  water  species 
ding  the  sturgeon 
m  of  seals,  which 
he  Caspian.  But 
ich  has  altogether 
other  hand,  the 
ely  American,  has 

hores  prevent  the 
therto  it  has  been 
en  of  which  woxdd 
ing  the  old  course 
idy  entertained  by 
)n  of  the  Oxus  has 


EofG. 


floods  of  1878  the 
b  of  which  was  lost 
g  the  Sari-kamish 
he  Uzboi  scarcely 
I  the  new  river  was 
}ing  nearly  50  feet 
space  of  about  400 
ow  to  the  Caspian. 
I.  But  unless  the 
f  the  Sir  regulated 
rent.  In  a  region 
op  of  water  should 


THE  TUfiKOMAN  DESEBTS  AND  HIGHLANDS. 


The  Turkoman  Deserts  and  Highlands. 


218 


The  Kara-kum,  or  "  Black  Sands,"  a  vast  triangular  space  stretching  south  of  the 
Aral  between  the  Amu,  the  Uzboi,  the  Tekke  Turkoman  hills,  and  the  Merv  oasis., 
might  again  be  changed  by  the  fertilising  waters  to  a  productive  land.  These  soli- 
tudes, strewn  with  the  ruins  of  many  populous  cities,  are  now  scarcely  traversed  by 
a  few  difficult  tracks  lined  at  long  intervals  with  wells,  which  are  often  found 

Fig.  114. — Entbakcb  to  tub  Kara-hoohaz. 
Seale  1 :  91,000. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  88  Feet.  88  Feet  anil  upwards. 

Ij  Miles. 


empty  or  too  brackish  to  be  potable.  Here  "  every  drop  of  water  is  a  drop  of  life." 
Shifting  sands,  carefully  avoided  by  the  caravans,  sweep  in  a  succession  of  dunes 
over  vast  distances.  Elsewhere  the  argillaceous  soil,  hard  and  crevassed,  re-echoes 
under  the  horse's  hoof,  or  saline  quagmires  beguile  by  their  mirages  tho  unwary 
traveller  to  their  treacherous  beds.  The  land  is  mostly  bare,  producing  little  beyond 
a  few  tufts  of  thistles  or  dwarfish  thorny  plants.  The  saksa(^l  thickets  are  now 
rare  in  the  desert  south  of  the  Oxus,  having  been  mostly  destroyed  during  the  last 


r.JAj^" 


214 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Fig.  116.— The  Tuk-kahaoan  Lakes. 
Soale  1 :  600,000. 


V*1 


century.  But  some  of  the  slopes  skirting  the  wilderness  on  the  south-west  are 
almost  verdant,  thanks  to  the  slight  rainfall  and  tho  few  springs  rising  at  the  foot 
of  these  heights.  A  zone  of  cultivated  lands  thus  separates  the  desert  from  the 
Iranian  liighlands.  These  are  tho  so-culled  Atok,  the  home  of  tho  Tekke  Turko- 
mans— the  Akhal-atok  in  tho  Avest,  the  Berogez-atok  in  the  centre,  and  the  Kelat- 
atok  in  tho  east. 

The  Great  Balkan,  north  of  the  old  mouth  of  the  Oxus  in  the  Caspian,  is  tho 

chief  summit  in  those  uplands,  which 
might  be  called  the  "Turkoman 
Caucasus,"  forming  as  they  do  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Great  Caucasus  east 
of  the  Caspian.  North  of  the  Great 
Balkan  and  of  its  western  extension  to 
the  peninsula  enclosing  the  entrance  of 
the  Krasnovodsk  Bay,  there  stretches 
a  hilly  region,  which  blends  in  the 
so-called  "Trans-Caspian  territory" 
with  the  Ust-urt  plateau.  Southwards 
the  less  imposing  Little  Balkan,  clothed 
with  a  few  patches  of  scant  vegetation, 
forms  the  extremity  of  the  frontier 
chain  of  the  Iranian  plateau,  which 
runs  with  remarkable  uniformity  in  a 
south-easterly  direction,  and  which  is 
known  to  the  Turkomans  on  the  north, 
and  the  Persians  on  the  south,  by 
different  names.  Nearest  to  the  Little 
Balkan  is  the  Kuran-dagh,  followed 
successively  by  the  Kopet  (Kopepet- 
dagh),  or  Daman-i-koh,  and  the 
Gulistan  Mountains,  highest  of  the 
range,  and  interrupted  eastwards  by  the  Ueri-rCld  and  Murgh-ab  valleys. 


of  Gt 


30' 


UMUss. 


The  Atrek  and  Gurgan  Rivers. 

Although  the  Kuran  and  Eopet-dagh  may  be  regarded  as  the  outer  rim  of  tho 
southern  uplands,  there  nevertheless  intervenes  between  them  and  the  plateau 
proper  a  broad  valley  watered  by  the  river  Atrek.  Hfire,  also,  as  in  the  Tiau-shan 
system,  the  crests  cross  -each  other,  one  running  north-west  and  south-east,  the 
other  taking  ncrvrly  the  line  of  the  meridian,  and  in  the  angle  formed  by  these  two 
ridges  is  developed  an  irregular  r;id  hilly  plain  sloping  towanls  the  Caspian. 
Although  over  300  miles  long,  the  Atrek,  even  near  its  mouth,  is  usually  but  a  feeble 
stream  some  30  feet  broad.  It  has  been  almost  completely  exhausted  by  irrigation 
works  and  evi;|K)ratiou  before  reaching  the  Caspian.     But  during  the  spring  floods 


w 


THE  UST-UET  PLATEAU. 


216 


iith-wcst  arc 
at  the  foot 
lert  from  the 
ckke  Turko- 
d  the  Kelat- 

ispian,  is  the 

ands,  which 

"  Turkoraan 

>y  do  a  con- 

aucasus  east 

of  the  Great 

extension  to 

e  entrance  of 

ere  stretches 

ends  in  the 

I    territory " 

Southwards 

Ikan,  clothed 

it  vegetation, 

the  frontier 

ateau,  which 

iormity  in  a 

and  which  is 

on  the  north, 

le    south,  by 

;  to  the  Little 

igh,  followed 

ot  (Kopepet- 

bi,     and     the 

>;hest  of    the 

sys. 


er  rim  of  the 
the  plateau 
he  Tian-shan 
tuth-east,  the 
by  these  two 
the  Caspian. 
Y  but  a  feeble 
by  irrigation 
spring  floods 


its  waters  expand  to  a  width  of  from  6,500  to  over  8,000  feet.  Farther  south 
flows  a  smaller  stream,  which,  however,  never  runs  dry,  and  which  abundantly 
waters  the  Astrabad  plains  about  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Caspian.  This  is  the 
Gurgan  (Jorjan,  Hurgan,  Vehkran),  or  "  Woii  River,"  which  aboimds  in  fish,  and 
which,  although  less  than  120  miles  long,  has  acquired  great  historical  importance, 
and  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  r'^gion  vaguely  known  to  the  ancients  as 
Hyrcania.  At  one  time  the  lower  course  of  this  river,  at  another  that  of  the 
Atrek,  is  taken  as  tlie  natural  frontier  of  Persia,  and  it  was  by  ascending  their 
valleys  that  the  Russians  have  been  able  to  turn  the  Turkoman  positions  in  their 
natural  strongholds  of  the  Baman-i-koh. 

Formerly  the  passage  of  the  Gurgan  was  defended  by  the  Kizil-alan,  or  "  Red 
Wall,"  intended  to  protect  the  agricultural  populations  of  Persia  against  the 
Turkoman  nomads,  the  accursed  Yajug  and  Majug  (''Gog  and  Magog"),  as  they 
were  called  by  the  mediaeval  Arab  writers.     Like  most  of  the  ruined  structures  of 

Fig.  116. — Tentiak-bor. 
Soile  1  :  770,000. 


laOMUea. 


Central  Asia,  this  wall  was  attributed  to  Alexander  the  Great,  who,  according  to  the 
legend,  erected  it  in  a  few  days  with  the  aid  of  an  army  of  genii.  But  it  seems 
rather  to  have  been  the  work  of  Khosroes  Anurshivan,  and  when  it  was  built  the 
level  of  the  Caspian  appears  to  have  been  lower -than  at  present,  for  its  western 
section  advances  some  miles  into  the  sea.  Its  ruins  may  be  traced  to  the  sources  of 
the  Gurgan,  and  even  to  Bujnurd,  in  the  Upper  Atrek  valley,  so  that  it  must  have 
been  over  310  miles  long  altogether.  Little  now  remains  of  it  except  a  line  of 
mounds  4  to  6  feet  high  and  30  feet  broad,  commanded  at  intervals  of  1,000  paces 
by  ruined  towers. 

The  Fst-urt  Platbat;. 

Between  the  Aral  and  the  Caspian  a  plat«au  of  limited  extent  stands  like  a 
rocky  island  between  the  marine  waters  and  the  low  steppes  formerly  flooded  by 
the  great  inland  sea  of  Turkestan.     This  is  the  tJst-ui't,  or  "High  Plain,"  go 


916 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Fig,  117.— OauRCHiKSKiY  Island. 
Scale  1 :  300,000. 


named  in  contradistinction  to  the  Ast-urt,  or  "  Low  Plain,"  of  the  Kirghiz.  It 
is  a  typical  tablel  nd  in  its  isolation  and  steep  escarpments.  The  inequalities 
of  the  surface  are  due  chiefly  to  the  snows  and  rains,  which  have  worn  the  upper 

strata  and  excavated  countless  little  cavities 
with  no  outlets  either  to  the  Aral  or  the 
Caspian.  Nearly  everywhere  the  Ust-urt  is 
limited  by  a  chink,  or  cliff,  which  would 
render  it  inaccessible  but  for  the  ravines  by 
which  it  is  pierced  at  intervals.  From  its 
base  spring  a  number  of  fresh-water  streams 
with  a  slight  taste  of  sidphur.  West  of 
the  Aral  Sea  the  chink  forms  a  continuous 
wall,  in  some  places  over  330  feet  high,  and 
certain  mysterious  structures  in  the  form 
of  truncated  pyramids  occur  here  and  there 
along  the  edge  of  the  cliffs.  The  plateau 
consists  entirely  of  tertiary  rocks,  thus  con- 
trasting sharply  with  the  plains  stretching 
east  of  the  Aral.  Its  chief  eminences  attain 
an  altitude  of  660  ieet  above  the  lake, 
consequently  over  830  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean,  besides  which  the  Ak-tau, 
or  "  White  Mountain,"  forms  a  small  rocky 
chain  running  south-east  and  north-west 
beyond  the  plateau  far  into  the  Caspian, 
where  it  forms  the  Mangishlak  peninsula. 
Most  of  the  parts  hitherto  visited  by 
Russian  explorers  have  been  found  destitute 
of  vegetation.  But  tb"*-;  are  numerous 
pastures  in  the  flats,  and  the  southern 
portion  of  the  plateau  deserves  rather  the 
title  of  "  Plain  of  the  Gazelie,"  or  of  the 
"  Wild  Horse,"  or  of  the  "  Wild  Ass," 
than  that  of  Kaflankir,  or  "Plain  of  the 
Tiger,"  conferred  on  it  by  the  Turkomans. 
This  region  is  even  occupied  by  a  Kirghiz 
population,  who,  however,  are  obliged  con- 
stantly to  shift  their  quarters.  The  shortest 
road  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Oxus  delta 
runs  from  iLc  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Mortviy-kultuk  Bay  north-east  across  the  Ust-urt  to  Kungrad,  a  distance  in  a 
straight  line  of  250  miles.  It  was  utilised  by  the  Russian  traders  for  the  first 
time  in  1878,  and  was  found  to  present  no  obstacles  to  caravans.  It  is  lined  at 
intervals  by  twelve  wells,  sufiicient  for  two  hundred  camels.     A  railway  has 


0  to  b2  Feet 


82  Feet  and  upwards. 
SMUea. 


EAST  COAST  OF  THE  CASPIAN. 


217 


!  Kirghiz.  It 
le  inequalities 
rorn  the  upper 
i  little  cavities 
Aral  or  the 

the  Ust-urt  is 

which  would 
the  ravines  by 
lis.  From  its 
■water  streams 
ur.      "West  of 

a  continuous 
feet  high,  and 

in  the  form 
lere  and  there 
The  plateau 
cks,  thus  con- 
ins  stretching 
linences  attain 
)ve  the  lake, 
it  above  the 
I  the  Ak-tau, 
a  small  rocky, 
ad  north-west 

the  Caspian, 
lak  peninsula. 
0  visited  by 
ound  destitute 
are  numerous 
the  southern 
rea  rather  the 
le,"  or  of  the 
"Wild  Ass," 
'Plain  of  the 
le  Turkomans. 
.  by  a  Kirghiz 
B  obliged  con- 

The  shortest 
le  Oxus  delta 
■emity  of    the 

distance  in  a 
i  for  the  first 
It  is  lined  at 
k  railway  has 


Fig.  118. — KuLALi  Island. 
Boale  t :  270,000. 


recently  been  projected  to  connect  the  Caspian  a  id  Aral  by  the  line  of  lakes 
and  saline  marshes,  which  probably  represent  a  strait,  at  one  time  nmning  between 
the  Mortviy-kultuk  Bay  on  the  Caspian,  and  the  Chemichev  inlet  on  the  Aral. 

East  Coast  of  the  Caspian. 

Some  of  the  basins  on  the  east  side  of  the  Caspian,  penetrating  far  into  the 
steppe,  may  be  regarded  as  distinct  lakes,  forming  the  traiisition  between  that  sea 
and  the  saline  waters  scattered 
over  the  Turkestan  desert. 
One  of  those  is  the  Kara- 
boghaz,  or  "  Black  Abyss," 
which  is  nearly  isolated  from 
the  Caspian,  forming  an  oval 
expanse  some  6,400  square 
miles  in  extent.  Limited 
westwards  by  a  slight  sand 
embankment,  it  communicates 
with  the  sea  only  through  a 
channel  from  660  to  2,660 
feet  broad,  and  scarcely  4  feet 
deep  at  its  entrance.  A  current 
from  the  Caspian  sets  steadily 
across  the  strait  at  the  rate  of 
from  3  to  4  miles  an  hour. 
This  dangerous  channel  is 
carefully  avoided  even  by 
explorers,  and  Jerebtzov  was 
the  first  to  penetrate  through 
it  to  survey  the  shores  of  the 
inner  basin.  The  cause  of  the 
rapid  current  has  been  ex- 
plained by  Baer.  Th*^  '"ara- 
boghaz  has  only  a  mean  depth 
of  from  1,2  to  40  feet,  and 
is  everywhere  exposed  to  the 
winds  and  summer  heats,  so 
that  here  the  evaporation  is 
excessive,  necessitating  a  con- 
stant inflow  to  repair  the  loss. 

But  while  evaporating  the  moisture,  the  ixiland  basin  retains  the  salt  from  the  Caspian, 
and  thus  becomes  constantly  more  saline.  It  is  eaid  to  be  already  uninhabitable,  and 
the  fish  carried  through  from  the  Caspian  become  blind  in  five  days.  Saline  incrusta- 
tions are  beginning  to  be  deposited  on  the  bottom,  and  the  basin  is  fast  becoming 
16 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  Feet  and  i^pwurda. 
^»— —  6  Miles. 


218 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


a  vast  salt-pan,  drawing  from  the  Caspian  a  daily  supply  estimated  by  Baer  at 
350,000  tons  of  salt,  or  about  as  much  as  is  consumed  in  the  whole  Bussiau  Empii-e 
in  six  months. 

The  other  basins  on  the  east  coast,  and  especially  about  the  Mangishlak 
peninsula  and  the  Tuk-karagan  headland,  ofEer  every  degree  of  salinity  according  to 
the  amount  of  evaporation  and  of  suit  water  received  from  the  Caspian,  Some, 
like  the  Ashchai-sai,  between  the  Eara-boghaz  and  the  Mangishlak  peninsula, 
having  already  ceased  to  communicate  with  that  sea,  have  dried  up,  and  their 
basins  are  now  filled  with  salt,  in  some  instances  covered  by  sand. 

The  Kara-boghaz  is  connected  by  a  chain  of  swamps,  saline  depressions,  and 
lakelets  with  the  Mortviy-kultuk,  another  saline  reservoir,  which  is  gradually 
being  cut  off  from  the  north-west  gulf  of  the  Caspian.  It  is  already  little  more 
than  a  steppe  lake,  with  a  menu  depth  of  less  than  7  feet ;  it  is  being  constantly 
invaded  by  the  sands  of  the  desert,  raising  its  level,  and  rapidly  changing  it  to  a 
vast  salt  marsh.  But  before  it  becomes  completely  detached  from  the  Caspian,  the 
Kaidak,  or  KarR-su  ("  IJlack  Water  ")  channel,  stretching  south-westwards  towards 
the  Kara-bog  I  laz,  \rAl  Itself  have  been  changed  to  a  tdt  lake.  It  fills  a  long  and 
deep  fissure  oo;  ijaauded  by  the  steep  cliffs,  which  form  a  continuation  O'  the  Ust- 
urt  r'.  vik.  In  *.h>^  sixteenth  century,  when  the  steppe  tribes  were  still  independent 
of  JR.  ,  isk.  tho  f'crtj't  international  fair  was  held  on  the  shores  of  the  Eara-su.  .\t 
that  vHti  .  e  bu.;  Reparating  this  fiord  from  the  Mortviy-kultuk  could  be  easily 
cross  i,  Lj..  i.:  as  now  almost  inaccessible,  and  in  1843  the  Bussians  were  obliged 
to  abu  ,ion  thcj  tortre&c»  of  Novo-Alexandrovsk,  which  cuey  had  erected  in  1826  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Kara-su.  The  Mortviy-kultuk  ia  already  twice  as  salt  as  the 
Caspian,  while  the  :  aliuity  of  the  Kara-su  even  excaeds  that  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez, 
the  most  intensely  salt  of  all  basins  communicating  directly  with  the  ocean. 

The  whole  region  stretching  north-east  of  the  Caspian,  and  connected  by  a 
chain  of  swamps  with  the  Aral  basin,  presents  the  same  evidences  of  transition 
from  the  sea  to  steppe  lakes.  Here  are  nothing  but  low-lying,  marshy,  and  reedy 
tracts,  which  again  become  flooded  after  the  prevalence  for  a  few  days  of  the  fierce 
west  winds.  Until  the  year  1879  the  Bussian  officials  were  in  the  habit  of 
avoiding  the  swampy  and  saline  region  of  the  Tentiak-sor  by  skirting  its  northern 
limits,  and  the  Astrakhan  and  Guryev  fishermen  hod  Vaken  advantage  of  this 
negligence  to  cure  their  fish  .vithout  paying  the  regular  tax. 

Notwithstanding  the  vast  alluvial  deposits  brought  down  by  the  Volga  and 
other  rivers  from  the  ■'•/tist,  this  side  of  the  Caspian  is  still  much  deeper  than  the 
opposite.  Off  the  Turkoman  coast,  betwej.^  Era  novodsk  and  Chi3xishlar,  depths  of 
28  fathoms  do  not  occur  within  distance,^  of  from  30  to  45  miles  of  the  shore, 
whereas  on  the  European  side  330  fathoris  'ire  reached  at  corresponding  distances 
from  the  coast.  A  submerged  shore  stretches  from  the  Erasnovodsk  peninsula  to 
the  coast  of  Mazenderan,  and  the  long  island  of  Ogurohinskiy,  or  the  "  Cucumber," 
as  the  Russians  cull  it,  is  evidently  a  remnant  of  that  shore.  North  of  the 
Mangishlak  peninsula  the  island  of  Eulali  forms  a  similar  sandy  dune  of  the 
characteristic  crescent  shape   so  common  to  shifting  sands.     The  Caspian  has 


T 


INHABITANTS  OP  THE  AHALO-CASPIAN  EEOIONS. 


219 


ted  by  Baer  at 
Russiun  Empire 

.he  Mangi8hlak 
ity  according  to 
!aspian.  Some, 
hlak  peninsula, 
up,  and  their 

Icpressions,  and 
is  gradually 
eady  little  more 
eing  constantly 
changing  it  to  a 
;he  Caspian,  the 
stwards  towards 
fills  a  long  and 
ion  '■-'  the  Ust- 
ti]l  independent 
e  Eara-su.  At 
could  be  easily 
ns  were  obliged 
Dted  in  1826  on 
CO  as  salt  as  the 
10  Gulf  of  Suez, 
le  ocean, 
connected  by  a 
es  of  transition 
rshy,  and  reedy 
iys  of  the  fierce 
n  the  habit  of 
ing  its  northern 
rantage  of  this 

the  Volga  and 
eeper  than  the 
shlar,  depths  of 
8  of  the  shore, 
inding  distances 
sk  peninsula  to 
e  "  Cucumber," 
North  of  the 
y  dune  of  the 
le  Caspian  has 


evidently  been  subject  to  frequent  changes  of  level  since  its  separation  from  the 
Euxine.  While  the  buffri  of  the  Volga  delta  show  that  at  one  time  the  waters 
subsided  rapidly,  the  contours  of  the  Cucumber  and  Kulali  Islands,  moulded  by  the 
regular  aclii)ii  of  the  waves,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  a  proof  of  a  period  of  upheaval. 
The  direct  observations  taken  between  1830  and  1863,  compared  with  the  marks 
scored  by  Lenz  in  a  rock  near  Baku,  show  a  subsidence  of  46  inches.  The  two 
trigonometrical  surveys  of  the  Caucasus  made  in  1830  and  1860  show  almost 
identical  results,  so  that  in  1860  the  Caspian  must  have  been  more  than  86  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Euxine. 


VI.— INHABITANTC  OF  THE  AIIAI.O-CASPIAN  REGIONS. 

Although  commonly  known  as  Turkestan  or  Tatary,  this  part  of  the  Asiatic 
continent  is  not  exclusively  occupied  by  peoples  of  Tdrki  stock,  and  it  is  even 
probable  that  the  original  population  was  Aryan.  But  however  this  bo,  these 
boundless  steppo  lands  are  ethnically  a  region  of  contrasts.  The  opposition 
presented  b3  the  wonderful  gardens  watered  by  the  Amu  and  the  Sir  to  the 
frightfid  wildernesses  of  the  "  Red "  and  "  Black  Sands "  reappears  in  the 
inhabitants  themselves,  some  occupied  with  agriculture  and  industry,  other  nomad 
pastors  sweeping  the  desert  and  ever  preying  on  the  wealth  amassed  by  their 
sedentary  neighbours  in  the  fertile  oases.  Commercial  relations  are  established 
from  town  to  town,  but  between  townsfolk  and  nomads  incessant  warfare  was 
fonnerly  the  normal  and  natural  state.  The  desert  encroaches  on  the  oasis,  and  the 
wandering  shepherd  threatens  the  tiller  of  the  soil.  Such  was  the  struggle  carried 
on  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  interrupted  only  by  foreign  conquest,  which  for  a 
time  associated  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin  with  other  regions,  but  which  aleo  swept 
away  all  local  civilisa+ion  by  wholesale  slaughter.  Nowhere  else  have  the 
conflicting  elements  been  more  evenly  balanced ;  nowhere  else  has  even  religion 
assumed  such  a  decided  dualistic  character.  It  wad  in  the  land  of  the  Baktrians — 
a  paradise  of  verdure  encompassed  by  a  wilderness  of  sands — that  was  developed 
the  Iranian  Mazdeism,  the  worship  of  the  twin  and  irreconcilable  principles  of  good 
and  evil  engaged  in  a  ceaseless  struggle  for  the  ascendiincy.  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman 
have  each  their  hosts  of  spirits  who  do  battle  in  theieavens,  while  mankind  takes 
part  in  the  everlasting  conflict  on  earth. 

At  the  same  time  the  division  into  a  nomad  and  a  settled  element  is  far  more 
an  ethical  and  traditional  than  an  ethnical  distinction.  Iran  and  Turan  are 
symbolic  expressions  rather  than  terms  answering  to  an  outward  reality.  Amongst 
the  sedentary  and  cultured  races  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  regions  the  Tftrki  and  even 
the  Mongol  elements  are  strongly  represented,  while  the  Aryans,  descendants  of 
Parthian  and  Persian,  also  form  a  certain  section  of  the  wandering  population  in 
the  Oxus  basin.  According  to  the  political  vicissitudes,  corresponding  largely  vith 
those  of  the  local  climate,  the  cultured  agricultural  nations  and  the  pastoral  steppe 
tribes  each  prevailed  in  their  turn,  while  now  one,  now  another  of  the  contending 


n 


i  ! 


I     ' 


M 


220 


ASUTIO  liUSSIA. 


elemciitH  was  favoured  by  the  forei^  conquerors — Iranians,  Macedonians,  ^rabs, 
Mongols,  IlusHians.  Thunks  to  the  Slav  preponderance,  the  Aryans  are  now  once 
more  ill  the  ascendancy,  but  there  is  room  for  all  in  a  land  whose  resources,  if 
properly  utilised,  would  largely  suffice  for  Iranian  and  Turanian  alike.  The  actual 
population  of  the  whole  region,  about  which  the  greatest  uncertainty  still  prevails, 
is  roughly  estimated  at  about  7,000,000,  or  less  than  4  to  the  square  mile.  Still 
more  uncertain  arc  the  attempts  at  classification  according  to  speech  and  origin. 
All  that  can  be  positively  assorted  is  that  the  "  Turanian  "  element  is  the  strongest, 
forming  probably  over  two-thirds  of  the  entire  population. 

The  Turkomans. 

Of  the  Turanians  the  chief  branches  are  the  Kirghiz  and  the  Turkomans,  or 
Turkmenians,  the  latter  of  whom  roam  over  the  south-western  parts  from  the 
Ust-urt  plateau  to  Balkh,  a  vast  domain  of  altogether  about  200,000  square 
miles.  Estimated  at  nearly  1,000,000,  they  are  divided  into  numerous  tribes  and 
sub-tribes,  grouped  in  hordes,  each  of  which  again  comprises  a  number  of  clans  or 
families.  These  are  again  often  further  modified  by  conquest  and  migrations,  but 
the  main  divisions  are  maintained,  and  from  political  causes  often  acquire  a 
distinctive  character.  Since  the  fall  of  Geok-tepe  and  the  submission  of  the  Akhal 
Tekkes  in  1881,  the  whole  of  the  Turkoman  race  may  be  regarded  as  either  directly 
or  indirectly  subject  to  Russian  control.  About  200,000  are  nominal  subjects  of 
the  Khan  of  Khiva,  and  these  are  gradually  blending  with  the  sedentary  Sartes  and 
the  Uzbegs.  Most  of  the  Yomuds  are  no  doubt  tributaries  of  Persia,  but  for  eight 
months  in  the  year  they  camp  north  of  the  Atrek,  and  are  then  obliged  to  select  a 
Khan  responsible  to  the  Russian  Government.  The  Ersari  recognise  the  authority 
of  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  himself  dependent  on  the  Muscovites,  and  the  El- Eli  owe 
an  enforced  allegiance  to  the  ephemeral  nUers  of  Afghan  Turkestan.  The  Tekkes 
and  Sariks  of  Merv  still  maintain  their  political  independence,  but  the  Salors, 
originally  also  of  Merv,  and  claiming  to  be  the  noblest  of  the  race,  are  now  subject 
to  the  Tekkes.  The  classification  of  all  these  tribes  is  beset  with  difficidties,  and 
the  greatest  discrepancies  prevail  in  the  difPeront  estimates  of  travellers  and 
explorers.     According  to  Petrusevich  the  chief  divisions  are  as  under : — 

Tekkes  of  Merv 60,000  Eibitkas,  or  250,000  souls.                    ' 

Tekkesof  the  Atok        ....  30,000  .,  160,000  „ 

Ersari 40,000  „  200,000  „ 

Yomuds 20,000  „  100,000  „ 

Sariks 20,000  „  100,000  „ 

Ooklans 9,000  „  46,000  „ 

Chudors 6,000  ,.  SO.OOO  „ 

£I-£li 3,000  „  16,000  ., 

Salors 3,000  „  16,000  „ 

Most  of  the  Turkomans,  especially  those  on  the  skirts  of  the  desert  between  the 
Atrek  and  Oxus,  have  preserved  the  characteristic  traits  of  the  race — broad  brow, 
small  and  piercing  oblique  eyes,  small  nose,  rather  thick  lips,  ears  projecting  from 
the  head,  black  and  scant  beard,  short  thick  hair.     In  the  Atrek  valley  and  the 


^jsi^c^s^r.iyi^v^-^r."^^: 


:  ^"i**^^^^ifa^!S^^:&^ 


THE  TUEKOMANS. 


221 


pdonians,  Arabs, 
ns  arc  now  once 
ose  resources,  if 
ko.  The  actual 
ty  still  prevails, 
uaro  mile.  Still 
oech  and  origin. 
in  the  strongest, 


Turkomans,  or 
parts  from  the 
200,000  square 
lerous  tribes  and 
mber  of  clans  or 
migrations,  but 
often  acquire  a 
ion  of  the  Akhal 
18  either  directly 
ainal  subjects  of 
Qtary  Sartes  and 
lia,  but  for  eight 
iligod  to  select  a 
ise  the  authority 
I  the  El-Eli  owe 
in.    The  Tekkes 
but  the  Salors, 
are  now  subject 
difficulties,  and 
travellers  and 
ier: — 

)  souls.  ' 


lert  between  the 
ie — broad  brow, 
projecting  from 
:  valley  and  the 


highlands  skirting  the  Iranian  plateau  there  is  a  largo  mixture  of  rorsian  blofxl, 
duo  to  the  women  carried  off  iu  their  constant  raids  on  the  frontier.  But  while 
thus  partly  losing  his  Tutur  expression,  the  Atrek  Turkomaii  still  retains  his 
piercing  glance,  proud  and  martial  bearing,  by  which  ho  is  distinguished  from  the 
Kirghiz,  Uzbegs,  Kara-Kalpaks,  and  other  branches  of  the  race.     Thoy  are  mostly 

Fig.    119.— TUHKOMAN   FiMALB  HlAD-DMSS. 


il.i 


also  of  tall  stature,  veiy  vigorous  and  active.  Except  in  Merv  and  a  few  other 
places,  all  dwell  in  the  kibitka,  or  felt  tent,  and  the  strength  of  the  tribe  is  estimated 
according  to  the  number  of  these  tents,  which  are  reckoned  to  contain  about  five  souls 
each.  Their  whole  furniture  is  restricted  to  a  few  rugs  and  couches.  The  national 
dress  consists  for  both  sexes  of  a  long  silk  smock  reaching  from  the  shoulders  to  the 
ankles,  to  which  the  men  add  the  ehapati,  or  khalat,  somewhat  like  a  European 


1i 


ttl>. 

I 


222 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


droHsing-go\»Ti,  and  aa  hcnd-drosn  a  Hj^ht  fur  cup.  The  women  uHuuUy  \*^cnr  no^'.inpf 
but  tlio  long  smock,  adding;  on  Hpeciul  uccaaiouN  u  lur^  hIuiwI,  girdle,  red  or  volliw 
bootH,  b'Ticolots,  nocklu(!ON,  and  ourringa.  Thoy  will  aomotimeH  oven  imihh  ringH 
through  the  cartilage  of  the  noHtrilH,  and  commonly  attach  to  the  brouat  little 
cuakets  of  amuleta  resembling  cartouch  boxes,  and  which  accompany  their  move- 
ments with  a  metallic  clink.  Coins,  coloured  gems,  true  or  false,  gold  and  silver 
ornaments,  deck  their  head-dress,  which  occa.sionally  asnumes  audi  proportions  that 
the  face  seems  to  be  enframed  like  a  holy  imago  in  its  shrine.  They  do  not  veil 
their  features,  like  other  Mohammedan  women,  for,  as  they  say,  "  how  can  we,  ^ioov 
steppe  people,  confonn  to  town  usages  ?  " 

The  Turkomans  of  the  Daman-i-koh  oaaia  recognise  no  chiefs.  "  We  are  a 
people  without  a  head,"  thoy  say  haughtily  ;  "  we  are  all  equal,  and  each  of  us  is 
a  king  !  "We  can  endure  neither  the  shade  of  a  tree  nor  the  shadow  of  a  chief," 
Some  members  of  the  tribe  no  doubt  twke  the  title  of  uh-sahal,  or  "  White  Beard," 
hay,  bii  (Bey),  or  even  Khan.  But  this  is  mere  make-belief,  and  no  one  dreams  of 
showing  them  any  more  deference  than  to  other  warriors,  unless  specially  distin- 
guished for  courage  or  other  virtuea,  or  unlesa  they  have  secured  a  following  by 
the  sale  of  corn  on  credit.  Those  known  as  the  "  Good  " — that  is,  the  wealthy,  the 
men  of  experience,  the  bravest  in  the  field — enjoy  great  influence  in  the  coimcil, 
when  weighty  matters  are  under  discussion.  But  they  have  no  judicial  authority, 
and  nobody  ever  appeals  to  any  one  in  case  of  theft,  injury,  or  other  wrongs.  He 
avenges  himself  as  beat  ho  can,  and  feuds  are  thus  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  unless  the  original  offence  is  repaired  by  a  monetary  compensation. 
The  steppe  life  is  mainly  regulated  by  the  deb,  or  unwritten  code,  which  rcqiures 
all  to  respect  their  peaceful  neighbours,  to  practise  hospitality,  and  to  keep  their 
pledged  woid.  The  Turkomans  are  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  peoples — 
Persians,  Afghans,  Bokhariots — by  greater  uprightness  and  less  corrupt  morals. 
In  war  aloue  they  give  full  boat  to  th^ir  innate  ferocity,  while  in  the  ordinary 
relations  of  life  diNtinguishing  themselves  for  their  strict  honesty.  Amongst  them 
it  is  the  debtor,  not  the  creditor,  vA:o  keeps  the  receipts  for  borrowed  money,  in 
order  not  to  forget  the  extent  of  bis  obligations.  The  document  is  no  concern  of 
the  creditor,  though  it  may  be  feared  that  the  "  civilisation  "  introduced  by  the 
Russians  will  tend  to  modify  these  customs.  « 

Amongst  the  Txirkomans  the  practice  of  simulated  abduction  still  prevails. 
The  intended  bride,  enveloped  In  a  long  veil  and  with  a  kid  or  lamb  in  her  arms, 
moimts  on  horseback,  gallops  off  at  full  speed,  and  by  sudden  turns  pretends  to 
escape  from  the  abductor  pursuing  her  at  the  head  of  a  troop  of  friends.  Two  or 
three  days  after  the  wedding  she  feigns  a  fresh  escape,  remaining  a  full  year  with 
her  parents,  in  order  to  give  her  husband  time  to  go  kidnapping,  and  thus  pay  her 
dowry  in  captive  slaves.  Other  social  events  are  associated  with  old  sjntubolio 
customs.  Thus  it  is  not  sujBScient  to  weep  for  the  dead,  but  every  day  for  a  twelve- 
mouth  the  relations  and  friends  are  expected  to  vent  their  grief  in  dismal  bowlings 
at  the  very  hour  when  the  death  took  place,  without,  however,  for  a  moment 
interrupting  their  ordinary  pursuits.     They  thus  often  take  to  howling  in  the  very 


..J  •iiv.~^:)'S^•^f^■r^lK^i:b  j,i-.:i?v;i.;i:«*,.;-«^;jjv;;.;i^tiis^/-3jtjt.>-^ 


rwl  or  voll')v 
on  puHH  riiigN 
broast  littlo 
Y  their  ujove- 
)ld  and  silvoi- 
o|)ortionH  thut 
y  do  not  veil 
f  can  we,  j^jooi' 

"  Wo  are  a 

each  of  us  is 
w  of  a  chief." 
VTiito  Beard," 
one  dreams  of 
jeciuUy  distin- 
1  following  by 
e  wealthy,  the 
n  the  council, 
cial  authority, 

wrongs.  He 
1  generation  to 
compensation, 
nrhich  requires 
I  to  keep  their 
iing  peoples — 
irrupt  morals. 

the  ordinary 
Amongst  them 
wed  money,  in 

no  concern  of 
reduced  by  the 

still  prevails, 
b  in  her  arms, 
as  pretends  to 
ends.  Two  or 
full  year  with 
i  thus  pay  her 

old  sjoubolio 
y  for  a  twelve- 
!smal  bowlings 
for  a  moment 
Qg  in  the  very 


-..»-a 


II  i>  nprniw-mmmmm^tmim 


MWiumiFwwiup*  mmmutm 


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■  ■i^B««»as?.'«w.Mjw)BHi«.Jil*W" 


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Collection  de 
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Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  historlquas 


^^ir 


THE  TUEKOMANS. 


228 


act  of  outing,  drinking,  or  smoking,  to  the  grout  amazcmont  of  the  uninfonnwl 
"  stranger  within  their  gates."  If  the  departed  was  u  famous  wurrior,  u  yokna,  or 
barrow,  is  ruised  over  his  grave.  Every  bravo  of  the  tribe  contributes  at  least  seven 
bushelfuls  of  earth  to  the  mound,  whence  those  hillocks  25  to  30  feet  high  dotted 
over  the  steppe. 

All  the  Turkomans  spoak  closely  related  varieties  of  the  Jagatai  TCkrki  language, 
and  all  are  Sunnito  Mussulmans.  The  most  zealous  arc  probably  those  of  the 
Persian  frontier,  who  find  in  their  pious  hatred  of  the  Shiah  sectaries  a  pretext  for 
their  forays  and  the  hard  fate  they  impose  upon  the  captives.  They  also  claim  the 
right  of  plundering  and  murdering  the  orthodox  Khivaus  and  Bokhariots,  but  only  in 


Fig,  120. — ^Tekkb  Turkoman  Oasis  iv  tub  Atok. 
Scale  1  : 4,200,000. 


SSj^Kiiil-Arva* 


m^ 


3^ 


_^  •'Niai 


»P«ngii-tap« 


■"■■•-       Xl^ 


57 


CO" 


E.ofG. 


,  60M0M. 


virtue  of  the  lex  talionia  calling  upon  them  to  avenge  former  massacres.  So  recently 
as  1830  they  ventured  in  frail  barks  on  the  Caspian,  to  capture  slaves  on  the  Baku 
coast,  and  the  Russian  naval  station  of  Ashu-rade  was  founded  to  check  their 
incursions.  Since  then  their  ships  of  war  have  become  fishing  craft.  Certain 
Persian  districts  have  become  completely  depopulated  by  these  raids,  and  elsewhere 
the  surviving  inhabitants  shut  themselves  up  in  villages  resembling  fortresses, 
where  the  scouts  watch  day  and  night  to  give  the  alarm.  In  more  exposed  places 
towers  are  erected  at  intervals  of  100  paces.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  precautions 
the  number  of  Persians  captured  during  one  century  has  been  estimatcfl  at  a 
million,  and  as  many  as  200,000  slaves  were  at  one  time  in  bondage  in 
Turkestan. 


a.iu.  i".»^w-,w''';i)yH>BuiM-WI',WiMt'.j!4lt4'*' 


224 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


LdeP 


Marauder  by  profession,  the  "  black "  Turkoman  devotes  himself  entirely  to 
this  one  pursuit.  lie  tends  and  trains  his  horse,  his  comrade  in  toil  and  danger, 
leaving  all  other  work  to  the  women  and  slaves.  In  the  saddle  he  "  knows  neither 
father  nor  mother,"  and  his  highest  ambition  is  to  bring  bat-k  captives  to  the  camp. 
AVhen  ho  starts  on  an  alaman,  or  foray,  at  midnight— for  he  loves  darkness  like  the 
beast  of  prey— an  inhan,  or  itinerant  dervish,  never  fails  to  bless  him  and  beg  the 
favour  of  heaven  on  his  noble  enterprise.     All  feeble  or  decrepit  captives  are 

slaughtered,  the  rest   are  chained   in 

Fig.  121.— Abba  OP  THE  Turkoman  Raius  South  OF  gangs  and  driven  away  at  the   point 

KiziL-AuvAT.  of  the  spear.    The  priest  alone  is  spared, 

Scale  1  : 3,320,000.  ,  ,  .       „  .    ,        ,     .  .n   i       i 

lest  his  fate  might  bring  lU-luck  on 
the  freebooters. 

Formerly  most  of  the  prisoners 
were  destined  to  perish  miserably  in 
bondage.  But  many  of  their  sons,  and 
often  the  slaves  themselves,  gradually 
bettered  their  condition  by  their  tact 
or  intelligence,  mostly  far  superior  to 
that  of  their  masters.  After  being  sold 
in  the  Khiva  and  Bokhara  markets, 
many  Persian  cap  ives  succeeded  in 
becoming  traders,  high  officials,  or 
governors  of  districts.  In  the  still 
semi-independent  khanates  to  them  are 
usually  intrusted  the  more  delicate  and 
best-paid  duties.  Although  originally 
Shiah  heretics,  they  soon  conform  to 
the  prevalent  Sunnite  form  of  worship. 
Since  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 
in  the  khanates,  captures  are  now  made 
only  with  a  view  to  their  ransom,  a 
trade  formerly  carried  on  by  some  of 
the  Khorassan  chiefs  themselves,  who 
often  made  handsome  profits  by  the  sale 
of  their  own  subjects. 

Of  late  years  the  raids  have  greatly 
diminished,  owing  mainly  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Russians  on  the  west,  north,  and  north-east,  but  also  partly  to  a  more 
systematic  resistance  on  the  side  of  Persia.  Here  the  Turkomans  now  find  them- 
selves opposed  by  Kurd  colonists  settled  by  the  Persian  Government  in  the  upland 
valleys,  and  who  bravely  defend  their  new  homes.  The  Turkomans,  seeing  them- 
selves thus  hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  are  gradually  obliged  to  turn  from  pillage  to 
farming.  The  Goklans  are  already  mostly  peaceful  agriculturists,  and  cultivate 
the  silkworm  with  success.     Numerous  Tekke  hordes  also  are  now  settled  on  the 


Forts. 


.  60  Maes. 


THE  KARA-KALPAKS  AND  KIBGHIZ. 


226 


iolf  entirely  to 
il  and  dunger, 
knows  neither 
'8  to  the  cump. 
rkness  like  the 
in  and  beg  the 
it  captives  are 
re  chained  in 
f  at  the  point 
alone  is  spared, 
ug  ill-luck  on 

the    prisoners 
miserably  in 

their  sons,  and 
Ives,  gradually 

by  their  tact 
:ar  superior  to 
Lfter  being  sold 
khara  markets, 

succeeded  in 
:h  officials,  or 
In  the  still 
ites  to  them  are 
ore  delicate  and 
ough  originally 
•on  conform  to 
arm  of  worship, 
the  slave  trade 
!s  are  now  made 
;heir  ransom,  a 
on  by  some  of 
beraselves,  who 
ofits  by  the  sale 

Is  have  greatly 
ly  to  the  pro- 
artly  to  a  more 
low  find  them- 
t  in  the  upland 
3,  seeing  them- 
rom  pillage  to 
and  cultivate 
settled  on  the 


land,  and  enlarging  the  domain  of  their  oasis  by  means  of  irrigating  works.  Their 
moral  tone  has  even  improved,  and  in  their  interviews  with  European  travellers 
they  will  warmly  defend  themselves  against  the  charge  of  brigandage.  The 
national  saying,  "  If  marauders  attack  thy  father's  tent,  take  part  in  the  plunder," 
has  lost  all  significance,  and  most  of  the  tribes  easily  pass  from  the  nomad  to  the 
settled  state.  The  cultivation  of  certain  alimentary  plants  is  even  consistent  with 
a  semi-nomad  existence.  To  raise  the  cereal  known  from  them  as  the  Polygonum 
Tartaricum  (sarrasin),  the  Tatars  fire  the  surface  vegetation,  sow  and  reap  within 
two  or  three  months,  and  then  betake  themselves  elsewhere.  The  herdsmen  migrate 
regularly  with  the  seasons  between  the  same  pastures  on  the  Iranian  tableland  and 
in  the  plains,  and  are  thus  in  a  transition  state  between  a  nomad  and  settled  life. 
Hence  the  Russians  expect  to  reduce  the  tribes  of  South  Turkestan  as  they  have 
already  reduced  their  northern  kinsmen,  by  erecting  forts  commanding  their  winter 
camping  grounds.  They  have  also  established  depots  for  provisions  at  certain 
intervals,  and  are  pushing  on  the  line  of  railway  running  from  the  south-east  comer 
of  the  Caspian  towards  Askhabad  and  Merv. 

*  The  horse  and  camel,  inseparable  companions  of  the  nomad  Turkoman,  must 
naturally  diminish  in  numbers,  at  first  through  the  hopeless  struggle  with  the 
Russians,  and  then  through  the  increasing  development  of  agriculture.  Most  of 
the  native  camels  are  of  the  Baktrian  or  dromedary  species,  with  one  hump  only, 
smaller  and  weaker  than  the  Arabian,  but  more  capable  of  enduring  heat.  They 
can  make  24  miles  a  day  under  a  burden  of  400  or  even  600  lbs.  They  move 
untrammelled  about  the  tents,  and  will  occasionally  return  to  the  steppe  for  months 
at  a  time.  The  Turkoman  horses,  a  cross  between  the  Arab  and  the  native  breed, 
although  unshapely,  have  scarcely  their  equals  for  staying  power.  Instances  have 
been  cited  of  600  miles  covered  in  five  or  six  consecutive  days ;  for,  as  the  proverb 
goes,  "One  brigard's  journey  is  bettei*  than  two  of  a  merchant."  These  horses, 
highly  esteemed  by  the  Russian  officers,  have  longer  heads,  narrower  chests,  more 
shaggy  legs  than  the  pure  Arab,  but  they  are  less  affected  by  climate,  hunger,  and 
thirst.  Brought  up  with  the  children  in  the  tent,  and  caressed  by  woman's  hand, 
they  are  remarkably  gentle  and  intelligent,  and  carry  their  heads  well.  The 
Turkoman  horse  is  well  cared  for,  and  he  may  often  be  seen  with  a  warm  felt 
housing  when  the  tent  is  in  shreds  and  the  family  in  rags. 

The  Kara-Kalpaks  and  Kirghiz. 

The  Kara-Kalpaks,  or  •'  Black  Caps,"  form  geographically  the  transition  between 
the  southern  Turkomans  and  northern  Kirghiz.  Survivors  of  a  powerful  nation, 
they  are  still  represented  in  a  fragmentary  way  throughout  a  vast  area — in  the 
Russian  Governments  of  Astrakhan,  Perm,  and  Orenburg,  in  the  Caucasian  province 
of  Kuban,  and  in  Tobolsk,  Siberia.  Scattered  by  forced  or  voluntary  migrations  over 
these  extensive  regions,  they  still  claim  to  belong  originally  to  the  Kharezm.  A 
few  small  groups  are  found  in  the  Zaraf shan  valley,  but  the  bidk  of  the  race  still 
forms  a  compact  body  in  the  humid  plains  of  the  Lower  Oxus,  and  along  the  east 


220 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


K' 


w 


coast  of  the  Aral  Sea.  Hero  they  number  probably  60,000,  and  in  the  whole 
RuMHian  Empire  about  300,000.  On  the  Aral  Sea  the  Black  CapH,  so  named  from 
their  high  8hcep«kiu  head-dres8,  arc  mostly  tall  and  robust,  with  broad  flat  face, 
large  eyes,  short  uose,  prominent  chin,  broad  hands.  Yet  their  women  have  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  beautiful  in  Turkestan.  But  they  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  present  a  distinct  racial  type.  Widely  diffused  as  they  arc  amongst 
different  peoples,  they  seem  to  have  been  diversely  mixed,  and  in  Tatary  they 
blend  imperceptibly  with  the  hybrid  Sartes.  Of  a  gentle,  peaceful  disposition, 
and  devoted  to  agriculture,  they  are  generally  the  butt  of  their  nomad  neigh- 
bours, who  regard  them  as  the  dullest  of  nuinkind.  And  there  are  certainly  some 
grounds  for  this  view,  for  their  expression  lacks  fire,  and  they  generally  look 
stolidly  on  with  open  mouth  and  hanging  lower  lip.  In  a  few  generations  this 
lethargic  race  will  probably  have  ceased  to  exist  as  an  independent  nationality  in 
Turkestan.  :    ':  .  -^  •  ,^  .  - 

The  great  Kirghiz  nation,  numbering  perhaps  2,000,000,  according  to 
Krasovsky  even  3,000,000  souls,  and  whose  domain,  us  largo  as  all  European 
Russia,  stretches  from  the  Lower  Volga  to  the  Tarim  basin,  and  from  the  Oxus 
delta  to  the  Irtish  river,  is  numerically  the  most  important  nomad  race  in  Asia. 
But  it  has  no  ethnical  cohesion,  and  is  split  up  into  endless  subdivisions.  The 
people  compare  themselves  to  the  sea-sands,  scattered  far  and  near  by  the  winds,  but 
never  diminishing  in  numbers.  The  two  main  divisions  of  the  race  answer  to 
the  relief  of  the  land.  In  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob  basins  dwell  the  Kirghiz- 
Kazaks,  by  far  the  more  numerous.  In  the  upland  Tian-shan,  Alui,  and  Pumir 
valleys  roam  the  Burut,  or  Kara- Kirghiz  ("  Black  Kirghiz  "),  called  also  IHko- 
kameunie  Kirghiz},  or  "  Wild  Moimtain  Kirghiz,"  the  "  Block  Kirghiz "  of 
English  writers. 

The  Kirghiz  call  themselves  Kaizaks,  or  Kazaks,  although  the  term  Kirghiz, 
or  rather  Krghiz,  is  not  unknown,  and  interpreted  by  them  to  mean  "Forty 
Girls,"  in  reference  to  their  legendary  descent  from  forty  young  women  and  a 
red  dog.  They  are  divided  into  four  hordes :  the  Great  Horde  (Ulu-Yuz),  the 
oldest,  chiefly  south  of  Lake  Balkash  and  near  the  Tian-shan ;  the  Middle  Horde 
(TJrta-Yuz),  mainly  in  the  low  hilly  region  between  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob 
basins ;  the  Bukeyevskaya,  or  Inner  Horde,  in  the  Orenburg  steppes ;  the  Little 
Horde  (Kachi-Yuz),  stretching  westwards  far  into  European  Russia.  In  spite  of 
its  name  this  horde  is  by  far  the  most  important  in  numbers,  socially  and  politi- 
cally. As  with  the  Turkomans,  the  aoyuz,  or  confederacy,  is  divided  into  secondary 
groups,  and  these  into  clans  and  families  comprising  from  five  to  fifteen  tents  each. 
Each  of  these  aula,  or  little  commurities,  lives  in  absolute  independence,  reluctantly 
acknowledging  the  supreme  control  of  the  Russians,  but  recognising  no  other 
authority  except  that  of  the  heads  of  families  and  the  arbitrators  chosen  by  them- 
selves to  settle  their  differences.  The  Russians  are  satisfied  with  imposing  a  tax 
of  about  five  shillings  per  tent ;  but  they  find  some  difficulty  in  discovering  all 
the  encampments  hid  away  in  the  hollows,  between  sand  dunes,  amongst  the 
reedy  marshes,  or  imder  cover  of  the  forests,  and  the  camping  grounds  they  come 


r>  ;•     .j^ 


1  in  tho  whole 
so  named  from 
broud  flat  fuco, 
omen  have  tlio 
cun  scurcely  be 
}y  arc  amongst 
in  Tatary  they 
eful  disposition, 
r  nomad  neigh- 
certainly  some 
generally  look 
ffonerations  this 
nationality  in 


),  according  to 
,8  all  European 
from  the  Oxus 
ad  race  in  Asia. 
jdivisions.  The 
)y  the  winds,  but 
3  race  answer  to 
ell  the  Kirghiz- 
Alai,  and  Pamir 
called  also  DikO' 
ik    Kirghiz"   of 

18  term  Kirghiz, 
to  mean  "Forty 
ig  women  and  a 
>  (Ulu-Yuz),  the 
le  Middle  Horde 
Caspian  and  Ob 
sppea ;  the  Little 
ssia.  In  spite  of 
cially  and  politi- 
ed  into  secondary 
ifteen  tents  each, 
ience,  reluctantly 
Rising  no  other 
chosen  by  them- 
h  imposing  a  tax 
in  discovering  all 
les,  amongst  the 
■ounds  they  come 


^\ 


^pfm-^~ 


'■-     ... -V 


^*^ 


i 


■■<»,■■>!■, fiwi-  i!i;jui,(HHH  U\L'"'Wm^Wj^*9Mmfy 


r 


f-V-'i-iiiZ-^^r^-^ffe-...  5--,^."':r«^>  .- 


'~--  lii^iiiJi  -^ijl^,''  "'^i- '  4^-' ' 


TUE  KARA-KALPAKS  AND  KUiGIIlZ. 


227 


Fig.  122.— A  Wealthy  Kihqhiz. 


upon  arc  often  found  abandoned  by  the  tribes  mij,'nitin>j  to  and  fro  with  the 
si'iiHonH.  Ilenco  the  official  roturns  are  alwajM  under  the  frutli,  altliough  frewh 
(U'tiiulterH  yearly  eonio  to  li^ht.  In  18U7,  the  first  yeur  of  the  inipont,  1  o.OOO 
IcntM  only  could  be  diHcovcred  in  Orenburfj;,  l)ut  these  hud  incrouHcd  in  1H4()  to 
(}7,280,  and  in  18(W  to  upMards  of  15'>,000.  In  1872  tiie  firHt  census  taken  in 
the  provinces  of  Turgai  ond  Urulsk  returned  (JO.'i.OOO  nonjiids,  and  the  Huke- 
yi^vskayii  horde,  west  of  tho  Ural  llivcr,  is  variously  estimated  ut  from  100,000  to 
over  200,000  souls. 

Deing  without  chiefs,  all  tho  Kirghiz  consider  theniHch"C8  us  more  or  less 
nobles.  When  two  meet  together,  the  first  question  is,  "  Who  are  your  seven 
ancestors  ?  "  and  all,  down  to  tho  children  eight  years  old,  can  repeat  in  reply 
their  genealogies  to  tho  seventh  generution.  Those  on  whom  the  Russians  huve 
conferred  certuin  privileges,  und  whom  they  huve  made  "  sultans,"  without,  how- 
ever, exempting  them  from  tho  poll  tux,  are  surrounded  by  a  riff- raft  of  Teleguts, 
or  refugees,  strangers,  and  slaves,  .forming  bunds  of  armed  retainers  during  the 
fonuer  intestine  wars,  and  who  now  tend 
their  masters'  fiocks  and  till  his  land.  This 
class  is  much  despised  by  the  free  nomads, 
und  is  excluded  from  uU  clanship,  living 
apart  from  tho  tribe  in  sepurute  cumps  with 
their  masters,  who  are  equaly  hated  by  tho 
people.  The  bm,  or  "  elders,"  are  the  judges 
elected  by  the  clan,  to  whom  all  appeal  for 
a  settlement  of  their  disputes.  Each  tribe 
is  distinguished  by  a  particular  rallying 
cry  used  by  the  members  in  their  festive 
and  hostile  gatherings. 

The  Kirghiz  language,  which  is  spoken 
with   great  imifonaity  by   all   the  tribes, 

is  of  pure  Tftrki  stock,  unaffected  by  foreign  influences,  beyond  a  few 
Mongol,  Arab,  and  Persian  words.  In  the  north  Russian  has  already  made  some 
encroachment  on  its  domain,  and  the  Orenburg  Ki  a'z  even  converse  in  this 
language.  But  the  Slav  colonists  have  probably  borrow  d  more  in  their  colloquial 
speech  from  the  nomads  than  these  have  from  their  conquerors.  Of  all  the 
Kirghiz  tribes,  the  Kipchaps  of  the  Middle  Horde  seem  to  have  best  preserved 
their  original  type,  ancient  usages,  and  purity  of  speech.  The  origin  of  the  race 
has  been  much  discussed  by  ethnologists,  some  of  whom  have  even  regarded  them 
as  Aryan  Scythians  like  those  of  the  Euxine  shores.  But  their  most  marked 
affinities  are  now  with  the  Mongols  and  Tatars,  with  whom  they  form  one 
linguistic  group.  They  have  squat  figures,  short  thick  necks,  small  and  oblique 
eyes,  scant  beard,  tawny  or  dirty  brown  complexion.  Obesity  is  conmion  amongst 
the  Orenbiirg  tribes,  and  is  considered  by  the  nobles  as  a  sort  of  distinctive  mark 
enhancing  their  dignity.  They  are  mostly  very  robust,  but  indolent  and  soft 
uncouth,  and  heavy  in  their  carriage,  and  slightly  bandy-legged  from  passing 


N 


\ 


228 


ASIATIC  IIUHSIA. 


half  their  tiino  in  tho  Middle.  Liko  the  Nogiii  TuturH,  tlioy  nro  often  dull  nnd 
morose,  and  few  uiiioiij^Mf  tlicin  luivo  tlic  courtoHy,  heart ini'HM,  mid  ^(HHl-hiiinoiir  ol 
the  Itashlvirs,  or  the  di'tiant  h)ok  of  thu  TurkoniauH.  In  their  HoiigH  the  women 
celebrate  the  iiidoloiieu  of  tlie  men  and  their  own  IalH>rioiiM  life.  AeeuMtonied 
to  rejfular  work,  they  ore  generally  more  grae(>ful  than  the  men,  whom  they  also 
HiirpaHH  in  moral  qualitieH.  Un  feast  days  they  lovo  to  dock  themMelveH  in  lii^^li 
velvet  or  broeaded  capH  adorned  with  plaques  of  metal,  pearln,  and  embroidery, 

und   i>rolong  their  treHtwrn  to 
Fig.  12a.- A  KiiioHiz  Woman.  the     {ground    by    means    of 

ribbouH  and  horsehair.  They 
UHo  rouge  and  other  eosmeticH 
oven  more  freely  than  Euro- 
pean women. 

Tho  steppo  Kirghiz  are 
essentially  nomads,  shifting 
their  quarters  on  the  slightest 
pretext,  a  bad  omen,  a  storm, 
and  tho  liko.  In  1820  most 
of  the  Astrakhan  trilws  left 
their  camping  grounds  in 
order  to  return  to  Asia,  on 
the  simple  report  that  the 
Government  was  preparing 
to  have  their  census  taken. 
Even  tho  "  sultans "  have 
declined  to  occupy  tho  fixed 
dwellings  erected  for  them, 
and  continue  to  live  in  tents, 
locking  up  all  their  valuable 
effects  in  the  houses,  for  all 
alike  feel  that  a  sedentary 
life  in  settled  abodes  would 
eventually  entail  loss  of  freedom.  The  Kirghiz  yurt,  like  those  of  the  Kalmuks  ond 
the  Turkoman  kibitkas,  is  a  simple  framework  of  wood,  covered  with  red  cloth  for 
Bome  of  the  "  sultans,"  with  white  felt  for  the  wealthy,  and  with  ordinary  felt  for 
the  common  folk,  the  very  poor  substituting  for  felt  bark  of  trees,  reed,  or  grass 
matting.  In  half  an  hour  a  whole  adl  has  vanished,  migrating  northwards  in 
summer  and  southwards  in  winter. 

The  Kirghiz-Eazaks  lack  the  warlike  spirit  of  their  Turkoman  kinsmen. 
Nevertheless  they  long  resisted  the  Slav  invaders,  and  even  when  accepting  the 
Czar's  supremacy  in  1734,  they  fancied  they  were  merely  performing  an  idle 
formality.  Hence,  when  they  found  that  the  Russians  meant  it  seriously,  the 
war  was  renewed,  and  lasted  intermittently  for  over  a  century.  A  last  revolt 
took  place  in  1870,  when  they  destroyed  a  Russian  village  and  besieged   Fort 


ro  often  (lull  ami 
I  ^iHHl-liuinour  (li 

HOIIJ^H    tilt'  WOIIK'I 
ifo.        AcCUMtOllH'd 

1,  whom  thoy  also 
loiiiMi'lvoH  ill  \ny;h 
I,  and  fiiihroidcrv, 
(^  tlu'ir  tresHtm  to 
(1  by  mcaim  of 
horsehair.  They 
tid  other  coHmeticH 
freely  than  Enro- 
ll. 

'ppo   Kirghiz  are 
numads,    shifting 
?r8  on  the  slightest 
)ad  onion,  a  storm, 
;o.      In  1H20  most 
raklian  trilws  left 
ping    grounds    in 
etum  to  Asia,  on 
I   report  that   the 
it    was  preparing 
leir  census  taken. 
"  sultans  "     have 
>  occupy  the  fixed 
erected  for  them, 
ue  to  live  in  tents, 
I  all  their  valuable 
the  houses,  for  all 
that  a  sedentary 
tied  abodes  would 
f  the  Kalmuksand 
with  red  cloth  for 
;h  ordinary  felt  for 
rees,  reed,  or  grass 
ing  northwards  in 

iirkoman  kinsmen, 
hen  accepting  the 
erforming  an  idle 
it  it  seriously,  the 
ry.  A  last  revolt 
ihd  besieged   Fort 


^•W" 


r 


L 


Tin:  KARA-KALPAKS  ANf)  KIROHIZ. 


220 


AloxuiiilroVNk.  lint  they  un^  naturally  of  a  {MMict't'itl  ti<iii]H'riitii**tit,  aiul  their 
iM'caNiuiial  bariintdH,  or  ariiuKl  I'orayH,  arc  iiMuully  rt'NtricttMl  tn  li(>rN(>-Nf«<aliii^. 
Tlu'ir  aniiH  uro  chu'fly  umwI  in  tht>  fhnMr,  of  which  tht-y  arr  t'xccHMivfly  f"ii<l, 
<>a^i*rly  piM-Nuin^  tho  Htc|i])(<  wolf,  and  training  the  falcon,  vulture,  unci  cvon 
the  royal  cap;lc  to  capture  the  (|uarry.  Hut  the  cniploynicnt  of  the  cajole  in  not 
uMattcndctI  with  (huif^er,  for  when  they  lone  si^ht  of  the  wolf  or  fox,  these  hinlH 
will  HwtMtp  down  on  their  nuiHt«>r  iuHtead,  ntriking  him  I'rum  the  Muddle,  burying 
their  talouN  in  liiH  HcHh,  and  tearing  out  \m  eyoH. 

The  Ka/akH  cull  themMolvuH  SunnitOH,  but  are  Nueh  HtrangerH  to  idl  fanaticiNtn 
that  they  might  juHt  uh  well  p«»HH  for  ShanuuuMtH  or  pagann.  Sonu)  will  even  tell 
the  in(piiring  traveller  thut  they  do  not  know  to  what  religion  they  behwig. 
They  have  iMHunne  MohumnuHlunH  only  nince  their  contact  with  the  ItunNiaiiH, 
who  have  mainly  contribute<l  to  make  them  foUowcrH  of  the  I'rophet  by  taking 
the  fuct  for  grunte<l.  Still  the  great  bulk  of  the  jH-oplo  remain  what  they  always 
wore,  while  uccopting  the  olumouta  of  tt^rrf  r  from  all  tho  Hurrounding  ndigioiiH. 
Their  MohammodaniHm  consists  chiefly  in  hating  ChriNtiauH  and  the  Shiali 
hereticH,  and  in  Inilioving  thomHolvcH  privileged  to  rob,  plunder,  and  even 
Mlaughtor  them.  Their  religious  pructicx's  have  otherwise  little  to  do  with  tho 
precepts  of  tho  Koran.  They  dread  especially  tho  evil  eye,  and  never  fail  to 
deck  tho  head  of  the  young  camel  in  party-coloured  riblxms  in  order  to  protect  him 
from  evil  influences.  Everything  is  construed  into  an  omen  for  g(M)d  or  evil — 
tho  full  of  a  thread  on  a  black  or  whito  stone,  the  red  or  yellow  hue  of  the  flamo 
from  oil  thrown  on  tho  fire,  and  the  like.  They  endeavour  to  conjure  tho  wicked 
spirits  by  sucrificos  or  tho  offering  of  hair,  rugs  or  ribbons  attached  to  rcuvls, 
bushes  or  stakes  fixed  iu  tho  ground.  In  the  mountuins  they  also  suspMul  shreds 
of  garments  to  tho  branches  of  the  trees  shading  tho  medicinal  springs.  When 
setting  out  on  a  journey  or  warlike  expedition  they  sow  to  tho  buck  of  their  hats 
one  or  two  little  bags  containing  written  prayers,  intended  ut  once  to  give  them 
luck  ond  inspire  them  with  courage. 

Of  all  Mohammedan  practices  polygamy  has  been  most  readily  accepted,  not 
by  tho  masses,  who  are  too  poor  to  pay  numt  than  onco  the  ka/im,  or  price  of  a 
spouse,  but  by  the  wealthy  owners  of  hundreds  and  thousands  of  live  stock.  As 
amongst  most  barbarous  peoples,  the  formality  of  a  shuni  abduction  is  still  kept  up 
here  and  there.  But  girls  are  often  really  carried  off  as  the  prize  of  war.  They  are 
sought  especially  amongst  the  Kalmuks  of  tho  Tian-shan,  for  the  Eazaks  are  by 
tradition  oxogamous,  seeking  alliances  outside  the  tribe  or  race,  a  circumstance 
which  sufficiently  explains  the  striking  physical  resemblance  between  them  and 
their  Mongolian  neighbours.  The  old  customs  associated  with  the  burial  of  the 
dead  are  still  maintained  in  fuU  vigour.  The  mourning  rites,  including  much 
wailing  and  weeping,  are  renewed  on  the  fortieth,  and  again  on  the  himdredth  day 
of  the  funeral,  on  the  first,  and  lastly  on  the  ninth  anniversory.  The  relatives  beat 
their  breasts  and  utter  lamentations  night  and  morning  before  a  "lay  figure" 
(Pressed  in  the  garments  of  the  departed.  The  funeral  moimds  on  the  crests  of  the 
hills,  marked  by  spears  with  horsehair  banners,  are  objects  of  great  respect.     Some 


■**»-S  •wmv^»r^*it:mHfai 


mimfi<frmm^ip^  il^^fltnil^<pijlfriMi't  nM<y'iMf%^H"«W" 


i, 


280 


ASIATIC  fiUSSIA. 


hills  are  entirely  covered  with  pyrnmids,  turrets,  domes,  porticos,  and  other  monu- 
ments in  honour  of  the  deud.  These  monuments  will  sometimes  take  the  form  of 
cradles  for  infants,  or  of  the  tents  in  which  their  parents  lived.  Numerous  barrows 
occur  also  on  the  open  steppe,  one  of  which,  on  the  banks  of  the  Turgai,  is  10() 
feet  high  and  9G6  feet  round.  At  these  places  the  people  make  their  genuflexions, 
offering  clothes,  provisions,  and  money  to  their  departed  friends.  These  gifts  are 
appropriated  by  the  poor  wayfarers  as  presents  from  the  dead;  but  they  are 
themselves  expected  to  make  some  slight  offering  in  return. 

Although  in  the  general  development  of  human  culture  husbandry  is  regarded 
as  an  advance  upon  the  pastoral  state,  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  Kirghiz. 
Amongst  them  the  farm  labourer  is  a  person  fallen  from  a  better  position,  who  has 
lost  all  the  pleasures  of  life  and  freedom.  Most  of  them  are  still  nomads,  and 
those  who  are  compelled,  for  want  of  herds,  to  till  the  land  about  the  Russian  can- 
tonments in  the  second  generation  relinquish  the  name  of  Eazak,  dress  in  the 
Russian  fashion,  and  call  themselves  Christians.  Along  the  outskirts  of  the 
Kirghiz  domain  the  Russian  traders  get  the  natives  into  their  power  by  means  of 
loans  at  exorbitant  rates  of  interest,  and  their  example  finds  faithful  imitators  in 
the  interior  of  the  steppe  amongst  the  "  khans,"  or  wealthy  Kazaks.  Some  of 
these  khans  are  owners  of  hundreds  of  camels,  thousands  of  horses,  and  as  many 
IS  20,000  sheep.  The  homed  cattle  introduced  since  about  1760  are  rather 
loss  numerous,  and  ill  adapted  to  the  climate.  In  1872  the  live  stock  included 
altogether  120,000  camels,  1,720,000  horses,  600,000  oxen,  2,000,000  sheep,  and 
180,000  goats. 

Unacclimatized  animals  perish  from  the  rigoiir  of  the  climate.  The  attempts 
to  introduce  the  Baktrian  dromedary  have  failed,  the  two-humped  camel  alone 
thriving  on  these  steppes.  The  sheep,  all  of  the  fat-tailed  breed,  are  usually  so 
strong  and  tall  that  the  children  amuse  themselves  by  mounting  them.  The  flocks 
are  always  guided  by  a  few  goats,  and  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  before  the 
streams  are  frozen  hard  enough  to  bear  their  weight,  hundreds  sometimes  perish 
in  the  attempt  to  follow  their  light-foo<  "^  leaders.  The  Kirghiz  horse,  though  of 
sorry  appearance,  does  his  50  and  even  60  miles  a  day  at  a  trot,  eats  what  he  can 
pick  up,  sleeps  on  the  sands,  and  resists  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  In  their 
hdigas,  or  races,  the  Kirghiz  and  Kalmuk  jockeys  easily  do  12  miles  in  half  an 
hour,  and  some  riders  have  been  known,  by  relays  of  horses,  to  cover  180  miles  in 
34  hours.  The  finer  breeds,  karaba'ir,  or  "  half  blood,"  and  arganwk,  or  "  full 
blood,"  have  less  staying  powers. 

The  Kara-Kirghiz,  or  Buruts,  numbering  from  350,000  to  400,000  on  both 
slopes  of  the  Tian-shan,  differ  but  slightly  in  tjrpe,  speech,  and  customs  from  their 
steppe  kindred.  Nevertheless  they  are  evidently  more  affected  by  Mongol  influ- 
ences, and  are  not  to  be  distinguished  physically  from  the  Kalmuks.  Most  of 
their  women  are  regarded  by  the  Russians  as  very  ugly.  They  do  not  veil  their 
features,  and  on  gala  days  wear  a  head-dress  like  that  of  their  Turkoman  sisters, 
covered  with  coins  and  medals,  and  making  a  jingling  noise  at  every  step.  Of 
drunken  and  dirty  habits,  they  never  wash,  and  merely  wipe  their  kitchen  utensils 


THE  TARANCHIS  AND  DUNOANS. 


231 


and  other  monu- 
i  tuko  the  form  of 
S^umerous  barrows 
tlic  Turgai,  is  10(5 
their  genuflexions, 
These  gifts  are 
ul;    but  they  arc 

andry  ia  regarded 
with  the  Kirghiz, 
position,  who  has 
still  nomads,  and 
t  the  Russian  can- 
azak,  dress  in  the 

1  outskirts  of  the 
x)wer  by  means  of 
lithful  imitators  in 
Kazaks.  Some  of 
»rse8,  and  as  many 
;  1750  are  rather 
live  stock  included 
)00,000  sheep,  and 

ate.  The  attempts 
rmped  camel  alone 
reed,  are  usually  so 
•  them.  The  flocks 
winter,  before  the 
is  sometimes  perish 
iz  horse,  though  of 
)t,  eats  what  he  can 
md  cold.     In  their 

2  miles  in  half  an 
cover  180  miles  in 
arganyik,  or  "fidl 

0  400,000  on  both 
customs  from  their 

1  by  Mongol  influ- 
lalmuks.  Most  of 
sy  do  not  veil  their 
'  Turkoman  sisters, 
at  every  step.  Of 
3ir  kitchen  utensils 


with  the  finger,  for  fear  of  "  wilfid  waste."  The  Buruts  are  altogether  ruder  and 
more  ignorant  than  the  steppe  Kirghiz,  but  have  the  reputation  of  Iwing  moro 
honest  and  open.  Notwithstanding  their  present  debased  condition  they  seem  to 
have  been  formerly  a  civilised  people,  and  the  Chinese  speak  of  the  "  Ki-si-li- 
tzi "  as  a  powerful  industrious  nation  in  commercial  relations  with  distant  lands. 
But  multitudes  v/ere  swept  south  and  west  by  the  waves  of  migration,  and  those 
who  remained  behind  were  gradually  driven  to  the  upland  valleys.  Then  came 
fhe  Russians,  who  exterminated  all  the  Siberian  steppe  Kirghiz  east  of  the 
Irtish.  Of  their  old  civilisation  they  have  retained  several  industries,  and  they 
can  still  build  windmills,  forge  iron,  and  weave  fine  materials.  Though  lacking 
the  aristocratic  vanity  of  the  Kazaks,  their  manaps,  or  chiefs,  have  acquired  great 
power  in  some  tribes,  disposing  even  of  the  lives  of  their  subjects.  The  memory 
of  their  past  glories  has  not  quite  perished,  and  their  poets  and  improvisntori  still 
sing  of  the  heroes  {batir)  who  pierced  a  thousand  men  at  a  spear's  thrust,  and 
raised  up  the  moimtain  on  which  slumbered  their  bride.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  discover  in  these  songs  the  fragments  of  epic  poems,  and  some  of  their 
invocations  breathe  a  Vedic  spirit. 

"  O,  thou  on  high,  Lord  of  heaven !  thou  who  causest  the  verdure  to  spring 
from  the  ground,  and  the  leaves  from  the  tree ;  thou  who  clothest  the  bones  with 
flesh  and  the  head  with  hair,  heaven,  who  hast  given  birth  to  the  stars ! 

"  You,  rulers  sixty,  who  have  given  us  father,  and  thou,  Pai  Ulguen,  who  hast 
given  us  mother ! 

"  Give  us  cattle,  give  us  bread,  give  a  chief  to  the  house,  give  us  a  blessing !  " 

The  Kara-Kirghiz  are  divided  into  many  tribes.  Those  of  the  west  are 
grouped  under  the  collective  name  of  On,  or  "  Right,"  those  of  the  Tian-shan 
slopes  forming  the  Sol,  or  "  Left "  branch.  The  latter  are  in  close  contact  with 
the  Tian-shan  Kalmuks,  partly  descended  from  those  who  escaped  from  the 
Astrakhan  steppes  in  1771,  and  large  numbers  of  whom  perished  on  the  route. 
Vanquished  by  the  Kirghiz  in  a  battle  fought  south  of  Lake  Balkhash,  the 
Kalmidcs  took  refuge  in  the  Eastern  Tian-shan  vallej's  by  the  side  of  their  kins- 
men, the  Torgs,  or  Torguts,  Buddhists  like  themselves,  and  of  kindred  speech. 
The  Asiatic  Kalmuks  differ  little  from  their  European  brethren.  They  have  the 
same  flat  face,  narrow  oblique  eyes,  pale  lips,  sad  smile,  massive  frame.  The 
women  of  many  tribes  dye  their-  teeth  black.  The  Kalmuks  have  trained  the  ox 
as  a  beast  of  burden  and  for  the  saddle.  No  people  have  suffered  more  from  the 
ravages  of  small-pox.  A  family  attacked  in  winter  is  a  family  lost,  and  should 
any  one  enter  the  tent  imguardedly  he  gets  drunk  on  brandy,  while  his  friends 
drive  the  evil  one  out  of  his  body  with  scourges.  The  Kalmuks  pay  little  heed  to 
the  dead,  seldom  burying  them,  and  usually  leaving  the  bodies  to  be  devoured  by 
the  camp  dogs. 

The  Taeanchis  and  Dungans. 

In  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Hi  the  predominant  people  are  the  Taranchis,  an 
agricultural  nation  of  Tftrki  stock,  but  evidently  largelj'  affected  by  Aryan  elements. 


"••i 


^i.-«it«imT:  ^Hattioi 


988 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


They  are  descended  from  Eashgarian  colonists  settled  here  by  the  Chinese  in  tht- 
middle  of  last  century.  Although  nominal  Mussulmans,  they  have  little  know- 
ledge of  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  and  the  women  never  veil  their  features.  All 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Hi  basin  except  a  few  Russians  came  originally  from  Chineso 
territory  in  the  south  and  east.  The  best  known  are  the  Dungans,  who  dwell 
chiefly  in  the  towns.  The  Solons,  descended  from  military  Tungus  coloniatn 
settled  here  in  the  eighteenth  century,  are  dying  out  from  the  effects  of  opium. 
The  Sibos,  or  Shibos,  who  formed  with  the  Solons  an  army  of  eight "  banners,"  were 
of  pure  Manchu  stock,  but  have  now  become  much  mixed  with  native  elements. 
This  region  of  Eulja  has  in  modem  times  been  the  scene  of  the  most  frightful 
massacres,  often  ending  in  the  extermination  of  whole  races.     In  1758  the  Manchus 

Fig.  124. — Populations  of  tkb  Ili  fiASiM. 
''  Bode  1  :  6,000,000. 


^ 


Ruuiana.      Kirghiz-Kasaki.    Kalmnki.      Knra-Kirgrhiz.      Taranchii. 

.^— .^.—  60  Miles. 


Dungaos.         Kashgarians. 


are  said  to  have  put  to  death  all  the  Kalmuks  of  the  Ili  plain  without  distinctibn 
ol  age  or  sex.  Over  a  million  human  beings  appear  to  have  perished  on  this  occa- 
sion. A  century  afterwards  the  Taranchis  and  Dungans,  introduced  by  the 
Manchus  to  replace  the  Ealmuks,  a  f  mged  on  their  masters  the  blood  they  had 
caused  to  flow.  A  civil  War,  in  wh'ch  no  prisoner  was  spared,  raged  between  the 
colonists  and  their  rulers,  ending  in  1865  with  the  wholesale  massacre  of  the 
Manchus,  Solons,  and  Shibos,  the  young  women  alone  escaping.  PopiUous  cities 
were  changed  to  heaps  of  ruins,  and  according  to  the  native  accounts  nearly 
2,000,000  perished  altogether.  When  the  Taranchi  and  Dungan  rule  succeeded 
to  the  Chinese  no  more  than  130,000  people  remained  in  the  formerly  populous 
valley  of  the  Ili. 


•  wiiMitfurtiuiliWMi  I  iimtfi 


"% 


"^ 


10  Chinese  in  thr 

ave  little  know- 

ir  features.     All 

illy  from  Chinese 

gans,  who  dwell 

Tungus  colonists 

effects  of  opium. 

"  banners,"  were 

native  elements. 

ho  most  frightful 

758  the  Manchus 


THE  UZBEGS. 


The  Uzbegs. 


288 


84* 


Kiubgariaii*. 

'ithout  distinction 
shed  on  this  ocoa- 
itroduced  by  the 
le  blood  they  had 
aged  between  the 
massacre  of  the 
Populous  cities 
I  accounts  nearly 
an  ride  succeeded 
formerly  populous 


Before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  in  the  Sir  and  Amu  basins  the  political 
supremacy  in  the  civilised  states  belonged  to  the  Uzbegs  of  Tfirki  stock,  s^^caking 
the  Jagatui  or  Uigur,  one  of  the  most  polished  languages  of  the  Tatar  family.  But 
of  the  million  Uzbegs  dwelling  in  the  Aralo-Caspian  lands  a  large  portion  are 
certainly  mixed  with  Iranian  elements,  as  shown  by  their  features,  carriage,  and 
character.  From  Ferghana  to  Khiva,  and  thence  to  Afghan  Turkestan,  the  contrast 
between  the  different  tribes  calling  themselves  Uzbegs  is  often  as  great  as  between 
different  races.  The  most  striking  trait  of  those  crossed  with  Persians  is  the  full 
Iranian  beard  associated  with  the  flat 

features  and  oblique  eyes  of  the  T(irki  Fig.  126.— Sahth  Type. 

race. 


The  Uzbegs  claim  descent  from  the 
famous  Golden  Horde,  so  named 
apparently  from  the  gold  leaf  covering 
the  poles  of  the  royal  tent.  But  the 
Mongol  and  Tatar  elements  had  evidently 
long  l)een  intermingled  in  their  race. 
The  famous  Uigurs,  from  whom  they 
take  their  present  speech,  form  probably 
the  chief  Tatar  element  in  the  Uzbeg 
populations  of  the  present  day.  The 
national  name  means  "  freeman,"  imless 
it  comes  from  one  of  their  rulers  of  the 
Jenghis  Khan  dynasty,  by  whom  they 
were  converted  to  Islam  early  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  But  such  as  they 
are,  the  Uzbegs  still  present  a  marked 
contrast,  on  the  one  hand  with  the 
pure  nomads   of  the  country,   on  the 

other  with  the  completely  sedentary  Aryans.  Formerly  more  civilised  and 
agricultural  than  at  present,  they  have  again  partly  returned  to  the  nomad 
slate,  some  even  passing  the  whole  year  in  a  tent  set  up  in  the  garden,  and 
using  their  house  as  a  granary.  Still  divided  into  tribes  and  clans,  some  bearing 
the  same  name  as  those  of  the  Kirghiz,  they  reckon  as  part  of  their  nation  certain 
clans  which  might  equally  be  claimed  by  the  Kara-Kirghiz.  Such  are  the  Turuks,  or 
Tflrks,  of  Ferghana,  possibly  the  near  kinsmen  of  those  of  like  name  who  have  risen 
to  such  historical  importance  farther  west.  Of  all  the  Uzbeg  tribes  the  Manghits, 
to  whom  belong  the  Khans  of  Bokhara,  claim  to  be  the  oldest  and  noblest.  They 
are  zealous  Sunnites,  and  nearly  all  the  "  saints,"  as  well  as  the  brigands,  over 
nine-tenthsof  the  entire  population,  are  Uzbegs.  Yet  the  Mollahs,  or  sacerdotal  class, 
are  nearly  all  Tajiks,  especially  in  the  Zarafshan  district.  Although  the  political 
masters  of  the  country  for  centuries,  the  Uzbegs  have  remained  honest  and  upright 
16 


r 


284 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


compared  with  the  Iranians,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  officials  and  tax-gatherers. 
The  contrast  between  the  character  of  the  two  races  is  illustrated  by  the  legend  of  a 
princess,  who  had  promised  her  hand  to  whoever  of  her  two  suitors  should  dig  an 
irrigation  canal  across  the  Iick-iM)k-dala  steppe.  The  Uzbeg  set  to  work  honestly, 
and  C(mtinued  to  dig  till  he  came  to  a  cascade,  which  is  still  shown.  But  ho  lacked 
the  time  to  finish  the  work.  The  Tajik  took  things  more  easily.  Before  the 
appointed  day  he  had  spread  reed  matting  over  the  surface  of  the  desert,  and  when 
the  princess  ascended  her  tower  to  see  the  waters  of  the  canal  sparkling  in  the 

Fig.  128. — Population  of  Fbhohana. 

Pcale  1  :  8  000,000. 


BuMians. 


Sartes. 


^ 


TTTTT 
111! 


Tajiks      Kara-Kirghiz. 

(OalchaB). 


Sartea  and    TnTkomaDs. 
Uxbegs. 

-_  SWHUei. 


KiTghiz- 
Kozaka. 


distance  he  showed  her  his  work  glittering  in  the  sun.  The  unsuccessful  rival  in 
despair  hurled  his  spade  into  the  air,  and  in  its  fall  the  instrument  cleaved  his  head 
from  his  body. 

The  Sarte.s,  Tajiks,  and  Galchas. 

The  loss  of  political  power  will  probably  tend  to  bring  the  Uzbegs  into  closer 
contact  Avith  the  Sartes,  and  in  some  places  even  blend  them  into  one  nationality. 
The  Sartes  are  a  mixed  people,  in  whom  the  Iranian  element  prevails.  The  term, 
however,  has  a  social  rather  than  an  ethnical  meaning,  all  the  settled  inhabitants 
of  the  towns  and  villages  except  the  cultured  Tajiks  being  called  Sartes,  irre- 
spective of  their  origin.  Some  writers  even  include  the  Tajiks  in  this  class,  which 
would  thus  comprise  all  the  civic  population  of  Turkestan.  "  When  a  stranger 
presents  himself  and  eats  your  bread  call  him  a  Tajik  ;  when  he  is  gone  you  may 


■tllllllllJIIIII.L 


>• 


.^ 


! 


: 


-.T.y)MJWt,ij|W»Hl||i.iMHIH  ■IW^WW*— I 


s;;raliejij»J^-i-jJJill!aw  iMiiJU.iiJM'il'i'WW*'''  im'i  iliiiti  ilni'iililW 


THE  SABTES,  TAJIKS,  AND  OALCHAS. 


285 


call  him  a  Sartc."  Such  is  the  local  etiquette  in  the  matter.  As  soon  as  tho 
Kirghiz  or  Uzbcg  noiniid  settles  in  ii  town  his  children  l)e(!ome  Surtcs.  The  terra 
is  also  applied  to  the  Muzang  or  sedentary  Gipsies,  as  ojjiiosed  to  the  liiili,  or  noniud 
Gipsies,  and  to  tho  Ktirams  of  various  stock — Uzheg,  Kazak,  Kara-Kalpak — settled 
in  tho  neighbourhood  of  Tashkend.  Most  of  the  Ferghana  people  call  themselves 
Kuram,  or  "  confused,"  or  "  mixed,"  so  conscious  are  they  of  their  varied  origin. 
The  language  of  the  Sartes  varies  with  the  locality — Tftrki  in  Ferghana  and  Kulja, 
I'ersian  in  Khojend  and  Samarkand.  Representing  the  mixed  element  in  these 
regions,  the  Sartes  are  increasing  most  rapidly,  and  although  now  despised  by  those 
of  purer  race,  are   destined  ultimately 


Fig.  127.-A  'Sauk.  Mollah. 


Or-'cv,^* 


^\\ 


H 


W' 


to  prevail.  Tho  Kirghiz,  making  a  play 
of  words  with  their  name,  call  them 
Sarf-it,  or  "  Yellow  Dogs,"  and  would 
feel  dishonoured  by  an  alliance  with 
them.  They  have  a  general  resemblance 
to  tho  Jews  in  character,  and  even  in 
features,  and  fully  deserve  their  name, 
if  it  really  means  "  broker,"  although, 
according  to  Lerch,  it  has  simply  the 
sense  of  "  citizen."  Like  the  Jews,  also, 
they  are  fond  of  instruction,  and  are 
far  more  enlightened  than  the  Uzbegs. 
They  are  gradually  turning  to  agricul- 
ture and  reclaiming  the  uplands,  and, 
according  to  Fedchenko,  their  colonies 
thrive  best. 

The  Aryan  race  is  represented  in 
Turkestan  mainly  by  the  Tajiks,  kinsmen 
of  those  who,  under  the  name  of  Tates, 
dwell  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Caspian. 
The  word  Tajik,  meaning  "Crowned," 
seems  to  show  that  when  so  named  the  race 
held  the  political  supremacy.  It  still 
belongs  to  them  from  the  economic  point 

of  view,  for  most  of  the  merchants,  bankers,  and  landed  proprietors  belong  to  this 
class.  In  several  districts  they  call  tliemselves  Parsivan — that  is,  Persians  ;  and  they 
are  really  Iranians,  differing  but  slightly  from  those  of  Persia,  and  even  their  speech 
is  but  little  affected  by  TArki,  Arabic,  or  Mongol  elements.  Nevertheless  their 
frame  is  somewhat  more  massive  than  t  hat  of  the  Persian  proper,  while  the  type  of 
features  remains  much  the  same.  They  have  a  long  head  and  high  brow,  expressive 
eyes  shaded  by  dark  eyebrows,  finely  chiselled  nose,  florid  complexion,  full  brown 
hair  and  beard.  Those  of  the  Upper  Oxus  valley  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to 
the  Kashmirians.  The  Tajiks  form  evidently  the  intellectual  aristocracy  of 
Turkestan,  where  aU  who  pride  themselves  on  polite  manners  endeavour  to  imitate 


286 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


tlioir  speech.  But  beneath  the  exterior  culture  are  conoiilod  many  social  vices — 
avarice,  rapacity,  painWiiif?,  and  licentious  morals. 

The  Galchas,  ajj^riciiltural  highlandors  on  the  western  HlopoH  of  the  I'aniir,  in 
Kohistan,  Wakhun,  Kuriteghin,  Hhignun,  Durvaz,  and  Jiadakshun,  arc  alHo  oi' 
Iranian  Htoek,  but  of  i  purer  type  than  the  Tajiks.  Their  chiefs  claim  descent  from 
Alexander,  and  the  people  from  the  armies  of  the  Macedonian  king,  and  they  are 
note<I  especially  foT  their  broad  head,  the  delicacy  and  beauty  of  their  slightly 
arched  nose,  and  firm  lips.  Do  Ujfalvy  has  met  with  some  closely  resembling  the 
Celtic  peasantry  of  Savoy.  Of  the  five  Kohistan  tribes  four  are  able  to  converse 
together,  while  the  fifth,  the  Yagnaubs  of  the  Yagnaub  valley,  have  a  distinct 
Aryan  speech,  unintelligible  to  the  others.  The  Galchas  contrast  favourably 
with  the  Sartcs  and  Tajiks  in  their  simple  habits  and  upright  character.  Amongst 
them  hospitality  is  a  sacred  duty,  and  every  village  contains  a  house  reserved  for 
strangers.  Slavery  has  never  existed  in  any  Galcha  land,  where  all  are  alike  free 
and  in  the  enjoyment  of  self-government.  Although  polygamy  is  authorised  by 
their  religion,  they  seldom  have  more  than  one  wife.  Still  women  are  not  con- 
sidered the  equals  of  the  men,  and  of  the  inheritance  the  sons  take  two-thirds,  the 
daughters  one-third  only. 

The  Tajik  Mussulmans  of  Upper  Turkestan  have  preserved  some  traces  of  the 
old  fire-worship,  and  it  was  probably  through  them  that  certain  practices  associated 
with  this  cult  have  been  propagated  to  the  extremities  of  Siberia.  During  the  feast 
of  the  fire  or  sun  bonfires  are  kindled  like  those  of  the  Bal-tinne  in  Ireland, 
supposed,  like  them,  to  purify  all  passing  through  the  flames.  The  sick  make  the 
round  of  the  fire  and  pass  over  it  thrice,  and  when  too  weak  to  do  this  they  fix  their 
gaze  on  the  flames  while  being  exorcised.  Amongst  most  of  the  Galchas  lights  must 
not  be  blown  out,  and  torches  are  kept  burning  round  the  cradle  of  the  new-bom  and 
the  couch  of  the  dying.  Here  and  there  along  the  banks  of  the  Panja,  or  southern 
branch  of  the  Upper  Oxus,  are  still  to  be  seen  certain  towers  attributed  to  the 
Zarddshti,  or  Fire-worshippers. 

To  the  numerous  races  of  this  region  have  recently  been  added  some  Great 
Russians,  Little  Russians,  Poles,  and  other  Slavs.  Though  numbering  scarcely  a 
tenth  of  the  population,  the  political  supremacy  of  their  race  secures  for  them  an 
influence  out  of  all  proportion  with  their  numbers.  Yet,  apart  from  the  military 
element,  the  Russian  colonists  proper  have  hitherto  played  a  very  subordinate  part 
in  the  development  of  the  land.  The  Cossacks  have  even  become  more  assimilated 
to  the  Kirghiz  than  these  to  their  conquerors.  In  many  places  they  have  adopted 
the  dress  and  habits  of  the  natives,  even  dwelling  like  them  in  tents. 

Nevertheless  the  Russiflcation  of  these  races  has  already  beg^n  at  certain  points, 
usually  the  farthest  removed  from  Europe.  To  the  Cossack  soldiery  occupying 
isolated  stanitzas  in  the  Tian-shon  highlands  have  here  and  there  succeeded  free 
colonists  engaged  in  reclaiming  the  land.  A  peasant  from  the  centre  of  Russia, 
sent  in  1865  by  his  commune  to  explore  the  Issik-kid  districts,  settled  there,  and 
in  two  years  was  joined  by  a  hundred  others.  Since  then  fresh  colonies  have  been 
estiiblished  in  the  Tian-shan  valleys,  and  the  work  of  tho  plimdering  Cossacks  has 


!§MW«i|««(«M^ 


DAKTllIANA,  OR  AFGHAN  TURKESTAN. 


207 


y  Hocial  viccs- 

tho  l*umir,  in 
un,  ure  hIho  of 
iin  descent  from 
<;,  uiul  they  lire 

their  slightly 
rcHombling  the 
ublc  to  converne 
have  a  distinct 
rust  favourably 
actor.  Amongst 
U80  rescrvwl  for 
ill  arc  uliko  free 
is  authorised  by 
on  are  not  con- 

0  two- thirds,  the 

)mo  traces  of  the 
■uctices  associated 
During  the  feast 
inne  in  Ireland, 
he  sick  make  the 
this  they  fix  their 
dchas  lights  must 
the  new-born  and 
'anja,  or  southern 
attributed  to  the 

ided  some  Great 
bering  scarcely  a 
sures  for  them  an 
from  the  military 
r  subordinate  part 
)  more  assimilated 
hey  have  adopted 
ats. 

1  at  certain  points, 
jldiery  occupying 
ire  succeeded  free 

centre  of  Russia, 
settled  there,  and 
colonies  have  been 
ring  Cossacks  has 


now  been  replaced  by  a  systematic  cultivation  of  the  soil,  (i  roups  of  Russian 
Hi'ttlors  ure  spreading  regularly  l)etween  the  Irtish  and  Narin  valleys,  and  this  line 
,/ill  doubtless  be  soon  extendetl  through  Ferghana  towards  the  Western  I'uniir 
valleys.  The  Russians  already  fonn,  from  Caueasiu  to  the  Urals  and  thence  to  the 
Tian-shan,  a  complete  seniieirele  round  the  Turkestan  populations,  and  this  zone 
grows  yearly  broader  and  longer.  Kirghiz  and  Turkomans,  Uzbegs,  Sartes,  and 
Tajiks,  enclosed  within  the  compass  of  the  advancing  Slav  {mpulations,  nnist  sooner 
or  later  undergo  the  fate  of  the  Kazan  Tatars,  Chuvashes,  and  Mordvinians  of  the 
Volga. 

'         *       VII.— STATES  OF  THE  ARALO-CASPIAN  BASIN. 

I.— BAKTRIANA,  OB  AFQIIAN  TURKESTAN. 

The  states  or  provinces  of  this  region  can  have  no  well-defined  frontiers.  A 
plateau  on  the  oust,  highlands  on  the  south  and  western  deserts  form  their  natural 
limits,  and  these  limits  advance  or  recede  with  the  abundance  of  the  snows,  the 
rich  pastures,  the  progress  of  irrigation,  the  encroachments  of  the  sands.  F'or  a 
portion  only  of  its  course  the  Oxus  servos  as  northern  frontier  to  these  Turkestan 
districts,  hero  separating  them  from  Bokhara.  Of  the  populations  of  the  Western 
I'umir  those  in  the  north  are  regarded  us  gravitating  towards  Bokhara,  those  in  the 
south  towards  Afghanistan.  But  above  these  minor  states  there  is  already  cast  the 
double  shadow  of  the  rival  powers  aiming  at  the  supremacy  in  Asia.  Behind 
Bokhara  looms  Russia,  already  mistress  of  that  land ;  beyond  Afghanistan,  England 
reigns  supreme  over  the  Indian  peninsula,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  intermediate 
region,  although  still  enjoying  a  semi-independent  status,  feel  none  the  less  that 
their  future  destiny  is  involved  in  the  rivalry  of  these  two  powers.  The  diplomatic 
negotiations  between  London  and  St.  Petersburg  had  in  1872-3  provisionally 
arranged  that  the  northern  limits  of  Afghanistan  should  include  north  of  the 
natural  frontiers  formed  by  the  Hindu-Kush  and  its  western  extensions,  the  districts 
of  Wakhan,  Badakshan,  Kunduz,  Khulm,  Balk,  and  Maimene.  The  two  states 
thus  disposed  of  territories  and  peoples  seldom  even  visited  by  European  travellers, 
and  still  but  partially  explored.  While  seizing  the  strategic  points  in  Afghanistan 
near  the  Indian  frontier,  England  naturally  seeks  to  extend  this  state  northwards, 
and  thus  so  far  reduce  the  future  domain  of  Russia.  But  Russia  herself,  pending 
the  complete  conquest  and  assimilation  of  the  already-acquired  possessions,  can 
afford  to  wait.  Geographically  the  Upper  Oxua  and  all  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Iranian  and  Afghan  plateau  belong  to  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin,  and  the  growing 
influence  of  the  Slav  power  cannot  fail  sooner  or  later  to  unite  in  a  single  political 
group  the  various  parts  of  this  vast  region.  During  several  months  of  the  year 
Afghan  Turkestan  is  completely  cut  off  from  Afghanistan  proper,  and  thus  remains 
exposed  to  the  free  advance  of  the  Russian  arms. 

The  historical  importance  of  this  region  is  well  known.  Here  are,  west  of  the 
immense  semicircle  of  highlands  and  plateaux  enclosing  the  Chinese  Empire,  the 
first  depressions  affording  a  passage  over  the  great  "  divide  "  between  the  north  and 


288 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Houtli  of  tho  continent.  Hero  punhihI  pil^rituN,  trudiTM,  migratory  tril)t'H,  und  con- 
(|uci'tng  annit'H.  Hero  converged  tho  variouH  oiviliHiitionM,  with  their  religions, 
cuHtonjH,  und  pr(Klu(!tH.  Here  eroHned  tho  great  highwaj'H  of  tho  AHiatiu  nations,  all 
tho  inoro  important  at  a  time  when  tho  ocean  highways  were  still  unavailahU*  for 
tho  eommerco  of  tho  world.  Tho  routes  connecting  the  Oxiis  and  Indus  valleys 
httvo  further  tho  inmiense  advantage  over  those  between  Turkestan  and  Persia  that 
they  nearly  everywhere  traverse  cultivated  and  inhubitod  lands,  and  avoid  tho  great 
waterless  deserts.  Hence  largo  und  opulent  cities  could  not  fail  to  sjjring  up  along 
tho  lino  of  those  main  continental  routes.  Here  havo  reigned  mighty  rulers  wh«)Ne 
estates  havo  stretched  from  tho  shores  of  tho  Indian  Ocean  to  the  Hibcritm  plains, 
and  whoso  capitals  counted  their  inhabitants  by  hundreds  of  thousands.  A  rich 
harvest  of  discoveries  may  bo  anticipated  iu  theso  Asiatic  lands,  destined  possibly 
to  throw  light  on  many  doubtful  points  in  tho  world's  history.  And  in  this  centre 
of  gravity  of  tho  whole  continent  rather  than  at  Consfamtinoplo  may  we  not  expect 
to  BOO  ultimately  solved  tho  great  problem  of  political  equilibrium  between  Europe 
and  Asia  known  as  tho  "  Eastern  Question  ?  " 

•  Wakhan. 

In  tho  Oxus  basin  tho  easternmost  state  is  Wakhan,  which  is  travorsetl  by  tho 
Panja,  or  Surkad,  the  southern  branch  of  the  Amu,  for  a  distance  of  150  miles  from 
its  source  on  tho  Littlo  Pamir  to  tho  great  bend  of  Ishkushim.  But  this  extensive 
tract  is  so  elevated,  cold,  and  unproductive,  that  it  is  tminhabituble  except  in  the 
sheltered  spots  along  the  river  banks.  The  lowest  hamlot  is  no  less  than  9,000,  and 
Surkad,  tho  highest,  12,000  feet  above  sea-level.  A  few  scattered  dwellings  rising 
still  higher  are  occupied  in  summer.  The  only  trees  growing  in  these  uplands  are 
willows  and  dwarf  shrubs,  and  nothing  is  cultivated  except  pulse  and  barley.  Fat- 
tailed  sheep,  however,  besides  yaks  and  other  homed  cattle,  are  reared,  and  the 
people  take  pleasure  in  the  pursuit  of  the  wild  goat,  deer,  Oviapoli,  and  in  falconry. 

The  Wakhi  people  are  of  mixed  Tajik  and  Uzbeg  stock,  speaking  both  a  Tftrki 
dialect,  which  is  their  mother  tongue,  and  Persian  with  strangers.  Many  of  them 
are  of  a  handsome  type,  with  the  delicate  features  of  the  Iranians,  nor  are  light  hair 
and  blue  eyes  by  any  means  rare  amongst  them.  All  are  devout  Shiite  Mussulmans, 
sending  their  tithes  regularly  to  their  spiritual  head  at  Bombay,  though  still  retaining 
traces  of  tho  old  fire-worship  and  of  customs  distinguishing  them  from  other 
Mohammedans.  They  show  greater  respect  than  most  Eastern  peoples  towards 
their  women,  and  the  wife  generally  takes  charge  of  the  household  expenditure. 

Forsyth  estimates  the  population  at  about  3,000,  which  corresponds  with  a  Russian 
document,  according  to  which  there  are  altogether  650  dwellings  in  Wakhan.  The 
country  is  said  to  have  been  formerly  much  more  populous,  and  even  recently 
Wakhi  colonists  have  settled  in  Sirakol  and  Kashgaria.  But  the  importance  of 
Wakhan  is  obviously  due,  not  to  its  inhabitants,  but  to  its  geographical  position  on 
the  main  route  between  the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Tarim  basins.  Through  this  valley 
lies  the  easiest  approach  to  the  Pamir,  followed  of  late  years  by  Wood,  Forsyth, 
Gordon,  and  others,  probably  in  the  footsteps  of  Marco  Polo.     Comparatively  easy 


'  ".'-''jitJSiffBPiSHf  f.'tw-  'ffyj^.'t))^  or^WBaiwi'WWi^-  ■^nt'iW'^iwi 


•MiMaHaiiMaiMMMiiM^^ 


trilR'H,  uiid  con- 
thoir  rt'lijfiotiH, 
lit  it;  imtioiiK,  all 
uiiavtiilablc  for 
I  IiuluH  vullcys 
und  Pcmu  that 
uvoid  the  great 
spring  wp  along 
ty  rulers  whose 
Siberian  ])lainM, 
iHuudH.  A  rich 
cstincd  possibly 
id  in  this  centre 
y  we  not  expect 
Ixitween  Europe 


traversed  by  the 
f  150  miles  from 
at  this  extensive 
le  except  in  the 
than  9,000,  and 
dwellings  rising 
hcse  uplands  are 
ad  barley.  Fat- 
reared,  ond  the 
and  in  falconry, 
ng  both  a  T(^rki 
Many  of  them 
lor  are  light  hair 
iite  Mussulmans, 
gh  still  retaining 
hem  from  other 
peoples  towards 
expenditure, 
ds  with  a  Russian 
iWakhan.  The 
id  even  recently 
he  importance  of 
thical  position  on 
•ough  this  valley 
Wood,  Forsyth, 
mparatively  easy 


,  used  throughout  the  year  by  the  Kirghiz  and  native..  Kuul  m.uthwanlH  a.r«,ss 
indu-K.mh  to  Chitral  and  Kanjud;  that  is,  to  the  UpiH-r  Indus  basin.     To 


protect  the  caravan  trade  from  pillage,  strongholds  have  been  erected  in  this  desolate 
Sarhad  valley,  and  two  well-preserved  towers  are  still  standing  at  Kila-panja,  or 


240 


ASUTIC  nussiA. 


tho  "  Kivp  FortH,"  u  fi>w  milfn  1n>1ow  tlio  junction  of  tl»o  two  HtrouiiiN  fnnii  the 
Great  iiiul  Littli<  I'lmiir.  Hrro  nmidoH  tlir  Mir  of  Wiikhmi,  who,  Kkc  ull  tho  other 
fhiefM  of  thin  region,  chiiiiiH  (low.<oiit  iwu\  Ah'xuinlcr  the  (jlreat.  Wlieii  VVchmI 
viMited  the  country  in  IH.'JH  it  wuh  pruuticully  indciHMuU'ut  of  IliKhikHhan,  u  triliutary 
of  Afj^IumiMtan.  Meforc  IH7;J  tho  yearly  trihutc  cttUHiHteil  of  nhivcM,,  ^cnerully 
obtained  l)y  horcU'r  raidM.  Tho  conntant  warfare  renultin)^  from  thin  HyMteni  cxphiinN 
thu  (h<iH>i>uhition  of  tlic  hind  and  the  mditudo  of  tho  rumir  paHturuM,  foriuurly  much 
freiiucuted  by  tho  Kirghii;  nomads  iu  Bummcr. 

Uadakshan. 

Since  IMflf)  UadakHhan  huH  boon  dopendunt  on  Afj^lumiMtan,  sending  it  u  yearly 
tril)ute  of  alM)ut  £7,200  and  500  horHCs.  Jlut  its  geographical  limits  are  ho  clearly 
dctiiuHl  that  this  stuto  cannot  fail  to  retain  a  certain  {Mditiual  importuneu.  It  is 
separated  from  Chitral  and  Kafiristan  by  tho  Hindu-Kush,  horo  crossed  by  foot 
pusses  only,  at  elevations  of  over  10,000  feet  above  tho  sea.  Tho  area  of  liadakshan 
is  estimatwl  at  ulx)ut  8,000  sipuire  miles,  and  its  jMipulation  at  150, 000,  concontratetl 
mostly  in  tho  lower  valleys  sloping  gently  towards  tho  Oxus.  Tho  IJudukshani 
are  nearly  all  Tajiks,  Persian  in  sixxKsh,  luid  Sunnites  in  religion.  A  few  Uzliegs  and 
other  T&rki  peoples  have  settled  in  tho  interior,  but  on  the  whole  the  ruuo  has 
preserved  the  purity  of  its  fine  Iranian  t}^^. 

Badakshan  is  divided  naturally  into  two  parts,  an  eastern  Beotion,  bordering  on 
Wakhan  and  traversed  by  the  Panja,  here  trending  northwards,  ond  a  western, 
watered  by  the  Eokcha,  or  Euchka,  i.e.  "  Green  "  River,  flowing  to  the  Middle  Oxus, 
Soutliwards  runs  the  crest  of  the  Ilindu-Eush,  crossed  by  the  Nuskan  Pass  (17,000 
feet)  and  the  somewhat  easier  Dora  Pass  (16,000  feet).  The  two  natural  divisions  of 
tho  country  are  separated  by  on  elevated  spur  of  tho  Ilindu-Eush  running"  northwards 
to  tho  higli  plateaux  skirted  by  tho  Oxus.  This  ridge  is  usually  crossed  by  a 
difficult  pass  over  11,000  feet  high,  connecting  the  Eokcha  and  Panja  valleys,  often 
blocked  by  snow,  and  from  tho  ond  of  autumn  to  the  middle  of  spring  exposed  to 
the  fierce  cast  or  "  Wakhan  "  wind.  The  chief  centre  of  population  in  ♦his  region 
is  the  village  of  Ishkashim,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Panja,  where  it  turns  north- 
wards to  Shignan  and  Boshan.  Ishkashim  thus  lies  at  tho  intersection  of  the 
natural  routes  running  east  and  west  and  north  and  south,  and  acquires  additional 
imiMjrtance  from  the  famous  ruby  mines  situated  19  miles  farther  down  the  river. 
These  gems,  the  more  highly  prized  of  which  ore  of  a  fine  rose-red  tint,  were 
formerly  known  as  bolos,  or  bolois  rubies,  a  word  derived  from  Bolokshon,  o  corrupt 
form  of  Badakshan.  The  Emir  of  Eunduz,  having  acquired  possession  of  the 
mines  by  conquest,  and  being  dissatisfied  with  the  yield,  seized  all  the  inhobitonts, 
and  sold  them,  to  the  number  of  five  hundred  families,  into  bondage.  When  Wood 
visited  the  district  it  was  still  almost  deserted  and  the  mines  abandoned.  But  the 
works  have  since  been  resumed  for  the  benefit  of  the  Amir  of  Afghoniston. 

South  Badakshan  olso  possesses  mines  famous  throughout  the  East,  the 
turquoise  and  lapis  lazuli  deposits  in  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Hindu-Eush,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Eokcha,  in  the  Lojurd,  or  Lazurd  district,  whence  the  terms 


rraiiiH  from  tin 
ki>  till  flit*  otlicr 
W'hoii  NVcmmI 
liaii,  u  trilmtary 
uvoM,  ffctiorully 
HyHtcin  cxpliiiiiH 
,  furinurly  mucli 


ling  it  tt  ytMirly 
itM  uro  BO  floarly 

mrtuncu.     It  Ih 

croHMxl  by  f(M)t 
ou  of  ItudukHlian 
lOO,  conccntratod 
Tho  liadukHliani 

fuw  UzlK^gN  and 
lolo  the  ruuo  hua 

on,  bordering  on 
,  and  a  wostom, 
ho  Middle  OxuH. 
can  ru88  (17,000 
tural  diviaionis  of 
ining*  northwards 
Uy  crossed  by  a 
aja  valleys,  often 
priug  exposed  to 
on  in  ^his  region 
•e  it  turns  north- 
tersection  of  the 
quires  additional 
r  down  the  river, 
se-red  tint,  were 
ikshan,  a  corrupt 
wssession  of  tho 
.  the  inhabitants, 
3.  When  "Wood 
doned.  But  the 
tonistan. 

the  East,  the 
iindu-Kush,  near 
hence  the  terms 


248 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Kokcha  basin,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  Asia  for  its  mineral  wealth,  is  usually 
known  by  the  name  of  Ilamali-kan,  or  "All  Mines,"  for  it  also  contains  rich 
cojjper,  lead,  alum,  sulphur,  and  iron  deposits,  which  have  been  worked  from 
the  remotest  times.  Copper  and  lead  are  likewise  found  in  the  mountains  farther 
north,  and  in  the  IIoja-Mohammed  chain,  stretching  northwards  to  the  great  bend 
of  the  Oxus.  Several  of  the  mountain  torrents  also  wash  down  gold  dust.  Thanks 
to  these  resources  and  to  the  influence  of  the  Greek  artists  of  the  Hellenic  period 
in  Baktriana,  the  Badakshani  ha^o  become  the  best  mefal-workers  in  the  East. 

Badakshan  is  also  exceptionally  favoured  by  its  healthy  climate,  the  purity  of 
its  waters,  its  leafy  vegetation  and  fertile  valleys.  Its  apples,  peaches,  grapes,  and 
melons  are  famous  in  all  the  surrounding  lands.  Its  horses,  too,  are  highly  prized 
by  the  Afghan  Government  for  their  strength  and  sure-footedness,  while  its  sheep 


Fig.  130.— Badakshan  and  Kunduz. 

Scale  1  : 8,600,000. 


.eoliflei. 


supply  a  portion  of  the  wool  used  in  weaving  the  wonderful  Kashmir  shawls. 
Herds  of  swine  also  abound  in  the  less  populous  districts;  yet  with  all  these 
resources  the  people  remain  mostly  miserably  poor,  owing  largely  to  the  still 
prevalent  feudal  system,  the  devastating  wars,  the  raids  of  the  Kunduz  Uzbegs, 
and  the  heavy  taxes  of  the  Amir  of  Kabul,  aggravated  by  his  local  vassal.  Till 
recently  these  princes  were  engaged  in  the  slave  trade,  seizing  even  travellers 
passing  through  the  country.  Theoretically  "  infidels  "  alone  covld  be  enslaved,  but 
under  this  term  were  included  the  Shiah  heretics,  and  many  good  Sunnites  were  often 
compelled  by  torture  to  confess  themselves  followers  of  Ali.  However,  the  exigencies 
of  trade  relieved  the  Hindki  and  Jewish  merchants  from  the  risk  of  capture. 

In  spite  of  wars,  oppression,  and  slavery,  the  Badakshan  Tajiks  are  described 
in  flattering  terras  by  the  few  travellers  that  have  visited  the  land.  They  are 
generally  courteous,  respectful  to  their  elders,  and  upright.    The  women,  often  of 


MUM 


r 


BADAKSHAN. 


248 


voulth,  18  usually 
8o  contains  rich 
en  worked  from 
ountains  farther 
o  the  great  bend 
d  dust.  Thanks 
)  Hellenic  period 
in  the  East, 
te,  the  purity  of 
ches,  grapes,  and 
re  highly  prized 
i,  while  its  sheep 


Kashmir  shawls. 
it  with  all  these 
gely  to  the  still 
Kundiiz  Uzbegs, 
iocal  vassal.  Till 
^  even  travellers 
i  be  enslaved,  but 
innites  were  often 
rer,  the  exigencies 
of  capture. 
iks  are  described 
land.  They  are 
;  women,  often  of 


a  very  fair  type,  are  attractive,  industrious,  good  housewives,  and  although 
Mohammedans,  the  poorer,  at  least,  amongst  them  are  not  obliged  to  go  about 
veiled,  and  enjoy  free  intercourse  with  their  friends. 

In  Wood's  time  the  capital  of  Badukshun  was  Jflnn,  or  Jerm,  a  gi-oup  of 
scattered  hamlets  with  over  1,500  inhabitants.     Faizabad,  the  old  capital,  sonjo 
30  miles  to  the  north-west,  and  also  in  the  Kokcha  valley,  was  then  a  mere  heap  of 
ruins,  with  the  walls  of  a  fortress 
still  standing  on  a  bluff  on  the  left  ^^«-  131— Bam.an  Pass  am,  Kundvz  Route. 

.  T-i    .      ,       1      1  ^"^  1  =  2,500,000. 

bank  of  the  river.  Faizabad  has 
somewhat  revived  since  it  has  again 
become  the  capital,  yet  in  1866  it 
had  only  four  hundred  houses.  The 
comitry  suffered  much  from  the 
invasion  of  the  Kunduzi  in  1829, 
and  in  1832  an  earthquake  destroyed 
most  of  the  villages.  Packs  of  wolves 
replaced  the  population  of  many 
districts,  and  travellers  did  not 
venture  to  cross  tho  land  without 
escorts. 

The  site  is  still  unknown  of  the 
city  of  Badakshan,  at  one  time  the 
capital  of  the  state,  and  often 
wrongly  identified  with  Faizabad. 
It  stood,  probably,  farther  east  in 
the  Dasht-i-baharak  plain,  about  the 
confluence  of  the  three  rivers,  Zardeo, 
Sarghilan,  and  A'^ardoj,  or  Badak- 
shan. Here  is,  at  present,  a  summer 
residence  of  the  emir.  In  the 
western  division  of  the  country  rises 
a  magnificent  peak  south  of  the 
town  of  Meshed,  and  known  as  the 


*V       ''^^^^f^w*S^i^mS^^vm''^^^^^^i^'" 

57 

57 

'<V>7  %-;,'-^:^>f~^W^Mf'^'^  ^^VAgHi 

' '  jl'^^I^Ss  ^^^m 

''-^tllv^^'li'-'            .^^-'■-    d      ■r      '  k--V'i'-'i*-'''' 

•      ■  "        .•"■■•r'j  ,'v'"'r_. 

S5 

jb 

' 

EOf  G.                   68!                                                        69- 

i  80  Miles. 


Takht-i-Suliman,     or     "  Soliman's 

Throne,"  so  called  from  a  king  who, 

according  to  the  legend,  took  refuge 

here  from  the  scorpions  of  the  plain. 

A  chain  of  hands,  reaching  from  the 

base  to  the  summit  of  the  moimtain, 

passed  his  food  up  ;  but  the  scorpions  were  not  to  be  done,  for  one  of  them,  concealing 

himself  in  a  bunch  of  grapes,  was  passed  up  also,  and  thus  contrived  to  inflict  the 

deadly  sting. 

The  present  capital  lies  too  much  in  the  heart  of  the  mountains  to  become 
a  large  trading-place.     Rustak,  rendezvous  of  the  Hindki,  Afghan,  and  Bokhara 


■'*??»!-■ 


244 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


i 


Fig,  132.— Ruins  op  Balxh  ami  MAZAR-i-gHsutp. 

Scilo  1  : 1,900,000. 


mercbuuts,  is  better  situated  on  the  pluiii,  some  25  miles  east  of  tbe  Kokcha  and 
Oxus  confluence,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  Kasbgar,  Cbitrol,  £alkb,  and  Hissar 
caravan  routes.  «  '■        '. 

-^  KUNDUZ   AND   BaMIAN. 

West  of  Badaksban,  tbe  region  comprised  between  tbe  Oxus  and  tbe  continua- 
tion of  tbe  Ilindu-Eusb  depend  i3  also  on  Afghanistan  politically,  but  a  sharp 
contrast  still  exists  between  the  populations  of  both  slopes.  The  comparatively 
easy  passes  connecting  the  Oxus  and  Indus  basins   have  ot  all  times  attracted 

divers  races  towards  Baktriana. 
Through  this  route  tbq  Aryan  invaders 
passed  in  prehistoric  times  towards 
India.  Alexander  also  crossed  the 
Paropamisus,  or  Indian  Caucasus,  to 
annex  Sogdiana  to  bis  empire.  Tbe 
Mongols  and  kindred  races  followed 
the  same  road  from  the  north,  and  in 
subsequent  times  retraced  their  steps 
through  these  passes  from  the  south. 
Hero  tbe  Afghan  Iranians  have  retained 
tbe  predominance;  but  in  the  north 
the  Uzbeg  Tatars  have  acquired  tbe 
political  supremacy,  and  in  all  the 
provinces  west  of  Badaksban  they  now 
form  the  most  numerous  element. 
Lastly,  most  of  tbe  passes,  including 
that  of  Bamian,  the  most  important  of  , 
all,  are  guarded  by  the  Hazarabs, 
Shiah  tribes  of  Mongol  stock,  but,  since 
the  sixteenth  century,  of  Persian  speech. 
The  Surgh-ab  river  of  Eunduz, 
known  as  the  Ak-serai,  in  its  lower 
course  receives  its  first  waters  from  tbt 
Kob-i-1)aba,  or  "  Father  of  tbe  Moun- 
tains." One  of  its  head-streams  rises  at  the  Haji-kak  Pass,  not  the  lowest,  but  the 
easiest  of  tbe  "  Indian  Caucasus,"  and  open  seven  months  in  the  year.  East  of  this 
pass,  which  is  better  known  as  tbe  "  Gate  of  Bamian,"  tbe  Surgh-ab  skirts  the 
northern  foot  of  tbe  Hindu-Kush,  and  here  the  valleys  of  several  of  its  tributaries 
also  lead  to  passes  over  tbe  main  range.  From  the  comparatively  low  Kaftak  Pass 
the  Indar-ab  flows  west  to  tbe  Surgh-ab,  and  in  a  distance  of  about  130  miles  between 
the  Kaftak  and  Haji-kak  Passes,  Markham  enumerates  sixteen  others  over  tbe  Hindu- 
Eusb.  Seen  from  the  depression  in  which  the  Indar-ab  and  Surgh-ab  approach  each 
other,  the  range  appears  in  all  its  majesty,  from  its  dark  base  to  its  snowy  peaks. 
The  crest  has  an  elevation  of  20,000  feet,  but  with  depressions  of  6,600  and  even 


.84  HUM. 


--4 


mmmmmmmmrm 


[  the  Kokcha  and 
Balkh,  uud  Ilissar 


J  and  the  continua- 
cally,  but  a  sharii 
The  comparatively 
all  times  attracted 
yards  Baktriana. 
thQ  Aryan  invaders 
ric  times  towards 
also  crossed  the 
adian  Caucasus,  to 

his  empire.  The 
red  races  followed 
a  the  north,  and  in 
etraced  their  steps 
les  from  the  south, 
anians  have  retained 
but  in  the  north 

have  acquired  the 
y,  and  in  all  the 
Jadakshan  they  now 
numerous  element, 
le  passes,  including 
le  most  important  of  , 

by  the  Hazarahs, 
Qgol  stock,  but,  since 
ry,  of  Persian  speech. 

river  of  Kunduz, 
:-serai,  in  its  lower 
first  waters  from  tht 
father  of  the  Moun- 
t  the  lowest,  but  the 
le  year.  East  of  this 
Surgh-ab  skirts  the 
jral  of  its  tributaries 
Fely  low  Kaftak  Pass 
)ut  130  miles  between 
thers  over  the  Hindu- 
•gh-ab  approach  each 
e  to  its  snowy  peaks, 
as  of  6,600  and  even 


-#• 


KUNDUZ  AND  IJAMUN. 


246 


8,300  feet  intemipting  the  snow-line,  which  hero  runs  with  remarkable  uniformity 
at  an  altitude  of  about  15,000  feet. 

Through  the  Haji-kak  and  Irak  Passes  the  town  of  Bamian  commuricates 
with  the  Ilelmand  basin  as  well  as  with  the  Kabul  highlands,  while  through  the 
Chibr  Pass  it  enjoys  direct  communication  with  the  Gosband  valley,  forming  jjurt 
of  the  Indus  basin.  Bamian  thus  commands  a  great  part  of  Afghanistan,  and  its 
strategic  imjx)rtance  was  at  all  times  understood,  as  shown  by  the  ruins  of  fortifica- 
tions belonging  to  different  epochs,  and  succeeding  each  other  on  the  cliffs  and 
along  the  defiles  of  the  valley.  This  town  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  ancient 
Paro-Vami,  while  some,  with  Carl  Ritter,  identify  it  with  the  Alexandria  ad 
Caucasum,  founded  by  the  Macedonian  conqueror.  It  acquired  special  importance 
in  the  religious  history  of  the  Eastern  nations.  Amongst  the  ruins  left  by  the 
Mongols  after  the  destruction  of  the  place  in  1220  are  numerous  traces  apparently 
of  temples,  as  well  as  of  stupas,  as  those  religious  monim)ents  in  the  form  of 
towers  are  called,  which  are  found  in  so  many  regions  visited  by  the  Buddhist 
missionaries.  The  place  itself  has  been  named  But-Bamian,  or  Bamian  "  of  the 
Idols,"  from  two  rudely  curved  himian  figures  representing  the  divinity,  Silsal 
(Sorsal)  and  Shamama.  These  rock  figures,  known  also  as  the  Red  and  White 
Idols,  stand  at  a  conspicuous  point  on  the  great  highway  of  trade,  migration,  and 
conquest,  and  are  so  large  that  the  caravans  find  accommodation  in  the  openings 
let  into  the  skirts  of  their  robes.  According  to  Bums  they  are  120  and  70  feet 
high  respectively.  The  Hindus  raise  their  hands  in  passing  them,  but  others  pelt 
them  with  stones,  and  the  lower  portions  have  been  partly  demolished  by  cannon 
balls.  Most  of  the  paintings  decorating  the  figures  have  disappeared,  but  the 
nimbus  round  their  heads  still  remains.  They  are  pierced  within  with  stairs  and 
recesses,  and  the  adjoining  rocks  are  also  perforated  in  every  direction.  A  whole 
people  could  put  up  in  these  "  twelve  thousand  "  galleries,  which  occupy  the  slopes 
of  the  valley  for  a  distance  of  about  8  miles.  Isolated  bluffs  are  pierced  with  so 
many  chambers  that  they  look  like  beehives.  iN^otwithstanding  the  pilfering 
going  on  for  generations,  coins,  rings,  and  other  gold  and  silver  objects  are  still 
found  here.  Some  cuneiform  inscriptions  have  been  discovered  on  the  rocks,  but  most 
of  the  coins  and  medals,  dating  from  the  Mussulman  period,  bear  Kufic  legends. 
No  traces  have  yet  been  met  with  of  the  recumbent  statue  of  Buddha,  1,000  feet 
long,  seen  here  by  the  Chinese  Hwen-T'sang  in  the  seventh  century. 

Although  belonging  geographically  to  Turkestan,  Bamian  is  nevertheless 
usually  included  in  Afghanistan  proper.  It  lies  on  the  Surgh-ab,  over  3,000  feet 
below  the  Haji-kak  Pass,  which  is  itself  12,385  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
Ak-robat,  or  "  White  Caravanserai  "  Pass,  immediately  north  of  the  town,  and  the 
Kara-kotal,  or  "  Black  Pass,"  in  the  Kara-koh,  or  "  Black  Mountains,"  are  both 
over  10,000  feet,  yet  accessible  to  waggons  and  even  to  artillery.  Between  the  two 
runs  a  small  but  difiRcult  ridge  known  as  the  Dandan-shikan,  or  "  Teeth-breaker." 
North  of  the  Kara-kotal  the  road  following  the  Khulm  River  traverses  some 
formidable  defiles,  interrupted  by  pleasant  valleys,  the  rocks  skirting  one  of  which 
are  crowned  with  ruined    forts   showing  the   strategical    importance  formerly 


u 


246 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


w 


attached  to  this  point.  Altof»etlior  those  northern  slopes  of  the  Indian  Caucasus 
arc  more  inviting  and  verdant  than  the  rugged  heights  of  Afghanistan.  But  tli(« 
marsliy  plains  at  their  feet,  especially  the  low-lying  Kunduz,  or  Ak-scrai  valley, 
are  amongst  the  most  imhealthy  in  Central  Asia.     "  If  you  want  to  die  go  to  the 

Kunduz,"  says   the    Badakshan  pru- 


Fig.  133. 


-Sakifvl  and  Shibirkiun  Vaixbt. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


verb,  and  of  100,000  Badakshan  i 
forcibly  removed  hither  by  Murad  Beg 
in  1830,  all  but  6,000  are  said  to  have 
perished  within  eight  years. 

The  town  of  Eunduz  itself,  although 
capital  of  a  state,  even  in  the  time  of 
Murad  Beg  consisted  merely  of  a  few 
hundred  mud  houses,  some  reed  huts, 
and  Uzbeg  tents  scattered  over  gardens, 
wheat-fields,  and  swamps.  Talikhau, 
lying  farther  east  at  the  foot  of  the 
range  between  Eunduz  and  Badak- 
shan, seems  to  have  been  a  far  more 
important  place.  It  held  out  for  seven 
months  against  Jenghis  Ehan,  and 
Marco  Polo  describes  it  as  a  large  city 
and  a  great  corn,  fruit,  and  salt  mart. 
The  salt  mountains  whence  it  drew  its 
supplies  lay  to  the  east  and  south-east, 
especially  near  Ak-bulak  in  Badak- 
shan. Here  also  is  the  Lattaband  Pass, 
followed  by  the  caravans  proceeding 
from  Eunduz  to  Badakshan  and  the 
Pamir.  It  commands  a  view  of  the 
£oh-i-ambar,  a  remarkably  regular 
cone  rising  2,660  feet  above  the  plains, 
which  according  to  the  legend  was 
brought  from  India,  and  which  is 
consequently  said  to  grow  none  but 
Indian  plants.  The  lion  haimts  the 
plains  stretching  north  of  these  hills, 
but  he  is  met  nowhere  north  of  the 
Oxus. 

The  population  of  Eunduz  is  esti- 
mated by  the  Russian  officials  at  400,000,  or  about  36  per  square  -pile  in  a  total 
area  of  some  11,000  square  miles.  Though  not  much  for  a  coUi»:  v  aboundini?  in 
fertile  and  well-watered  valleys,  this  is  a  vostly  higher  proportion  than  prevails  in 
the  Russian  possessions,  on  which  account  this  territ^nry,  so  conveniently  situated  at 
the  gates  of  the  Hindu-Eush,  naturally  seems  to  the  Muscovites  the  necessary 


,  6  Miles. 


'jtitniLiim 


KHULM,  BALKII,  ANDKHOI. 


247 


ndiiin  CnucosuR 
istan.  But  the 
A.k-8erai  vullcy, 
o  die  go  to  the 
iudukshan  pro- 
)0  Baduksbaiii 
r  by  Murad  Wv^ 
ire  said  to  hav(> 

oars. 

itself,  although 

in  the  time  of 
nerely  of  a  few 
some  reed  huts, 
cd  over  gardens, 
ops.  Talikhau, 
the  foot  of  the 
HZ  and  Badak- 
)een  a  far  more 
sld  out  for  seven 
his  Khan,  and 
t  as  a  large  city 
,  and  salt  mart, 
cnce  it  drew  its 
and  south-east, 
ilak  in  Badak- 
Lattaband  Pass, 
:an8  proceeding 
ikshan  and  the 
I  a  view  of  the 
irkably  regular 
ibove  the  plains, 
he  legend  was 
and  which  is 
grow  none  but 
[ion  haunts  the 
I  of  these  hills, 
e  north  of  the 

Eunduz  is  esti- 
•nile  in  a  total 
v  aboundina"  in 
than  prevails  in 
mtly  situated  at 
s  the  necessary 


complement  of  their  Turkestan  domain.  Travellers  speak  favourably  OHpccially 
of  the  Kunduz  women,  as  excellent  housewives,  although  held  by  the  men  in  less 
considoratiou  than  their  dogs. 

Khulm,  Balkh,  Andkhoi. 

Khulm,  or  Khulum,  is  not  so  large,  but  is  relatively  as  densely  peopled,  as 
Kunduz,  although  not  so  well  watered  as  that  region.  The  Kuuduz,  or  Ak-Hcrai 
River,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Hindu-Kush  and  the  Koh-i-baba,  is  copious  enough 
to  reach  the  Oxus,  whereas  the  Khulm  River,  flowing  from  advanced  spurs  of  the 
Kara-koh,  is  absorbed  by  irrigation  works  on  entering  the  plains.  But  the 
geographical  position  of  Khulm,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  old  Baktriana,  is  one 
of  vital  importance.  Here  converges  the  highway  of  Persia  and  India  over  the 
Bomian  Pass,  and  here  is  the  natural  centre  of  the  vast  amphitheatre  of  highlands 

Fig.  m.— Thb  Maimbme  Vallkt. 
Soale  1 !  870,000; 


eHflM. 


and  plateaux  stretching  from  Meshed  in  Persia  to  Bokhara.  Balkh,  "  the  Mother 
of  Cities,"  was  formerly  the  converging  point  of  all  the  great  commercial  highways 
of  this  region.  But  after  its  destruction  by  Jengliis  Khan  in  1220  it  ceased  to  be 
the  centre  of  traffic,  and  before  the  middle  of  the  present  century  Khulm  was  the 
most  important  place  in  Baktriana.  Its  Tajik  population  of  10,000  had  a  large 
trade  in  skins  of  dogs,  cats,  foxes,  and  lambs.  It  is  encircled  by  extensive  gardens 
and  orchards,  and  even  the  bed  of  the  intermittent  stream  is  periodically  converted 
into  a  garden.  The  present  town  is  a  modem  place  lying  about  5  miles  from  the 
ancient  Khulm,  now  a  heap  of  ruins. 

Balkh,  formerly  so  famous  as  an  imperial  capital  and  holy  place,  the  city  in 
which  Zoroaster  preached,  later  on  a  centre  of  Hellenic  culture  and  of  Buddhism, 
is  now  little  more  than  a  vast  ruin.  For  a  circuit  of  over  18  miles  nothing  is 
visible  except  heaps  of  bricks,  enamelled  tiles,  and  other  d<5bri8.  The  marble 
templea  seen  by  the  pilgrim  Hwen-T'sang  in  all  their  beauty,  and  whose  ruins  were 
admired  by  Marco   Polo,  have   disappeared   altogether.     Even  the  few  Uzbeg 


248 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


encampmc'iitH  and  Taj ik  Immlots  scattorcd  over  (he  plain  were  completely  abandonod 
after  the  viHitution  of  cholera  in  1H72,  and  "  when  lialkh  Hhall  rise  from  its  ruins," 
say  the  natives,  "the  world  will  s(Km  end."  Since  lHo8  Takht-i-pul,  sonic 
12  miles  farther  east,  has  been  the  political  centre  of  Afghan  Turkestan.  Hut  the 
urban  population,  ac^'ording  to  Grodekov  amounting  in  1878  to  20,000,  hnf 
removed  to  the  iu>ighlK)uring  sanctuary  of  Mazar-i-sherif  ("Tomb  of  tlie  Sherif  "), 
famous  oven  Iwyond  the  llindu-Kush  for  the  ceaseless  miracles  hero  wrought  at 
the  shrine  of  the  prophet  Ali.  Mazar-i-sherif,  whoso  four  blue  minarets  arc 
visible  in  the  distance,  lies  still  within  the  limits  of  the  region  watere<l  l)y 
the  llalkh,  or  Dehas  River,  Avhoso  farthest  head-streams  rise  in  the  Koh-i-baba 
and  Sufid-koh.  In  the  lowlands  this  stream,  though  still  rapid,  becomes  a  mere 
embanked  canal,  the  13cnd-i-burbari,  or  "  Dyko  of  the  Barbarians,"  which,  after  a 


I  'ni. 


Fig.  135.— Ehanatbr  op  Afghan  Tuiikebtan  West  of  tub  Oxus. 
Soala  1 : 1,780,00a 


■se 


50 


120Milea. 


course  of  over  180  miles,  runs  dry  in  the  gardens  of  Sujagird,  north  of  Balkh. 
Whether  Sujagird  was  a  suburb  of  Balkh  or  an  independent  city,  its  ruins  still 
cover  a  vast  space,  some  8  miles  long,  north  and  south  on  the  road  to  the  Oxus. 

Farther  west  other  streams  also  flowing  through  Afghan  territory  fail  to  reach 
the  Oxus,  though  their  waters  serve  to  clothe  with  verdure  the  oases  around  the 
towns  of  Ak-cha,  Saripul,  Shibirkhan,  and  Andkhoi,  peopled  by  Iranians,  Turko- 
mans, and  IJzbegs.  Thanks  to  the  abundance  of  its  waters,  the  most  flourishing 
of  these  places  is  said  to  bo  Shibirkhan,  whoso  melons  Marco  Polo  described  as  the 
finest  in  the  world.  When  Ferrier  visited  it  in  1845  it  had  a  population  of  12,000. 
Saripul  had  3,000  in  1818,  but  being  pent  up  by  the  hills  in  a  cirque  subject  to 
malaria,  it  is  a  very  unhealthy  place.  The  only  trees  flourishing  in  the  Saripul 
and  Shibirkhan  valley  are  the  saksaitl  and  the  tamarind,  though  a  few  plants  have 
been  recently  brought  from  Bokhara. 


mmmmmim 


mmmmummm 


mmmmm 


KUULM,  BALKII,  ANDKHOI. 


240 


toly  ubandonod 
from  itH  ruins," 
tht-i-pul,  Honic 
L'stun.  Hut  tho 
to   25,000,   Vny 

f  fhcShorif"), 
lero  wrouj^ht  at 
0  minurots  arc 
on  wiitorecl  by 
the  Koh-i-baba 
boconiCH  a  more 
'  which,  after  a 

rs. 


north  of  Balkh. 
y,  its  ruins  still 

to  the  Oxus. 
cry  fail  to  reach 
)a8es  around  tho 
Iranians,  Turko- 
raost  flourishing 

described  as  the 
ilation  of  12,000. 
cirque  subject  to 
r  in  tho  Saripul 

few  plants  have 


Next  to  Mazar-i-sherif  tho  most  populous  town  in  Afghan  Turkestan  is  And- 
khoi,  which,  according  to  Vambc'ry,  luid  1.0,000  inhabitants  in  1803.  Hut  most  of 
them  were  living  in  tents  amid  the  ruins  of  u  city  encompassed  by  the  desert. 
The  Maiuieno,  a  stream  flowing  through  its  gardens,  has  very  little  water  in  its 
l)od,  und  tliis  is  so  brackish  that  strangers  cannot  drink  it.  "  Halt  water,  buniing 
Nunds,  venomous  flics  and  scorpions,  such  is  Andkhoi,  and  ""ch  is  hell,"  says  u 
Persion  poet  quoted  by  Vambery.  Yet  its  horses,  whose  g^  dalogy  the  natives 
trace  buck  to  tho  steed  of  the  Persian  Hercules,  Rustem,  are  renowned  throughout 
Tutary,  os  is  also  tho  so-called  urr  or  iiar  breed  of  dromedaries,  distinguishinl  for 
their  flowing  manes,  elegant  forms,  and  great  strength.  Andkhoi  also  formerly  sent  to 
Persia  those  black  lambskins  known  in  Europe  as  "Astrakhans,"  but  sincothe  destruc- 
tion of  the  place  by  the  Afghans  in  1840  its  trade  in  these  articles  has  not  revived. 

Maimene,  lying  amongst  the  hills,  is  watered  by  tho  same  river  Nari,  which 
nearly  runs  dry  in  the  gardens  of  Andkhoi.  Its  bravo  Uzbeg  inhabitants  long 
maintained  their  independence  amidst  the  rival  claims  of  Persia,  Bokhara,  and 
Afghanistan,  but  they  are  now  tributary  to  Kabul,  though  soon  probably  destined 
to  become  on  advanced  outpost  of  the  northern  colossus  at  the  threshold  of  the 
Iranian  plateau.  Here  Muimene  occupies  an  important  strategical  position,  and 
according  to  Rawlinson,  if  Herat  is  the  key  to  India,  Maimene  is  the  key  to 
Herat.  On  the  other  hand,  Grodekov  asserts  from  personal  knowledge  that  the 
route  from  Maimene  to  Herat  is  too  difficult  for  military  purposes.  But  however 
this  be,  Maimeno  is  the  chief  trading  station  between  Herat  and  Bokhara,  and 
commands  several  mountain  passes,  so  that  its  possession  would  bo  a  great  prize  in 
the  hands  of  either  of  the  rival  powers  contending  for  the  mastery  in  Asia.  In 
1863  Vambery  gave  it  a  population  of  from  15,000  to  18,000,  which  more  recent, 
hut  probably  exaggerated,  Russian  estimates  raised  to  60,000.  But  in  1874  it  was 
besieged  by  an  Afghan  army  of  10,000  and  twenty  guns,  which  had  already  taken 
Saripul  and  Shibirkhan.  The  siege  lasted  six  months,  ending  in  tho  slaughter  of 
18,000  of  its  inhabitants,  since  when  Maimene  has  remained  a  decayed  village  exposed 
to  Turkoman  raids.  The  population  of  the  whole  khanate,  estimated  by  Vambery 
at  300,000,  is  reduced  by  the  Russian  officers  to  100,000.  A  brisk  trade  in  horses, 
carpets,  dried  fruits,  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  is  carried  on  at  the  Maimene  fairs. 

All  tho  khanates  between  the  Indian  Caucasus  and  tho  Oxus  are  at  present 
subject  to  Afghanistan,  except  that  of  Andkhoi,  which  is  still  semi-independent. 
The  geographical  divisions  have  remained  unaltered,  and  the  village  of  Gurzivan 
and  the  small  centres  of  the  population  in  the  Darzab  valley,  in  the  mountains 
south  and  south-west  of  Saripul,  have  preserved  the  title  of  khanate,  though  they 
have  lost  their  autonomy.  The  Uzbeg  natives  are  not  required  to  render  military 
service,  their  Afghan  masters  fearing  they  might  use  their  arms  to  recover  their 
independence.  But  the  weight  of  taxation  falls  all  the  more  heavily  on  them. 
According  to  Grodekov  they  are  impatiently  awaiting  the  arrival  -  f  the  Russians ; 
but  they  do  nothing  for  their  own  freedom,  and  can  scarcely  defend  themselves 
from  the  Turkoman  marauders.  Thus  have  a  hundred  years  of  oppression  broken 
the  spirit  of  these  Tftrki  peoples,  formerly  so  renowned  for  their  bravery. 
17 


^^^^jji^^^^^^^^^^^m^^^&mMM^MSit^mi^^^^m^ii^?^     W^^- 


250 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


m 


II.— MERV— THE  SOUTHERN  TURKOMANS. 

"  Tmloj>on(lont  Tiitary,"  which  till  recently  covcrwl  Huch  u  wide  area,  is  now 
reduced  to  ii  Ninnfle  nurrow  otiNiH  enc()in{mMHe<l  by  the  mindH,  und  ulreudy  menac(>doii 
three  Hides  by  the  UuHHiun  urniH.  One  fumuuH  HjM)t  iilone  still  lies  Ix-'yond  the 
Afghan  frontier,  or  the  territory  directly  or  indirectly  subject  to  Ilussiu.  This  is 
the  ancient  Merv  of  the  Persians,  the  Maflr  of  the  Uzbegs,  which  occupies  u 
strategic  position  of  Home  imi)ortunce,  which  disputes  with  Uuikh  the  title  ol' 
"  Mother  of  the  Cities  of  Asia,"  and  which  formerly  called  itself  '*  King  of  the 
Universe"  (S/jrtrA-i-JicArtM).  In  the  neighbourhoo<l  uro  still  to  be  seen  the  ruins 
of  Antiochia  Murgiunu,  or  Merv-i-mukan,  as  it  is  now  called,  the  ancient  Hellenic 
city  founded  by  Antiochus  Soter.  During  the  Arab  ascendancy  Merv,  like  Samar- 
kand and  Bokhara,  became  a  great  centre  of  learning,  and  the  famous  historian 
Yakut  studicil  in  its  libraries.  But  the  ph*ce  fell  u  prey  to  the  ruthless  Mongols 
under  Jenghis  Khan,  and  its  inhabitants,  to  the  number,  it  is  said,  of  700,000, 
were  led  out  of  the  city,  told  off  in  batches  like  beasts  for  the  shambles,  and  all 
slaughtered  in  cold  blood.  Yet  Merv  revived  from  this  fearful  disaster,  ond  was 
again  a  populous  place  in  1795,  when  Murad,  Emir  of  Bokhara,  destroyed  the 
embankment  retaining  the  waters  of  the  Murgh-ab  in  an  artiBcinl  hike,  ruined  the 
town  and  its  gardens,  and  restored  a  great  part  of  the  country  to  tho-  desert.  Some 
40,000  of  the  people,  chiefly  silk-weavers  and  other  artisans,  wero  removed  to 
Bokhara,  where  their  descendants  still  occupy  a  separate  quarter.  Merv  passed 
subsequently  into  the  bands  of  the  Khan  of  Khiva,  but  since  1834  it  has  been  held 
by  the  Tekke  Turkomans,  and  its  normal  population  now  consists  of  2,000  or 
3,000  Uzbegs,  while  the  Tekkcs,  Sariks,  and  Salors  have  camping  grounds  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  is  the  chief  rallying-point  of  the  Turkoman  nomads,  who, 
according  to  Potrusevich,  have  50,000  tents  in  tho  Merv  oasis.  But  the  views 
hitherto  entertained  regarding  its  great  strategical  importance  have  been  consider- 
ably modified  since  the  advance  of  the  Russians  along  the  northern  face  of  the 
Attok.  Mr.  Donovan,  correspondent  of  the  Dat/i/  News,  imprisoned  here  for  some 
weeks  during  the  summer  of  1881,  also  found  that  Merv  still  remains  the 
assemblage  of  wretched  mud  huts  described  by  ConoUy  in  1840.  The  opinion  is 
now  generally  held  that  in  their  advance  on  Herat  the  Russians  can  safely  leave 
Merv  on  the  left  until  it  suits  their  convenience  to  occupy  it,  meantime  availing 
themselves  of  the  easier  and  more  direct  route  along  the  valley  of  the  river 
T'ejend.  The  oasis  of  cultivated  land,  which  Strabo  tells  us  was  sun'ounded  by 
Antiochus  with  a  wall  186  miles  in  circumference,  stretches  75  miles  north  and 
south,  with  a  mean  width  of  7  miles.  Its  fertility  is  famous  throughout  the 
East,  and  is  maintained  by  2,000  Turkoman  labourers,  who  attend  throughout 
the  year  to  the  irrigation  works. 

Great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  Merv  country  since  the  people  have 
become  more  independent  of  the  Khivan  and  Bokhara  rulers.  The  reputation  they 
formerly  enjoyed  amongst  their  neighbours  is  reflected  in  the  local  proverb,  "  If 
you  meet  a  viper  and  a  Mervi,  kill  the  Mervi  first,  and  then  crush  the  viper." 


ma^ssssmsassm 


iBWIiiMUilffilfUHili 


»—       -  ••■•••li" 


lo  area,  is  now 
>ttdy  mcimcedon 
lios  beyond  the 
lluH8iu.  ThiH  u 
hieh  occupieM  ti 
Ikh  the  title  of 
f  ♦'  King  of  tho 

0  seen  the  ruins 
uncient  Hellenic 
[erv,  like  Sumar- 
fumous  historiiiii 
•uthlc88  Mongols 
said,  of  700,000, 
shambles,  and  all 
disaster,  and  was 
a,  destroyed  tho 

li\ke,  ruined  the 
he  desert.  Some 
ivpro  removed  to 
;r.  Mcrv  passed 
[  it  has  been  held 
jists  of  2,000  or 
^  grounds  in  the 
an  nomads,  who. 
But  the  views 
ive  been  consider- 
them  face  of  the 
led  here  for  some 
still  remains  tho 
.     The  opinion  is 

1  can  safely  leave 
neantime  availing 
ley  of  the  river 
as  sun'ounded  by 
>  miles  north  and 
18  throughout  the 
attend  throughout 

B  the  people  have 

he  reputation  they 

local  proverb,  "  If 

crush  the  viper." 


THE  SOUTUfclliN  TUmCoMAM. 

Fearing  to  extend  their  f  irnys  to  the  0\\\h,  now  heM  b\    he  B*,MlriaaM,  mmil  com- 
pelled to  come  to  terms  with  th(>   Persians,  I)aman-i-k'>h  I-     rds,  ^nd  A*'    Hiiis,  tho 
Merv  pen|>l(>  have  mostly  relinquished  their  marauding  fial     -  ;  ptlluge      A  murder 
are  no  longer  held  in  honour  us  formerly ;  and  some  nu.   liaiug  pre    Uer^  bu 
already  ventured  to  broach 


I-ig.   130. 


-Mrkv  and  Rauakh*  Oaiis. 
Boala  1:UIU,U00. 


the  doctrine  that  there  is 
no  glory  in  slaughtering 
one's  neighbours.  Houses 
have  Ikjcu  built  in  the  oasis, 
irrigating  rills  have  l)een 
(lug,  and  tlie  zone  of  cul- 
ture extended.  Fruit  trees 
are  being  brought  by  the 
caravans  from  Bokhara, 
trade  has  been  somewhat 
revived,  and  dealers  from 
^[eshe<l  and  Bokhara  are 
now  settled  in  the  district. 

Between      Merv      and 
Meshed    the    Tekkes    and 

their  allies,  the  Salors,  press 

hard     upon     the    Persian 

stronghold      of       Sarakhs 

(Sharaks),   situated    in   an 

oasis  watered  by  the  Ilori- 

rud,  or  Tenjen,  the  river  of 

Herat.      Like    Mew    and 

Maimene,  this  is  one  of  the 

strategical  points  which,  in 

the    hands    of    a    military 

power,  may  have  the  most 

vital  consequences  for   the 

peoples     of     the    Iranian 

plateau.      The     Jews     of 

Meshed,   trading  with  the 

neighbouring     Turkomans, 

have  here  erected  a  few  mud 

houses ;  but  till  recently  the 

only  dwellings  were  the  so- 
called  hirghas,  wood  or  reed  huts  covered  with  felt.    The  surrounding  oasis  is  no  less 

productive  than  that  of  Merv,  and  the  two  places  dispute  the  honour  of  having  given 

birth  to  the  first  husbandman. 

"West  of  Sarakhs,  for  a  stretch  of  over  360  miles,  the  Turkomans  have  no  towns 

properly  so  called.     But  some  of  their  camping  grounds  on  the  banks  of  the  streams 


61' 


62* 


80  MUea. 


E.of& 


mmum 


252 


■f  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


arc  oncircl(Ml  by  dcfi'tiNivo  wuIIh,  ufton  vnel<min{f  thnuHundH  of  kilntkiiN.  Kif^lu 
villu)f(<Huf  KmIiuIhuI  have  oiich  ii]M)|)iilutir)n  of  ulMtiit  2,000,  itiul  lM>for('  itM  <'u|tttirohv 
the  UuHNiaiiN  ill  IHHI  G(>ok-t(>iM*  hull  hoiiik  15,000  iiihuhitiiiitH.  Of  tluMild  I'lirthiim 
towiiH  nothiiifjf  now  rcinuinH,  or  at  loiiMt  thoir  niiiiH  huvo  not  yet  hcon  diwovort'd. 
Th(<  city  of  NiNHii,  rontainin^  tho  toinbN  of  the  I'arthiun  kin^n,  in  miid  to  have  niinnl  at 
the  iHsiu^  of  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  l)aiiiun-i-koh.  It  may  perhajw  Iw  thepreHont 
NiaM,  lyiiiff  oantof  the  Turkoman  fortreHHof  Kizil-urvat.or  rather  Kizil-robat — that 
is,  the  "  lied  CaravuiiHerai  " — in  u  district  re<;eiitly  vi«ited  by  Daker  and  (iill, 

Sinee  the  full  of  Geok-te|>o  all  the  Turkoman  tribeH  of  thin  region  have 
practically  accepttKl  Ru^Hian  Hovercignty.  The  liinitB  of  the  TranH-f'aHpian 
territory  have  Iwen  oxtendwl  euHtwanU  to  Askabad  an<l  every  effort  \h  lM>ing  made 
to  complete  the  line  of  railway  from  the  CuHpian  to  Jtaini,  the  new  capital  of  thin 
province.  In  virtue  of  an  imperial  ukaae  issued  in  May,  18K1,  all  the  Akhal 
Tekke  country  is  now  incorporato<l  in  the  Trans-Caspian  territory,  which  is  itself 
placed  under  the  supremo  administration  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Caucasus.  It  is  also  stated  that  in  a  short  time  Russia  will  accept  the  Protectorate 
of  the  Merv  Turkomans,  a  delegate  from  whom  visited  8t.  Petersburg  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  1881.  It  is  obvious  that  the  time  is  rapidly  approaching  when 
the  whole  of  the  Turkoman  domain  will  fonn  an  integral  part  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  whose  southern  limits  will  then  stretch  nearly  in  a  straigl't  lino  along  the 
northern  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan  from  the  south-eu^t  end  of  the 
Caspian  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Hindu-Kush. 


P 


III.- BOKHARA. 

Still  nominally  independent,  this  state  is  one  of  those  which  must  henceforth  con- 
form their  policy  to  the  will  of  the  Czar.  "Without  being  obliged  to  keep  gar- 
risons in  its  fortresses  or  to  pay  the  salaries  of  civil  administrators,  Russia  nevertheless 
holds  the  routes  leading  through  Bokhara  to  the  Hindu-Kush.  Hence,  in  advancing 
upon  Merv  or  Herat,  her  armies  can  now  draw  their  supplies  as  well  from  the 
Bokhara  oasis  as  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Bokhara 
Government,  protected  by  its  powerful  lord  paramount,  has  no  longer  aught  to 
fear  from  Turkoman  or  Afghan,  and  whole  provinces  have  even  been  made  over  to  it 
by  a  stroke  of  the  pen.  Thus  by  the  will  of  Russia  several  states  of  the  Upper  Oxus 
— Shignan,  Roshan,  Darvaz,  Earateghin — formerly  depending  partly  on  Eunduz 
or  Badakshan,  are  now  incorporated  in  Bokhara,  and  the  Russians  have  thus 
become  the  masters  of  the  Pamir  passes.  Within  its  new  limits  Bokhara  occupies 
a  space  about  half  the  size  of  France,  with  a  population  of  over  2,000,000.*  It  lies 
nearly  altogether  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oxus,  whence  its  old  name  of  Trans- 
oxiana,  or  Maverannahr,  a  word  having  precisely  the  same  meaning.  The  term 
Sogdiana  is  properly  limited  to  the  valley  of  the  Sogd,  or  present  Zarafshon, 
henceforth  shared  by  the  Russian  and  Bokhara  Governments  between  them. 

The  upland  regions  of  the  Bokhara  Pamir,  traversed  by  the  Panja,  Murgh-ab, 
and  Surgh-ab,  are  nearly  uninhabitable,  or  visited  only  in  summer  by  the  Eirghiz 
*  Area  of  Bokhara,  95,600  square  miles;  probable  population,  2,180,000. 


DAnVAZ  AND  KARATEOHIN. 


868 


ilntkiiN.  Kif^lii 
re  itM  capturt'  1)\ 
tli(M)l<l  Parthian 

H'Cn    (liM<>()V<Ti'4l. 

to  buvo  Nt(MHl  at 

)H  Ihj  thopri'WMit 

izil-rohat- -tlial 

r  and  (iill. 

is  region  have 
TrunH-('UNpiaii 

t  \H  Ihuii^  iiia<l<> 

V  capital  of  tluN 
all  tho  Aklial 

,  which  is  itHolf 
in-Chiof  of    the 

the  Protectorate 
■tcrHburg  in  the 
iprouching  when 

of  tho  KuHnian 
lit  lino  along  the 
iu.->t  end  uf    the 


t  henceforth  con- 
yifcd  to  keep  gar- 
iiHsia  nevertheless 
ace,  in  advancing 
38  well  from  the 
ind,  the  Bokhara 
longer  aught  to 
n  made  over  to  it 
E  the  Upper  Oxus 
irtly  on  Eunduz 
jsians  have  thus 
Bokhara  occupies 
00,000.*  It  lies 
name  of  Trans- 
ling.  The  term 
esent  Zarafahan, 
Ben  them, 
'anja,  Murgh-ab, 
p  by  the  Kirghiz 

,000. 


nrnnailn.  Tji  the  centre  of  the  Pumir  theri>  are  no  villagen  alxtvo  TaHh-kiirgtin,  and 
tho  Murgh-ah  (Ak-tu)  may  Im*  followed  for  over  {'■iO  niilen  to  tho  HUow-lino  and 
tho  Ak-taNJi  Mountain  without  meeting  a  Hingle  hamlet. 

Jiolow  tho  iNbkaNhim  Uuid  in  ItadakNban  tho  Panja,  or  Harhad,  rontinuoH  to 
flow  nortbwardH  to  the  Murgh-ab  and  other  Htreamn  of  tho  WoMteni  Pamir,  whoMo 
junction  forms  tho  Anut-dariu.  In  this  part  of  tho  Oxuh  Imsin  are  the  three  jM'tty 
MtatoM  of  ShigTum,  lloshan,  anil  Darvaz,  which  sineo  mo<lifo\al  tinus  have  lM>en 
visitod  l)y  no  Kuropcttn  travellerH.  Yet  tho  (^ommunicationN  l)i<twe(>n  Hadakshan 
and  the  rp|)er  Oxus  vidloys  are  frocpient,  and  in  IH7>')  (.'aptain  Trotter  was  ablo  to 
send  his  <  ,itivo  aHNirttant,  Abdul  Hubhan,  to  explore  tho  course  of  tho  Panja  for  u 
distance  of  iH)  miles  below  tho  Ishkashim  lK«nd  to  Wamur,  capital  of  Iloshun.  On 
tho  other  hand,  the  Hindu  explorer,  Subudar  Shah,  as(!endod  tho  Uxus  in  1N74  from 
Wostom  liudakshun  to  tho  Iloshun  frontier,  leaving  but  u  small  and  miimiMrtunt 
gap  between  tho  two  itinera  rios. 

SUIONAN   ANn   ROHHAN. 

Shignan  (Shugnan,  Shugdan)  and  Hoshan,  no  part  of  which  is  p-.obably  lower 
than  6.600  foot  abovo  tho  sou-level,  have  received  from  the  lowlands  the  name  of 
Zuchan — that  is,  "  Land  of  Two  Lives  " — us  if  tho  pure  air  and  water  of  this  region 
insured  to  its  inhabitants  twice  the  ovoruge  term  of  life.  But  there  arc  few  to 
enjoy  this  excellent  climate.  According  to  Wood  there  wore  in  188H  only  JJOO 
families  in  Shignan  and  1,000  in  Roshan,  all  Iranians ;  but  in  187'i  the  population 
increased  altogether  to  4,700  families,  or  about  25,000  bouIs.  An  in  Wakhan,  the 
slave  trade  was  tho  cause  of  the  depiction  of  the  land.  In  IStiV)  tho  prince  still 
trafl>ickod  in  his  own  subjects,  an  adult  man  or  woman  being  alued  at  from  £'12 
to  £18,  which  was  equivalent  to  10  to  15  bulls,  5  to  8  yaks,  oi  2  Kirghiz  muskets. 

At  the  time  of  Forsyth's  visit  the  two  slates  had  only  one  emir,  residing  at 
Wamur  (Vamai-),  capital  of  Roshan.  Kila-bar-panja,  on  the  left  bank  of  tho  river, 
consistfl  of  1,500  houses.  Wamur,  like  most  of  the  other  villages,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  with  a  western  aspect,  which  is  here  brighter  and  warmer  than  that 
facing  eastwards. 

Darvaz  and  Karateohin. 

Darvaz,  bordering  on  Roshan  below  the  junction  of  the  Panja  and  Murgh-ab, 
is  also  peopled  by  Tajiks,  speaking  Persian  and  preserving  many  Mazdean 
traditions,  although  now  Sunnite  Mussulmans.  In  Darvaz  the  Oxus  begins  to 
trend  westwards,  and  on  its  more  sheltered  banks  the  cultivated  plants  of  the 
temperate  zone,  and  even  cotton,  begin  to  appear.  Nib-kumb,  Kila-kumb,  or 
Kaleh-i-kumb,  the  capital,  is  sometime?  known  as  the  "Prison  of  Iskander," 
having  been  traditionally  built  by  Alexander  of  Macedon  to  confine  the  rebels.  A 
garrison  of  5,000  Bokhariots  occupies  Darvaz,  whose  inhabitants  energetically 
resisted  the  conquest. 

Karateghin,  separated  from  Ferghana  by  the  Alai-tagh  runge,  is  a  romantic 
land  of  mountains,  glaciers,  waterfalls,  traversed  by  the  Kizil-su,  or  "  Red  River," 


MJH 


t- 


HISSAE—THE  IRON  GATE. 


256 


JlliilllUlM 


^aksh  (Vaksh,  or 
ground,  and  the 
heir  old  customs 


recalling  those  of  Zoroastrian  times,  and  continue  to  speak  Persian.  They  are 
very  industrious,  engaged  in  weaving,  metal-working,  gold-washing,  and  rock-salt 
mining,  while  in  summer  they  do  a  considerable  trade  with  Kokan,  Bokhara,  and 
Kashgaria.  But  these  pursuits  are  insufficient  for  the  support  of  the  people,  all  of 
whom  being  proprietors,  and  reluctant  to  divide  the  land  indefinitely,  many  are 
obliged  to  emigrate  to  the  lowlands.  All  the  water-carriers  of  Tashkend  are 
natives  of  Karateghin,  and  many  schoolmasters  in  Turkestan  are  from  the  same 
place.  Although  the  country  has  a  mean  elevation  of  6,600  feet,  Fedchenko 
estimates  the  population  at  upwards  of  100,000,  occupying  over  400  kishlaks, 
generally  surroundeil  by  orchards.  The  prince,  another  "descendant  of  Alexander," 
resides  in  Garm  (Harm),  a  cluster  of  350  houses  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Surgh-ab. 
In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  copious  hot  spring  of  carbonated  water. 

HissAK — ^The  Iron  Gate. 

The  district  of  Hissar,  lying  west  of  Karateghin,  was  for  the  first  time 
accurately  surveyed  by  the  Russians,  Vishnevsky,  Mayev,  and  Schwarz,  in  1875. 
We  now  know  that  its  eastern  division  is  traversed  by  the  Surgh-ab,  or  Waksh, 
flowing  to  the  Oxus  below  Hazret-imam  in  Eimduz.  West  of  this  river  the 
country  is  divided  into  parallel  zones  by  the  broad  valleys  of  the  Kafirnahan, 
Surkhan,  and  Shirabad-daria.  Below  Garm  there  are  no  towns  except  Kurgan-tube 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  But  a  little  farther  down  are  the  ruins  of  Lakman, 
which  seems  to  have  been  formerly  a  considerable  place,  and  where  are  the  remains 
of  a  bridge  across  the  Waksh.  Opposite  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the  Oxus 
stood  Takhta-kuvat,  associated  with  many  local  legends.  Lastly,  near  the  Patta- 
hissar  Pass,  on  the  caravan  route  from  Bokhara  to  Mazar-i-sherif,  are  the  ruins  of 
Termez,  which  stretched  for  15  miles  along  the  Oxus  between  the  river  Sarkhan 
and  the  ruins  of  Muja,  another  city  abandoned  in  recent  times,  but  still  overlooked 
by  a  tall  minaret.  Termez  waa  formerly  known  by  the  Tajik  name  of  Gul-gula, 
the  "  Noisy,"  the  noise  of  its  bazaars  having  been  heard  at  Baktra  (Balkh), 
54  miles  o£E !  In  the  ruins  of  these  cities  many  gold  and  silver  objects,  especially 
Greek  coins,  have  been  discovered,  nearly  all  of  which  find  their  way  to  India. 
Gold-washing  is  actively  carried  on  along  the  banks  of  the  Waksh. 

All  the  towns  of  Hissar — Faizabad,  Kafirnahan,  Dushambe,  Hissar,  Karatagh, 
Begar,  Sari-chus,  Yurchi,  Denau,  Baisim,  Shirabad — stand  on  tributaries  of  the 
Oxus,  and  most  of  them  near  the  region  of  snows  and  glaciers.  The  low-lying 
riverain  tracts  are  here  as  unhealthy  as  on  the  Kunduz  side,  and  to  guard  against 
the  fevers  and  rheumatism  caused  by  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  the 
natives  never  lay  aside  their  fur  robes  even  in  tha  height  of  summer.  Hissar, 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  district,  lies  96  miles  north  of  the  Oxus,  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Kafirnahan,  and  above  the  fever  zone.  Its  inhabitants, 
estimated  at  10,000,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the.  production  of  arms,  knives,  and 
hardware,  exported  by  the  pilgrims  to  Persia,  Turkey,  and  Arabia.  Some  of  the 
damascened  blades  with  chased  gold  or  silver  hilts  are  of  exquisite  workmanship, 
and  unequalled  even  in  Europe  for  the  temper  of  the  steel. 


vamm 


-mmmm 


256 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


The  original  Aryan  population  of  Plissar  has  been  mostly  displaced  by  intruders 
of  Tftrki  stock.  The  Galchas  are  still  found  in  some  upland  villages,  and  Faizabad, 
Eafimahan,  and  a  few  more  towns  are  peopled  by  Tajiks ;  but  elsewhere  the  Uzbegs 
and  Sartes  form  the  chief  element.    Hence,  in  Bokhara,  Hissar  is  called  Uzbekistan. 

West  of  the  Hissar  Mountains  several  broad  valleys  running  in  the  direction  of 
the  Oxus  are  watered  by  streams  whose  junction  forms  the  Kashka.  Here  have 
been  founded  some  states  which  have  often  played  an  important  part  in  history. 
Shehr-i-sebs  (Shakh-i-sabz),  on  a  torrent  flowing  from  Mount  Hazret-i-Sultan  at 
the  southern  issue  of  a  pass  over  the  Samarkand-tau  Moimtains,  is  one  of  those 
capitals  which  for  a  time  acquired  great  influence  in  Turkestan.  It  consists  in 
reality  of  two  fortified  towns,  Eilab  above,  and  Shehr  below,  formerly  enclosed  by 
one  wall,  but  separated  by  extensive  intervening  gardens,  whence  their  common 


J"".- 


:-^iM\-:V:-A 


I  Fig.  138. — Shbhr-i-8brb  and  Kabbui. 

Soale  1  :  l,aoo,000. 


65*50' 


66'50' 


.MlUlet. 


name  of  Shehr-i-sebs,  or  "  City  of  Verdure."  The  larger  of  the  two  is  Shehr,  with 
a  population  of  about  20,000  and  90  mosques ;  Eilab  has  some  15,000  inhabitants. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  village  of  Eesh,  birthplace  of 
Tamerlane,  occupied  the  site  of  the  present  Shehr-i-sebs,  The  master  of  Asia, 
wishing  to  make  it  the  capital  of  his  empire,  built  many  edifices  here,  but  soon 
recognised  the  superior  advantages  of  Samarkand,  to  which  he  transferred  his 
residence.  Of  his  palace,  the  Ak-serai,  or  "  White  Castle,"  one  of  the  "  seven 
wonders  of  the  world,"  nothing  now  remains  except  some  towers  and  the  huge 
brick  pillars  flanking  the  main  entrance.  Their  walls  are  still  lined  with  white 
and  blue  porcelain  slabs,  embellished  with  arabesques  and  Persian  and  Arabic 
inscriptions.  Tradition  points  to  one  of  these  towers  as  that  from  which  forty 
courtiers  sprang  spontaneously  after  a  paper  which  a  gust  of  wind  had  blown  from 
the  hands  of  their  dread  sovereigpi. 


mm 


ced  by  intruders 
8,  and  Faizabad, 
here  the  Uzbegs 
lied  Uzbekistan. 

the  direction  of 
ika.     Here  have 

part  in  history. 
azret-i-Sultan  at 
,  is  one  of  those 
.  It  consists  in 
lerly  enclosed  by 
so  their  common 


s? 


«»^ 


0-     Eof  G. 


iro  is  Shehr,  with 
1,000  inhabitants, 
sh,  birthplace  of 
master  of  Asia, 
js  here,  but  soon 
3  transferred  his 
le  of  the  "  seven 
(rs  and  the  huge 
lined  with  white 
'sian  and  Arabic 
rom  which  forty 
I  had  blown  from 


m 


^"ji!j'»»'i'VJi-'p?a'->;f''r 


#■ 


TOPOGEAPHY— BOKHARA. 


267 


*  The  population  of  this  district  consists  chiefly  of  Kenegez,  Sunnitc  Uzbegs,  as 
famous  for  their  valour  and  endurance  as  the  women  are  for  their  lieauty.  It 
required  a  Russian  expedition  to  reduce  Shehr-i-sebs  in  1840,  and  its  inhabitants 
have  never  tolerated  slavery  in  their  midst.  Its  gardens,  watered  by  the  Kashka, 
produce  excellent  fruits,  and  its  annexation  has  been  of  great  advantage  to 
Bokhara,  for  the  valley  yields  cereals,  tobacco,  cotton,  hemp,  fruits,  and  vegetables 
in  abundance,  while  the  hills  are  rich  in  minerals.  The  salt  mines  of  Hazar, 
south-west  of  Shehr-i-sebs,  supply  all  the  demands  of  Samarkand,  and  Plazar  is  also 
a  large  market  for  cattle  and  farm  produce. 

One  of  the  southern  branches  of  the  Eashka  rises  in  a  highland  district 
formerly  famous  for  containing  one  of  the  "  wonders  of  the  world."  This  is  a 
defile  40  to  65  feet  broad,  and  nearly  2  miles  long,  traversed  by  the  route  leading 
from  Balkh  to  Samarkand  by  the  Shirabad  River,  Shehr-i-sebs,  and  the  Samarkand- 
tau  range.  When  visited  by  the  pilgrim  Hwen-T'sang  this  defile  was  closed  by 
folding  gates,  strengthened  with  bolts  and  adorned  with  belfries.  Eight  centuries 
afterwards  Clavijo,  Spanish  envoy  to  the  court  of  Tamerlane,  also  passed  through 
the  "  Iron  Gate,"  but  the  artificial  structure  had  disappeared,  and  the  place  is  now 
called  Buzgola-khana,  or  the  "  Goat  Hut."  But  the  nearest  town  retains  the 
significant  name  of  Derbent,  like  that  of  the  Caspian  "  Gate." 

Topography — Bokhara. 

The  important  town  of  Earshi  lies  in  a  vast  plain  nbar  the  junction  of  the  two 
main  branches  of  the  Eashka,  which  receives  all  the  waters  of  the  hills  between 
Shehr-i-sebs  and  Derbent.  The  walls  of  Earshi  have  a  circuit  of  over  5  miles, 
with  a  popidation  of  25,000.  It  produces  excellent  arms  and  knives,  exported  to 
Persia  and  Arabia,  besides  elegant  ewers,  and  copper  dishes  artistically  chased  and 
embellished  with  incrustations  of  silver ;  but  its  chief  resource  is  derived  from  the 
surrounding  oasis,  in  which  tobacco  especially  is  grown.  The  river  is  skirted  by  a 
fine  promenade  lined  with  the  silver  poplar,  and  the  natives  are  renowned  for  their 
good  taste,  wit,  and  intelligence. 

Earshi  lies  at  the  converging  point  of  the  routes  from  Bokhara,  Samarkand, 
Hissar,  Balkh,  and  Maimene,  within  60  miles  of  the  Oxus,  but  separated  from  it 
by  the  sands  in  which  the  Eashka  runs  dry-.  Where  crossed  by  the  route  to 
Andkhoi  and  Maimene,  the  river  is  guarded  by  the  fortified  town  of  Eilif .  Here 
the  Oxus,  confined  on  one  side  by  rocks,  is  only  1,200  feet  broad,  but  is  said  at 
some  points  to  be  250  and  even  330  feet  deep.  Lower  down  another  ferry  is 
defended  by  Earikji  Fort  on  the  right,  and  Eerki  on  the  left  bank.  All  the  middle 
course  from  Baktriana  to  Ehiva  has  been  assigned  by  Russia  to  Bokhara,  this 
state  being  required  to  maintain  the  ferries  and  keep  in  good  repair  the  caravan- 
serais on  both  sides.  The  population  on  the  left  bank  consists  chiefly  of  Ersari 
Turkomans  tributary  to  the  emir,  and  in  return  protected  by  him  from  the  other 
nomads.  After  Eerki  the  only  fortified  place  possessed  by  Bokhara  on  the  west 
bank  is  Charjui,  on  the  direct  route  between  the  capital  and  Merv,  and  facing  the 


g*S?^?KS^Ii^l;^isSSSHSsg»?s*!im& 


ifA  lif "t'Sir  •"«  r.ift JCia  .vik'Jl'' ,?  i  -^v^if'  S^  *  /  i^;  irV-  ■ 


268 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


P5, 


former  junction  of  the  Zurafshan.  Charjui  has  become  the  entrepot  of  trado 
between  Bokhara  and  Khiva. 

liy  seizing  Samarkand  and  the  upper  and  middle  valley  of  the  Zarofshan, 
Russia  has  placed  at  her  mercy  the  city  of  Bokhara  and  all  the  other  towns  on  the 
lower  course  of  the  river.  The  construction  of  an  embankment  to  retain  the 
waters  of  the  Zarafshan  in  a  largo  reservoir  woidd  suffice  to  dry  up  all  the  arable 
lands  of  Bokhara  proper,  and  compel  the  inhabitants  to  emigrate.  The  extension 
of  tillage  in  the  Samarkand  district  has  analogous  consequences,  u  larger  quantity  of 
water  being  needed  for  the  works  of  irrigation.  Hence,  since  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion of  Samarkand,  Bokhara  has  suffered  from  a  steadily  diminishing  supply, 
resulting  in  a  gradual  migration  of  the  people  up  stream.  Thus,  apart  from  her 
immeasurably  superior  military  strength,  the  mere  possession  of  Samarkand  insures 
for  Russia  the  absolute  control  of  Bokhara. 

Bokhara,  "  the  Noble  "  (Sherif ),  as  it  is  called  on  the  coins  struck  by  the  emir, 
is  not  one  of  the  fine  cities  of  the  East ;  nor  is  it  even  one  of  the  old  cities  of 
Sogdiana,  although  traditionally  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  Alexander. 
Its  narrow,  winding,  and  now  nearly  deserted  streets,  its  dilapidated  and  grimy 
monuments,  the  sluggish  waters  of  its  canals  often  running  dry  altogether,  its 
dreary  and  shadeless  open  spaces,  do  not  recall  the  days  when  its  emir  was  the 
mightiest  ruler  in  Central  Asia.  The  chief  mosque  is  overlooked  by  a  minaret 
160  feet  high,  whence  criminals  were  precipitated,  and  to  which  access  was  allowed 
only  to  the  mollahs  and  executioners  with  their  victims. 

Tho  bazaars  of  Bokha'ra  still  attract  traders  from  every  quarter.  At  least 
two-thirds  of  the  population,  reduced  from  140,000  in  1830  to  70,000  in  1880,  are 
Tajiks.  Turkomans  and  IJzbegs,  more  or  less  mixed  with  Iranian  elements,  are 
also  numerous,  while  the  Kirghiz  pitch  their  tents  in  the  open  spaces  as  if  they 
were  in  the  middle  of  the  desert.  Russians  likewise,  and  other  Europeans  in  their 
wake,  begin  to  show  themselves  in  the  streets,  and  the  bazaars  are  occupied  by 
many  Jews  and  Hindus,  or  "  Multani,"  as  they  are  here  called,  from  the  city  of 
Multan,  .regarded  in  Turkestan  as  the  metropolis  of  India. 

Bokhara  is  especially  famous  as  a  centre  of  learning.  "  Elsewhere  the  light 
descends  from  above;  in  Bokhara  it  radiates  upwards,"  as  Mohammed  himself 
certified  when  translated  to  heaven.  At  any  rate  an  intense  love  of  letters  was 
here  developed  at  various  epochs  between  the  ninth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  As 
in  Spain,  the  mingling  of  Aryan  and  Arab  cultures  had  the  happiest  results  for 
science,  and  the  Iranians  of  Bokhara  converted  to  Islam,  and  more  or  less  assimilated 
to  the  Arabs,  became  the  poets,  doctors,  and  shining  lights  of  Transoxiana. 
Bokhara,  the  "  City  of  Temples,"  as  the  name  means  in  Mongolian,  is  still  a  city  of 
schools,  containing,  besides  360  mosques,  over  100  medresseh,  or  colleges,  where 
the  pupils  learn  to  read  the  Koran.  But  traditional  methods  and  mere  routine 
have  killed  science,  and  little  now  is  taught  beyond  empty  formulas.  The  fervid 
faith  of  this  "  Rome  of  Islam  "  has  itself  degenerated  to  a  system  of  shams,  veiling 
corruption  and  hollowness  beneat'a  t'le  outward  forms  of  worship.  The  decrees 
of  the  priesthood  are  faithfully  observed ;  the  people  always  wear  their  winding- 


...  •uSgi.l^^Z^rzSv^ 


i^^S^it^^Si^u^.'tli^iiiiil^tAtii  . 


r^^lMfi^liti'^^^  •OTW^»»iS»«*ri.««^.*i 


ropot  of  trado 

tho  Zarafsbaii, 
r  towns  on  the; 

to  retain  tho 
)  uU  tho  arabk> 

The  extension 
ger  quantity  of 
U8.sian  occupu- 
ishing  supply, 
apart  from  her 
narkand  insures 

;k  by  the  emir, 
le  old  cities  of 
by  Alexander, 
ited  and  grimy 
r  altogether,  its 
:s  emir  was  the 
[  by  a  minaret 
«ss  was  allowed 


•ismife^x- 


arter.  At  least 
000  in  1880,  are 
an  elements,  are 
paces  as  ii  they 
Lropeans  in  their 
are  occupied  by 
Tom  the  city  of 

3where  the  light 
lammed  himself 
re  of  letters  was 
li  centuries.  As 
ipiest  results  for 
r  less  assimilated 
of  Transoxiana. 
,  is  still  a  city  of 
colleges,  where 
id  mere  routine 
las.  The  fervid 
)f  shams,  veiling 
p.  The  decrees 
:  their  winding- 


'A 


^'■V^;'■/.■V•/^''>.^^K'y^-^.•  "^y^ 


TOPUGllAl'HY— BOKHAKA. 


260 


sheet  as  a  turhnn  round  the  head ;  they  con  tho  proscrilx'd  prnyors,  rc^j^ulurly  visit 
the  shrine  of  Uahu-cdd;..,  ♦''."  national  wiint  of  TurkcHtan.  Hut  incanfimo  friond- 
ship  is  iM)iMoncd  by  treason,  espionuj^o  has  l)oc<mio  tlio  chief  iiiMtninicnt  of  govern- 
ment, and  vice  in  every  form  is  installed  at  the  gates  of  the  niosciiu's. 

Although  far  less  flourishing  than  formerly,  the  industry  of  Bokhara  is  still 
considerable,  and  the  ba/aars  are  stm^kcd  with  many  objects  of  local  prodtice. 
Hero  are  fabricated  the  beautiful  striped  cotton  goods  known  by  the  name  of  alaja, 


Fig.  139.— Dokhaua:  Ruim  in  thi  Intkuior  or  tiu  City. 


excellent  leather  for  the  native  boots  and  slippers,  silken  tissues  "  delicate  as  the 
spider's  web."  Nor  has  the  Russian  occupation  of  Samarkand  or  the  rising  com- 
mercial importance  of  Tashkend  yet  deprived  Bokhara  of  its  extensive  inter- 
national trade.  It  still  remains  the  great  central  mart  between  Nijni-Novgorod 
and  Peshawar;  India  and  Afghanistan  send  hither  their  drugs  and  dyes,  tea, 
earthenware,  books,  and  especially  the  so-called  kabnii,  or  English  wares.  From 
Persia  come  other  woven  goods,  arms,  and  books ;  from  Merv,  arms  and  valuable 


260 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


:r^1 


horses;  from  ITorat,  fruits,  wool,  skins;  while  throuf^h  Khiva  most  of  the 
maiiufactunHl  iirticU'H  iiro  forwanli'il  to  tho  Voljifu  Iwsiu.  RusNiiin  morchundiso 
is  nuturully  found  in  thr  i^roatost  quantity  in  tho  Bokhara  Imzuurs,  purohuscd 
however,  hy  tho  native  dealers  in  Momcow,  Nijni-Novf^nKl,  or  Orenburg,  and  by 
thom  brought  to  tho  grer  ■  mart  of  tho  Zurafshan.  Tho  whole  of  this  important 
traffic,  valuwl  at  nearly  £(),0(>(),()()(),  is  in  the  hands  of  tho  Bokhara,  Afghan,  Hindu, 
and  Jewish  traders.  In  lH7fl  there  was  only  one  Russian  merchant  in  the  place, 
and  certain  Imumhes  of  commerce  formerly  monoiKilized  by  the  Russians  huvo  now 
been  appropriatc<l  by  tho  natives. 

Ilenco  Bokhara  is  threatened  with  ruin  not  by  the  commercial  rivalry  of 
Samarkand  or  other  towns  o(;cupied  by  tho  Russians,  but  by  the  gradual  loss  of 
water  from  tho  uplands.  Tho  shifting  dunes  are  already  yearly  encroaching  on 
the  oasis,  filling  tho  irrigation  canals,  and  slowly  changing  tho  country  to  a 


4»': 


m 


Fig.  140.— Oasis  or  Bokhaiu. 
So«U  1 : 9,000,000. 


I 


40 


'3 


Yant-hour^sw*' 


l(ap«' 


64' 


65' 


EflfS 


NUilai. 


desert.  The  dertruction  of  the  saksaill  forests  resulted  in  changing  the  firmly 
bound  hillocks  into  moving  sands,  driven  by  the  winds  to  the  conquest  of  the 
arable  tracts.  The  canals  formerly  derived  from  the  Sir  have  also  long  been 
abandoned,  and  the  time  when  the  whole  oasis  will  be  restored  to  the  desert  is 
merely  a  question  of  calcrlation.  Quite  recently  the  rich  Vardandzi  territory 
has  been  invaded ;  the  Romitan  district,  west  of  Bokhara;  was  swallowed  up  in 
1868,  when  16,000  families  are  said  to  have  been  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
Khiva.  Tens  of  thousands  have  migrated  in  the  same  way  to  Samarkand  and 
the  Zarafshan  valley.  The  city  of  Bokhara  itself  is  seriously  threatened,  the 
people  awaiting  the  catastrophe  as  an  immutable  dispensation  of  Allah,  and  unless 
the  progress  of  the  dtmes  can  be  arrested  their  ruin  is  really  inevitable.  Thus 
in  former  times  have  perished  Khoju-obo,  24  miles  north-west  of  Bokhara,  and 
the  famous  Bai'kimd,  20  miles  west  of  it.     Bokhara  suffers  also  from  the  bad 


TOroOUAl'llY— bOKIIAllA. 


861 


most  of  thf 
n  inerchuiulitM^ 
rH,  pitrchuHed 
nlmr{7,  und  by 
tliiH  important 
ifghun,  Hindu, 
it  in  the  plaeo, 
Hiuns  buvo  now 

fial  rivalry  of 
p'udual  I0H8  of 
encroaching  on 
country  to  a 


^flffi 


^ng  the  firmly 
conquest  of  the 
also  long  been 
to  the  desert  is 
landzi  territory 
(fallowed  up  in 
take  refuge  in 
Samarkand  and 
threatened,  the 
llah,  and  unless 
evitable.  Thus 
i  Bokhara,  and 
)  from  the  bad 


quality  of  its  waters,  and  from  itn  unhealthy  climate.  Ulcers  of  all  kinds  are 
very  common,  osjMH'iuUy  amongHt  the  women,  und  in  summer  one-tenth  or  oven 
one-fourth  of  the  jMHiplo  are  attuckinl  by  the  Hlaria  itirdiupiiHtK,  a  paranite  brod  in 
the  flesh  of  the  feet  or  arms,  und  which  can  scarcely  Ih)  got  rid  of  except  by 
excision,  a  surgicul  o})eration  skilfully  |)erformed  by  the  local  barbers. 

Besides  the  capitul  sevcrul  other  towns  have  been  founded  in  the  Zurufshun 
valley,  and  especially  in  the  Miankal  district  towards  the  Ilussiun  frontier.  Here 
village  succeeds  village,  und  the  whole  country  is  a  vast  garden,  still  justifying 
the  saying  formerly  applied  to  all  the  country  between  Tushkend  and  Khiva, 
that  "  a  cat  could  pass  along  the  roofs  from  town  to  town."      The  largest  places 

Pig.  141.— Khit*. 


M<»qne».      PaUoe  of  ibe  Khan-      Sehooli. 


OaniTuiMnu. 
i_^_  1.060  Twdt. 


■ 
Gibbet. 


in  Miankal  are  Ziyaweddin,  Yani-kurgan,  and  Eermineh,  peopled  chiefly  by 
Uzbegs,  who  are  here  excellent  ^.griculturists. 

Below  Bokhara  the  chief  station  on  the  route  to  O^r.rjui  is  Kara-kul,  or  "  Black 
Lake."  During  the  floods  the  river  reaches  this  point,  where  a  basin  still  known 
as  the  Denghiz,  or  "  Sea,"  receives  the  overflow,  which  evaporates  without  cross- 
ing the  sands  to  the  Oxus.  In  1820,  when  the  water  must  have  been  far  more 
abundant  than  at  present,  Eara-kul  is  said  to  have  had  a  population  of  20,000, 
a  number  which  woidd  now  inevitably  perish  of  thirst  in  a  district  formerly 
irrigated  by  a  network  of  canals  from  the  Oxus,  Zarafshan,  and  Sir. 

The  khanate  of  Bokhara  still  maintains  its  local  administration  and  the 
outward  forms  of  government.  But  the  substance  has  vanished,  the  Emir,  or 
"  Head  of  the  Faithful "  and  master  of  the  lives  of  his  subjects,  having  now  to 


2Q2 


ASIATIC  IIU8SIA. 


rrckon  with  oiir  moro  jxiworful  than  hiiiiM>If — tlio  Qovomor-fJoncral  of  ItiMmaii 
TuikcHtaii.  Kvni  within  liin  IntrdiTH  thi-  UuNHian  iort  of  St.  (Jt'or^^c  wan  cnrtiMl 
ill  iHT'i  at  Kuhi-ata,  to  ^uanl  tho  Ami'i  route  bvtwct'u  TaHhltcnd  ami  Khiva. 
Ilmcofortli  ChriNtiaii  Nti-anf(«TH  havu  to  fear  neither  torture  nor  iniprlHonment, 
and  even  the  niuch-abuM-d  Jewn  now  Hnd  protection  from  extortion,  while  the 
slave  niarketM  are  (■h)He<l  and  the  traftie  in  human  flenh  at  luunt  outwardly  HUp- 
jireHWHl.  The  treaty  of  18711  alM)li^4hin^  the  nlavo  trade  aluo  mi-ured  to  the 
KuHHiuuH  the  free  navif^ation  of  the  Oxuh,  and  the  right  tu  conHtruct  quuytt  un*i 

Fig.  143.— A  MiNAHiT  IN  Khiva. 


depots  along  its  banks.  All  the  towns  of  Bokhara  were  thrown  open  to  Russian 
trade,  the  subjects  of  the  Czar  were  authorised  to  exercise  every  industry  on  an 
equal  footing  with  the  natives,  and  were  allowed  to  settk'  as  landowners  in  the 
khanate.  A  Russian  minister  was  also  accredited  to  the  emir's  court,  intrusted 
to  watch  over  the  execution  of  the  treaty,  while  police  regulations  were  framed 
to  prevent  any  one  from  passing  from  Russian  to  Bokhara  territory  without  the 
formal  authorisation  of  the  imperial  Government.  The  police  of  Russia  thus 
penetrates  farther  than  her  armies  into  the  heart  of  the  continent,  and  through 


-^"suHii 


KHIVA. 


208 


[>rill    of    UllAHillh 

I'm'  wiiH  cnrtcd 

11(1  iiikI  Khiva. 
iiiipriHoniiu'iit, 

■tioii,  whilu  i\w 
niitwurdly  mi])- 
w«'ur«'<l    to   the 

truct  quuyH  uiitl 


hor  voHsul  Htuto  mIui  cun  now  iimko  lierwlf  ft>lt  on  tlic  KuMhinir  and  At'M:lian 
frontiofM.  Of  the  foniintrciul  udvuutugus  Hccurttl  to  her  by  tho  treaty  Hio  huH  ho 
fur  Mcarcfly  niudu  any  urn*.  .■" -^ 

Tho  H«ikhuru  army,  now  umi'U'hm  for  military  pnrposos,  hnn  hocom"  a  mri  of 
irregular  ixdico,  com|M)ru<(l  of  Sarto  voliintt>t>rH  and  Pcrwian  froiKlmrn  forin^'rly 
HoU'  by  tho  TurkonianM  in  th(>  Hokhara  niurk(>t.  The  w<irdn  of  cotuniand,  framed 
by  the  Cossuck  desortor  I'opov,  who  bwuuio  conununder-in-ehiof,  uro  delivered  iu 

Pi|r.   143. — Khiva:   Kxtchioh  ok  a  Moiqir. 


Russian,  but  mixed  with  some  English  and  T(^rki  t^rms,  and  tho  uniform  of  the 
troops  is  a  distant  imitation  of  that  of  the  Indian  sepoys. 


I  open  to  Kussian 
ry  industry  on  an 
mdowners  iu  the 
J  court,  intrusted 
ions  were  framed 
itory  without  the 
B  of  Russia  thus 
ont,  and  through 


IV.-KHIVA. 

•  Khiva,  like  Bokhara,  is  also  a  vassal  state ;  but  owing  to  its  geographical  posi- 
tion much  more  directly  dependent  on  Russia.  The  right  bank  of  tho  Amu, 
which  separates  the  khanate  from  the  Russian  possessions,  is  lined  with  forts 
and  fortifications,  whence  the  troops  of  the  Czar  might  in  four-and-twenty  hours 
reduce  the  whole  oasis.  Although  the  official  area  of  the  country  is  stated  to  be 
23,000  square  miles,  with  a  popiilation  of  700,000,  most  of  the  land  is  a  desert, 
blending  imperceptibly  with  the  irrigated  tracts.     "Where   the  canals  stop   the 


mmtm 


INMMMMH 


264 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


1 


m 

m 


last  permanent  villages  cease,  so  that  the  whole  settled  population  is,  so  to  say, 
grouped  under  the  guns  of  the  Eussian  strongholds.  It  took  the  Muscovites 
over  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  to  finally  subdue  a  region  defended  on  the  south, 
west,  and  north-west  by  almost  impassable  wastes.  On  two  occasions,  in  170!J 
and  1740,  the  khans  had  declared  themselves  Russian  subjects,  but  the  treaties 

Fig.  144. — Krabnotodbk  Bay. 
Scale  l:i»0,(  00. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  Sa  Feet. 


83  Feet  and  npwaida. 
6  Miles. 


had  remained  inoperative,  and  the  people  persisted  in  their  hostility  to  the 
foreigner.  In  1717  the  Kabardian  Prince  Bekovich  Cherkaskiy,  sent  by  Peter 
the  Great  to  give  a  body-guard  to  the  khan,  and  thus  prepare  for  Russian 
supremacy,  made  a  first  expedition  against  the  country,  which  ended  in  a  com- 
plete disaster.  In  1839  the  campaign  conducted  by  Perovskiy,  at  the  head  of 
20,000  men  and  a  train  of  10,000  camels,  also  ended  in  failure.     But  a  decisive 


tion  is,  so  to  say, 
k  the  Muscovites 
idcd  on  the  south, 
jccasions,  in  1703 
3,  but  the  treaties 


ir  hostility  to  the 
skiy,  sent  by  Peter 
repare  for  Russian 
h  ended  in  a  com- 
:iy,  at  the  head  of 
ire.     But  a  decisive 


^sm^smm 


-^i-— 


KHIVA. 


265 


yi 


invasion  took  place  in  1873,  when  columns  of  troops  from  the  Caspian,  Orenburg, 
the  Sir,  and  Tashkend  overran  the  country  from  all  quarters  simultaneously. 
Khiva  was  taken  almost  without  a  blow,  and  the  only  serious  struggles  were  not 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  oasis,  but  with  their  temporary  allies  the  Turkomans 
of  the  Caspian.  Expeditions  are  still  from  time  to  time  sent  against  them  to 
protect  the  Lower  Oxus  districts  from  their  forays. 

Of  all  the  cultivated  regions  in  Turkestan,  Ehiva  best  deserves  the  encomiums 
of  the  Eastern  poets.  Everywhere  water  flows  in  abundance,  bordered  by  jwplars, 
(ilms,  and  other  trees ;  the  fields  are  encircled  by  avenues  of  mulberries ;  the  white 
houses  are  like  bowers  buried  in  foliage  and  flowers;  the  nightingale,  scarcely 
elsewhere  known  in  Tatary,  here  warbles  in  every  rose-bush.  The  land,  yearly 
renewed  by  the  alluvia  of  the  river,  is  inexhaustibly  fertile,  producing  magnificent 
fruits  and  vegetables.  Its  melons  and  pistachio  nuts  are  renowned  even  in  Pekin, 
and  the  Emperors  formerly  exacted  a  certain  quantity  of  them  from  their  Kash- 
garian  tributaries.  Compared  with  that  of  other  Turkestan  countries  the  popula- 
tion of  Khiva  is  consequently  very  dense,  and  might  be  doubled,  or  even  tripled, 
without  overtaxing  the  resources  of  the  land. 

Khiva,  capital  of  this  ancient  region  of  Kharezm,  or  Khovarezm,  a  term  said 
to  mean  "  Lowlands,"  is  scarcely  more  than  an  aggregate  of  mud  hovels,  between 
which  wind  narrow  lanes,  muddy  or  dusty  according  to  the  seasons.  It  is  enclosed 
by  a  low  earth  wall  lined  with  pools  of  slimy  water.  In  the  centre  another 
c  "then  wall,  26  to  30  feet  high,  surrounds  the  citadel,  residence  of  the  khan  and 
al  functionaries.  Here  also  are  the  chief  mosques  and  schools,  none  of  which 
r  ichitecturally  remarkable  except  the  edifice  containing  the  tomb  of  the 
Mussulman  saint  Polvan,  or  Pehlivan,  patron  of  Khiva.  The  western  quarter, 
laid  out  in  gardens  and  shady  terraces,  is  a  much  more  pleasant  resort.  Here  the 
avenues  intermingle  with  the  canals,  and  above  the  crenellated  walls  of  the  citadel 
the  dunes  and  minarets  stand  out  against  a  backgroimd  of  blue  sky.  In  the  other 
quarters  there  are  more  cemeteries  than  gardens,  the  abodes  of  the  dead  here 
mingling  with  those  of  the  living. 

Before  the  expedition  of  1873  Khiva  was  one  of  the  chief  slave  markets  in 
Asia.  Here  the  Turkomans  sold  their  gangs  of  captives  taken  or  purchased  on  the 
Caspian  shores,  and  along  the  Persian,  Herat,  and  Afghan  borders.  The  most 
highly  prized  as  labourers  were  the  Russians ;  all  belonged  mostly  to  the  khan 
and  other  dignitaries,  and  many  often  rose  to  the  highest  positions  in  the  State. 
On  the  arrival  of  the  Hussian  troops  in  1873  they  revolted  in  several  places, 
and  plundered  their  owners'  houses.  The  latter  appealed  to  the  Czar's  generals, 
and  presently  the  bodies  of  rebel  slaves  were  dangling  from  gibbets  set  up  in  the 
very  centre  of  the  slave  market.  The  captives  were  slaughterefl  wholesale,  and  to 
prevent  the  survivors  from  escaping,  the  Khivans  sliced  off  their  calves  or  the  soles 
of  their  feet,  filling  the  sores  with  chopped  horsehair.  The  Russian  Governor- 
General,  who  had  been  hailed  by  these  wretched  creatures  as  their  liberator,  tardilj' 
resolved  to  justify  their  hopes.  The  abolition  of  slavery  was  proclaimed,  and  the 
emancipated  captives,  to  the  number  of  37,000,  sot  out  to  return  to  their  homes. 
18 


206 


ASTATIC  RUSSIA. 


But  on  the  routes  across  the  desert  thousands  fell  victims  to  disease,  exhaustion,  and 
the  Turkoman  marauders. 

At  the  time  of  the  IluHsian  occupation  the  population  of  the  city  of  Khiva  was 
estimated  at  4,000  or  5,000  souls,  chiefly  half-caste  Uzbegs  and  Iranians,  bcHidis 
Sartes  and  emancipated  Persians,  speaking  the  local  Turki  dialect.  Most  of  the 
Khivans  are  of  disagreeable  and  even  harsh  appearance,  their  features  bein}> 
generally  marked  by  small-pox,  cutaneous  eruptions,  ophthalmic  afPections,  tlic 
abuse  of  opium  or  hashish.  The  children  have  a  pleasant,  expression,  but  all 
vivacity  disappears  with  age,  and  decrepitude  soon  sets  in.     Owing  to  the  high 


Fig.  H6. — CiiELKKKSJ  Island  and  Michabl  Gulf. 
Boole  1  :  810,000. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


18  to  32  Feet.         na  Feet  anil  upward". 
____^  12  Miles. 


Persian  caps  worn  all  the  year  round,  the  ears  of  the  men  stand  out  from  the  head, 
a  trait  by  which  they  may  be  recognised  at  a  glance  amongst  the  other  inhabitants 
of  Turkestan.     The  turban  is  worn  only  by  the  clergy. 

The  trade  and  industry  of  Khiva  are  unimportant.  Some  inferior  silks  and 
strong  cottons  are  manufactured;  but  most  of  the  woven  and  other  goods  are 
imported  from  Russia.  In  the  bazaars  may  also  be  purchased  some  English 
cottons,  and  the  green  tea  imported  from  India  through  Kabul  and  Bokhara,  The 
chief  merchants  trading  with  Russia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan  reside,  not  in  Khiva 
itself,  but  in  TJrgenj,  the  largest  city  of  the  khanate,  24  miles  north-west  of  the 


^rmaii 


KHIVA. 


267 


>xhau8tion,  uud 

of  Khivu  wiis 
uiiiuns,  benidi's 
Most  of  the 
finiturcs  boiii<4 
aifcctions,  the 
•ession,  but  all 
ig  to  the  liifjfli 


it  from  the  head, 
other  inhabitants 

iiferior  silks  and 
other  goods  are 
?d  some  English 
d  Bokhara.  The 
ide,  not  in  Khiva 
lorth-west  of  the 


capital,  near  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Urgenj  ia  surrounded  by  mud  walls,  and 
has  a  present  population  of  30,000.  It  was  till  recently  known  as  Yuni-urgenj,  or 
"  New  Urgenj,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Kunia-urgeuj,  or  old  town,  destroyed  by 
Tamerlane,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  utterly  ruined,  when  the  Oxus  receded 
farther  east.     The  famous  town  of  Kungrad,  on  the  Taldik,  is  threatened   by 

P'ig.  146.— IIassan-kamh  Bat. 
Settle  I  :  800,000. 


OtolAFeet 


16  Feet  and  apward* 
_—  0  KUea. 


a  similar  fate,  since  this  branch  has  dwindled  to  a  sluggish  stream  lost  amidst  the 
reeds.  Khojeili,  at  the  head  of  thr  delta  proper,  over  against  the  fortress  of 
Nukus,  has,  on  the  other  hand,  acquired  some  importance  through  its  traffic  with  the 
surrounding  nomads.  It  is  said  to  bo  entirely  peopled  by  Hajis,  Mecca  pilgrims, 
here  called  Moj'a,  or  Khoja,  whence  its  name. 


P^! 


268 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Tho  Khan  of  Khiva,  like  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  is  in  theory  master  of  the  lund 
and  life  of  his  subjects,  and  till  recently  he  made  terrible  use  of  his  power  by  the 
still  remembered  torture,  "  bug  pits,"  sword,  rope,  and  stake.  But  these  horrors, 
on  which  custom  had  always  imposed  certain  limits,  are  now  at  an  end.  The  true 
master  of  the  land  is  now  the  Russian  resident,  armed  with  the  treaty  of  1873,  in 
which  the  khan  declares  himself  "  the  humble  servant  of  the  Emperor  of  all  the 
Russias."  To  the  Czar's  subjects  he  grants  free  trade  in  all  his  cities,  besides  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Oxus,  engaging  to  supply  sites  for  the  Russian  depots,  and 
to  keep  in  good  repair  the  artificial  works  executed  by  his  conquerors  along  the 
course  of  the  river.  He  recognises  the  prior  claim  of  all  Russian  creditors,  and 
constitutes  himself  a  debtor  to  tho  St.  Petersburg  Government  in  tho  sum  of 


Fig.  147. — Abhuh-apbh. 
Bottle  1  :  770,000. 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  .S3  Feet. 


82  Feet  nnd  npwardi. 
..  12  MUes. 


2,200,000  roubles,  the  last  instalment  of  which  will  be  paid  off  in  1893.  If  not,  the 
whole  khanate  is  pledged  for  the  amount.  Khiva  is,  in  fact,  a  Russian  province, 
though  still  ungarrisoned. 


v.— RUSSIAN  TURKESTAN. 

The  portion  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  basin  actually  annexed  to  Russia  is  far  more 
extensive,  though  relatively  more  scantily  peopled,  than  the  tributary  or  less  inde- 
pendent states.  Lying  more  to  the  north,  it  comprises  less  fertile  tracts,  while  the 
regions  towards  which  Slav  colonisation  is  being  attracted  are  the  farthest  removed 
from  Russia  proper.  Steppes  900  miles  broad  separate  these  New  Russias  from 
the  mother  country,  and  the  forts  and  postal  stations  connecting  the  colonies  with 
the  Ural  and  Volga  basins  very  slowly  grow  into  villages  and  towns. 

Amongst  the  lands  still  lacking  a  sedentary  population,  the  least  inhabited  is 
the  vast  province  stretching  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Aral  west  and  east,  and  from 


t-'wjt^a^wgJwa^y^wstii^^'aBiafe^^ 


RUSSIAN  TURKESTAN. 


W^W' 


tor  of  the  land 

power  by  t\\v 

these  horrors, 

nd.      The  true 

ity  of  1873,  ill 

Tor  of  all  the 

ies,  besides  tho 

iun  dep6ts,  and 

rors  along  the 

creditors,  and 

in  the  sum  of 


3T 


^'r- 


;of  G 


93.     If  not,  the 
issian  province. 


the  Ural  to  the  Atrek  river,  north  and  south.  Tliis  region,  officially  known  as  the 
"  Trans-Ca.spian  Division,"  depends  on  the  government  of  Caucasia,  and  has 
hitherto  been  regarded  as  little  more  than  a  simple  coast  district  over  against 
Baku,  whence  troops  and  supplies  are  most  easily  forwarded.  The  only  fixed 
establishments  are  a  few  fortresses  and  entrenched  camps  at  the  more  accessible 
points  on  the  coast,  or  the  most  convenient  as  centres  of  attack  against  the  nomads 
of  the  interior.  Some  of  the  forts  have  already  been  abandoned,  either  for  want  of 
water,  their  unhealthy  climate,  or  utter  uselessness.  Several  fortified  stations  on 
the  Manghishlak  peninsula  ure  now  a  mere  heap  of  ruins ;  but  the  somewhat 

Fig.  148. — Vallbis  of  thi  AtuBK  and  Oi'hocn. 

Scale  1  : 2,965,000. 


58" 


!?3 


77?OT1R5»!TC 


tofG 


54' 


56* 


0  to  16  Feet. 


16  to  83  Feet. 


32  Feet  and  npwurds. 
,  60  Milea. 


issia  is  far  more 
,ry  or  less  inde- 
;ract8,  while  the 
arthest  removed 
w  Russias  from 
le  colonies  with 
s. 

ast  inhabited  is 
1  east,  and  from 


thriving  fishing  village  of  Nikolayevsk  has  sprung  up  near  Fort  Alexandrovsk, 
imder  shelter  of  the  Tuk-kuragan  headland. 

Of  all  the  coast  stations  the  most  important  is  Kraanovodsk,  the  old  Kizil-su,  or 
"  Red  Water,"  at  the  head  of  the  peninsida  running  west  of  the  Balkan  Gulf. 
The  neighbouring  pastures,  springs,  and  arable  lands,  besides  the  deep  water  of 
the  bay,  which  scarcely  ever  freezes,  insure  to  Krasnovodsk  a  lasting  importance. 
When  the  harbour  works  are  completed  a  commercial  city  may  here  be  rapidly 
developed.  Although  with  scarcely  600  inhabitants,  Krasnovodsk  took  rank  as 
a  town  in  1877.  It  has  already  some  stone  houses,  a  club,  and  a  public  garden,  but 
still  lacks  perfectly  fresh  water.  Pending  the  construction  of  an  aqueduct,  it 
depends  for  its  supply  on  sea-water  distilled  by  condensing  apparatus. 


HtS#Mf.t'tfei^i'';<»-.-^:'->''i-y^tf'-''^li''!"-''-"''a'AVia'^^^^ 


270 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Tho  iiiiph<l>ii  wcIIh,  lit  tlio  foot  of  tlio  luMj^lilMuiring  Little  niilkmi  ImHh,  luivi- 
Ikhmi  liitluTto  littlc!  workod,  throii^rh  ft-iir  of  tlio  nuiraudiii^  TurkonmiiH.  IJut  over 
12,(KK)  wcIIh  hiivo  luHMi  Hunk  in  tho  iMlimd  of  ('holekoii,  tit  tlio  Houthoni  outrunoo  ol 
tlio  lliilkiin  (iulf.  The  nuphthu  in  lioro  roinurkubly  puro  and  uhmidant.  A  miif^lc 
woll,  oporipd  in  1874,  yioldo<l  100  tons  per  day,  and  the  whole  iHlaiid  maybe  Haid  to 
rest  on  a  vast  bituminous  lake.  KrasnoviMlsk  also  exports  sulplmr  from  tho  soutli 
of  the  Kara-boj^haz,  and  stdt  from  the  coast  lagoons.  It  is  now  the  chief  outjM>rl 
of  Khiva  on  the  Caspian,  havinj?  rejilaced  Kohnoh-ba/ar,  lying  farther  south  on 
the  so-colled  Buy  of   Khiva.     liustly,  it  may  serve  us  tho  base  of  the  military 


'J  1' 


Fig.  140.— Samauxand. 
Boale  1 :  170,000. 


.  SMOefl. 


Ef.i. 


operations  which  will  probably  ere  long  be  directed  from  the  Caspian  towards 
Merv,  Meshed,  or  Herat.* 

The  camp  of  Chikishlar,  near  the  Bay  of  Hassan-kaleh,  which  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Atrek,  is  much  less  favourably  situated.  Troops  can  here  be  landed 
only  on  flat-bottomed  boats,  and  the  neighbourhood  yields  no  supplies  of  any  sort. 
The  desert  begins  at  the  very  gates  of  the  fort ;  yet  numerous  scattered  ruins  show 
that  this  region  was  formerly  covered  with  towns  and  villages.  One  emporium 
has  succeeded  another  in  this  south-eastern  comer  of  the  Caspian,  which  is 
traversed  by  a  great  historical  route  leading  from  Western  Asia  to  the  Tian-shun 

*  Yearly  movement  bntwnon  Krasnovodsk  nnd  Khiva  (1874 — 7),  32  curavuus,  5,104  camel-loads. 
Mean  annual  yield  of  naphtha  (1874 — 7),  3,840  tuns. 


-'■'KSM 


BUSMIAN  TiniKESTAN. 


271 


kail  IuIIn,  huvc 

11118.       Itut  OVIT 

I'll  outruiu'o  <»l' 
ant.  A  mii^lc 
maybe  Huid  to 
from  tho  Hoiitli 
10  chief  outiMjrt 
irther  Houth  on 
)f  tho  military 


Caspian  towards 

ich  receives  the 
I  here  be  landed 
plies  of  any  sort, 
tered  ruins  show 
One  emporium 
ispian,  which  is 
X)  the  Tian-shan 

18,  d,lU4  uauicl-loadB. 


and  China.  Afiiidiiii,  whoHO  ruinH  uru  n«»w  mari{(>d  by  tlio  (JiiniiMji-f('iM\  or 
"Silver  ("lilV,"  bftwwn  the  HaNHiin-kah-h  Hay  and  tho  numth  of  the  (iiirjjfen,  was 
an  important  mart  in  the  eleventli  and  twelfth  een'uriew.  ItHcU-Htriution  i.s  mild  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  rising  of  tho  Caspian,  produced  by  the  inundations  of  the 
( )xuH,  when  this  river  had  resumed  its  course  to  tho  Jlulkan  Hay.  Abuskun  was 
successively  replaced  by  Nini-mardan,  ii  few  miles  south  of  tho  Ourgen,  and  Alhom, 
at  the  entruuco  of  tho  Hay  of  Astrabud.  A'  ^resent  An/iur-udr/i,  ut  the  extremity 
of  tho  long  peninsula  enclosing  this  buy,  would  bo  tho  natural  harlHiur  of  those 
waters  but  for  tho  oxtromoly  unhealthy  climate  of  tho  surrounding  low-lying 
swampy  district.     North  of  Chikishlar  are  Ak-tepc,  or  tho  "  White  Clilf,"  aud 

Fig.  160. — Samaukand:  Appuuacii  to  riir  ('itadii,. 


■■^i-::- 


"'^M^j' 


-:-m 


Oettk-tepe,  or  the  '*  Yellow  Cliff,"  round  which  the  Yomuds  have  often  pitched 
their  tents. 

In  the  Ourgen  valley  ore  the  ruins  of  Jordan,  the  ancient  Ilyrcaniapolis,  or 
"  Wolf  Town,"  a  name  which  passed  to  the  whole  country  and  to  the  Caspian  itself, 
often  called  the  Hyrcanian  Sea.  About  70  miles  north-east  of  Chikishlar  lies  the 
ruined  city  of  Mazduran,  whose  Persian  name  indicates  its  position  between  Iran 
and  Tm-on.  According  to  the  legend  an  archer  endowed  with  supernatural  force 
shot  an  arrow  from  the  banks  of  the  Gurgen,  which  fell  on  the  site  of  Mazduran, 
and  thus  determined  the  limits  of  the  two  empires.  The  former  importance  of  this 
place  is  shown  by  its  extensive  ruins,  especially  tli  ise  of  its  aciuoducts,  which,  at 
least  in  length,  were  surpassed  only  by  those  of  the  Koman  Empire  and  the  Ganges 
basin.  One  of  these  aqueducts  traversed  the  district  between  the  Atrek  and  its 
tributary  the  Sumbar,  crossed  th  >  latter  river,  and  after  watering  the  plains  of 
Ma>!duran  discharged  into  the  Caspian  after  a  total  course  of  9-j  miles. 


-^???Wf'S?^*^Sin'*t'^?Pi.-^l??j%i*'^^'"-""- 


272 


A8TATI0  RUSfllA. 


Fkrohaxa  B.vkin — TororjRAPiiY. 

In  tho  RuHHUin  poHHWHHioiiH  ill  TurkcHtaii  cunt  of  tho  Oxuh  in  tho  ZurafHlmii 
valley.  After  loavinjf  tho  luKhlundH  thiH  river  iH  dihtrihuted  by  iniinerouri  irrif^a- 
tion  rillH  over  the  I'eiijukeiit  dintrict,  beyond  which  the  MyHtoin  of  eunalH  Ih  Htill 
farther  develoj)('<l  to  the  north  of  Hanuukand  and  to  the  Houth-weHt  towards 
liokluira.  'J'o  these  fertilising  waters  of  the  Sogol,  or  Zarafshan,  the  ancient  Hogdiann 
was  indebted  for  its  fertility  in  the  midnt  uf  u  vast  Hcuiicircle  of  auuds,  and  to  the 


If'ig.  161.— BAMAUKAMii;  Tub  Guu-kmih  Tumu  or  Tambhlanb. 


.¥  MW- 


'-^  ^fyi 


}S^g^si&j,\ 


same  cause  is  due  its  present  population  of  30,000,  of  whom  two-thirds  are  of 
Uzbeg  stock.  According  to  the  Mazdean  legend  the  Sogol  is  the  second  Eden, 
"  created  by  the  word  of  Ormuzd." 

Samarkand,  capital  of  this  famous  land,  lies  either  on  the  site  or  close  to  the 
old  city  of  Marcanda,  whence  its  name,  which,  however,  some  refer  to  the  Arab 
Samar,  who  took  the  place  and  introduced  the  Moslem  religion  in  643.  Kesidence 
of  the  Samanides  from,  the  middle  of  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century,  it  became 
under  that  dynasty  "  the  asylum  of  peace  and  science,''  and  one  of  the  largest  cities 
in  Asia.  It  was  defended  by  110,000  men  against  Jenghis  Ehan,  but  after  its 
overthi  )^  by  him  the  population  was  retluced  to  '25,000  families.  Later  on  it 
became  the  centre  of  Tamerlane's  vast  empire,  but  it  waa  again  wasted  by  the 


tho  Ziirnt'Nlnm 

niorouM  irrif^a- 

caiiulN  JH   Nti 

I- west   towards 

tciont  Sogdianii 

ikIh,  and  to  thu 


•274 


ASIATIC  nUHSlA. 


,J? 


yi"»5»>. 


the  tiiiic  of  'l'aiii*<rluiio  aii<l  liin  Hiicci'NMirN.  From  ii  (liNliiiifc  iiic  viMilili' itlK)V('  it- 
walU  till'  lui'^c  liliio  (lotiioH  aii<l  \\\v  niiiiai'ctH  of  itN  moH(|tii>N,  its  palat'CH  and  rollc^t"*. 
In  tho  uortii-caHt  it  ih  e()innian<l(>(l  by  the  ('liiipun-ata  I'liiincnco,  crowmil  with 
|)iftiin'M|iio  riiiuH  and  tho  tonih  of  a  ruiint.  At  tliu  foot  of  tlii^  hill  the  ^rcatcanaN 
of  irri^;ation  hrant-h  off  in  all  diriH-tionN. 

Sinco  tho  lluHHian  (Mu-upation  a  new  ({uartcr  haH  Nprun^  up  wchI  of  tho  citaihi, 
rcmilarly  laid  ont  with  strootN  and  avonuoH  radiating  liko  a  fan  towanlM  tho  (h-Hori. 
Hut  wi;  inuMt  vinit  tho  labyrinth  of  narrow  lanoH  in  tho  Monloni  ([iiartor  to  roaliw' 
what  Haniarkand  waH  in  tho  (hiyn  of  itH  fj;roatnoHH.  Itn  niaffnihooiit  MduniU,  now 
flcluM>lM  only  in  nanio,  aro  unrivulU><l  for  tho  Hplondour  of  thoir  architocturo,  tho 
dotailN  of  whioh  Initray  tho  PerHian  origin  of  their  Hrnt  doHignorM.  Mont  of  tla^ 
pahuroH  dating  from  tho  Timur  dynaHty  aro  now  in  ruins,  though  tho  fa<,'adoM,  toworH, 
or  doiuoN  of  u  fow  aro  Htill  in  giMxl  ropair.  TIk*  chiof  public  Niptaro,  tho  IlighiHtan, 
in  Hankoil  on  throu  Hi(U>H  by  tho  KnoHt  oollogon  in  tho  placo,  including  tho  Ulug-bog, 
founded  in  1420,  tho  ronownod  HoluMd  of  nmthomaticH  and  aNtrononiy,  which  in  the 
liftoonth  century  niado  Samarkand  one  of  the  holy  placoM  of  wionco.  Tho  most 
magniH(;ont  mowpio  in  tho  city  and  in  all  (Vntrul  Ama  is  tho  Shah  Zindoli,  or 
"  Living  King,"  ho  called  from  u  defender  of  iHlam,  now  buried  in  tho  building, 
but  doHtiued  ono  (ky  to  riHC  again  and  reconcpier  tho  world  to  tho  faith  of  tlie 
Prophet,  Tamcrlano  rohts  under  tho  crj^it  of  another  mowino,  tho  Our-emir,  on  an 
cniinenco  near  tho  citadel,  and  still  commundod  by  a  minaret  of  rare  ologaniw.  In 
tho  vicinity  aro  the  tumbs  of  hia  wives,  with  iuHcriptions  commcinurating  his 
fame. 

Tho  citadel,  compriHing  a  whole  quarter  of  tho  town,  and  in  whi(  h  tho  IluHHiuiis 
have  sot  up  thoir  administrative  and  military  bureaux,  also  cotiiaiuN  nioMiues, 
tombs,  and  tho  old  i)alaco  of  the  emir,  now  a  hospital.  In  a  court  of  tliis  palace 
stands  alargomarblo  block,  5  feet  high  and  10  foot  long,  said  to  havo  been  brought 
hy  Tumorlano  from  Drusa,  and  to  have  hcen  used  by  him  and  his  successors 
as  a  throne,  and  on  it  were  also  beheaded  tho  unsuccessful  pretenders  to  tho 
sovereignty. 

Tho  inhabitants  of  Samarkand,  more  than  half  of  whom  are  Tajiks,  arc  more 
zealous  "  believers  "  than  those  of  Toshkoud  and  other  places  in  llu.ssiun  Turkestan. 
According  to  the  old  saying,  while  Mecca  is  the  "  Heart,"  Samarkand  is  the  "  Head 
of  Islam."  At  the  same  time  their  religious  fervour  does  not  prevent  the  people 
from  driving  a  brisk  trade  with  their  Russian  masters,  though  the  chief  traders  aro 
Jews,  Hindus,  and  Afghans.  Almost  tho  solo  industry  of  the  place  is  agriculture, 
which  has  converted  the  surrounding  plain  to  a  garden  in  tho  wilderness.  The 
population  has  risen  from  about  8,000  in  1834  to  over  30,000  in  1880,  and,  thanks  to 
its  hapi)y  situation  in  the  neighbourhood  of  hills  and  healthy  valleys,  Samarkand 
cannot  fail  to  become  a  chief  centre  of  European  civilisation  iu  Turkestan. 

Ascending  the  valley  of  the  Zarafshan  by  the  fortress  of  Penjakent,  the 
traveller  reaches  Eohistan,  the  romantic  land  of  the  Galchas,  with  its  gorges, 
cascades,  and  snowy  ranges.  Hero  are  also  some  remarkable  phenomena  resembling 
those  of  volcanoes  in  eruption.     The  Eunlagh  Alouutain  contains  rich  coul  beds  iu 


TOl'OUUAl'UY. 


•275 


,'iHil)l*>  alM)V(<  ii>. 
•fs  and  collf^jr-. 
•,  crowiifd  willi 
tli<>  );rcat  cuiial^ 

Ht  of  tho  ritnrlcl, 

vanln  thi'  (K-kciI. 

iiartrr  to  rcali^r 

lit  Mch<M)lM,  now 

in!hit«'ctur(>,  the 

MohI  of  till' 

fav"<U'Hi  towiTN, 

,  tlii^  IlipfliiHtan, 

n^  tho  l'liij(-lK';f, 

my,  which  in  the 

Mico.      Tho  most 

Shah  Zin(h>h,  or 

in  tlio  l)uil(lin^r, 

I  tho  faitli  of  thi! 

Our-oinir,  on  un 

iro  elopfanco.     In 

nmuiuurutiug  his 

hi(  h  tho  Russians 
otiliiins  niosqucH, 
irt  of  this  pahico 
luvo  been  hrouf^lit 
nd  his  BUcceHHorH 
prot  candors  to  tho 

Tajiks,  are  more 
usaian  Turkestan, 
aud  is  the  "  Head 
)revent  the  people 
D  chief  traders  are 
ice  is  agriculture, 
wilderness.  Tho 
180,  and,  thanks  to 
lUeys,  Samarkand 
iirkcstan. 
if  Penjakent,  the 

with  its  gorges, 
omona  resembling 
rich  eoal  beds  in 


combiiNtlon,  (mn'tting  dmno  vobimen  of  Nuioko  and  mcphitic  gasoK,  and  at  night 
iuMting  a  lurid  light  agairiMt  tho  Mky.  In  tlu>  higher  vall<'y-«of  tluN  n-gion  piiMtiiroN, 
(  ropH,  and  thickolM  fringe  the  river  bankM,  or,  as  at  V^ir/aminor,  elotlie  the  Hjiland 
alluvial  terraces  forming  the  haNins  of  dried-up  lakes.  The  auriferous  sunds  of 
tho  ZarafHhan  are  now  Hcarchinl  only  by  a  few  wretched  gold-waMliers. 

Tho  most  {MtpuhtuM  part  of  tho  oasis  is  that  which  forms  a  continuation  of  tho 
Miankal  district  of  liokhara.  Hero  the  villages  fonn  almost  a  continuous  town 
from  Katti-kurgun  to  l'enshandH>,  while  tho  orchards  present  from  a  distance  tho 
appearance  of  extensive  wmidlaiuls.  Some  'J4  miles  south-east  of  Samarkand  lies 
the  town  of  Uryul,  note<l  for  its  heroi(!  defenc*'  against  tho  Uui'iHians.  Farther 
south  u  detile  leads  over  the  Samarkaud-tau  down  to  SLehr-i-sebs,  while  in  thu 

Fig.  1j3. — Oakiii  ok  tiih  /AUArmiAN. 

fiokJn  1  :  M1U,U00. 


ETofG. 


A'"     .  ■  ■ 

.Our^eui'.     '  ■  i  ^        \     \.\ 


.80  HUM. 


north-oaat  a  large  gap  in  the  Kara-tau  range  is  traversed  by  tho  route  from 
Samarkand  to  Tasbkend  and  the  little  rive.  Ti  ak.  This  is  the  defile  of  Jilanuti, 
or  of  the  "  Snakes,"  so  named  either  fioiu  its  meandering  stream  or  from  the 
reptiles  gliding  amid  its  rocks.  This  important  pass,  guarded  on  tho  north  by 
tho  town  of  Jizak,  or  tho  "  Key,"  is  .  ae  of  the  historic  highways  of  Asia,  and  the 
scene  of  many  a  sanguinary  strnp^lo  for  the  possession  of  Zarafshan  or  Sir-daria. 
West  of  it  rises  to  a  height  of  400  feet  a  pyramidal  slaty  rock  known  as  the  "  Gate 
of  Tamerlane,"  thoug'-.  the  two  Persian  inscriptions  on  its  face  make  no  allusion 
to  this  conqueror. 

The  abundance  of  water  flowing  from  the  Tian-sban  valleys  to  Forgbana  gives 
to  this  basin  a  great  agricultural  value.     In  the  heart  of  the  mountains  tho  Narin 


270 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


flows  at  too  great  an  elevation  above  the  sea  to  permit  of  any  large  towns  springinr; 
up  on  its  banks ;  but  on  emerging  from  the  upper  gorges  and  entering  the  nortli- 
east  part  of  the  Ferghana  basin  it  soon  becomes  skirted  with  towns  and  villages. 
On  its  left  bank  stands  the  town  of  Uch-kurgan,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  oawis. 
But  the  valleys  watered  by  the  torrents  from  the  Towhktal  Moimtains  are  moro 
productive  than  the  lands  fringing  the  northern  bank  of  the  main  stream.  Thoy 
are  laid  out  chiefly  in  gardens  and  orchards,  while  the  oases  on  the  left  side  arc 
mostly  imder  cereals.  The  banks  of  the  Sir  between  the  two  zones  are  occupied 
by  steppes.  Hence  the  necessity  of  an  exchange  of  commodities  between  the 
northern  valleys  and  the  southern  plains. 

Namamjan  is  the  chief  town  of  the  oasis  lying  at  a  distance  from  the  river.  It 
is  a  large  place,  with  a  bazaar  containing  one  thousand  shops,  and  with  a  cotton- 
spinning  industry  for  the  materials  worn  by  the  natives.  As  many  as  300,000 
sheep  fi'om  the  northern  steppes  are  yearly  sold  at  this  place,  and  here  also  are 
constructed  wooden  floats  on  which  fruits,  skins,  and  felts  are  sent  down  the  Sir  to 
Perovsk  and  Kazaliusk.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  rich  naphtha  springs  and  coal 
beds.  Kaamn,  lying  north-west  of  Namangan,  in  a  well-cultivated  district,  claims 
to  be  the  oldest  town  in  Ferghana,  and  its  Tajik  inhabitants  are  the  finest  of  their 
race  in  Turkestan.  Chust,  on  a  stream  flowing  from  the  Choktal  Mountains,  is  a 
busy  place,  producing  knives  almost  as  highly  prized  as  those  of  Hissar.  Of  the 
mineral  wealth  in  the  neighbouring  hills  the  salt  mines  alone  have  hitherto  been 
worked.  On  a  steep  cliff  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sir  stands  Ak-si,  at  one  time 
capital  of  £okan,  and  :tamous  for  its  nielons. 

Populous  towns  are  also  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Eara-daria,  or  "  Black 
River,"  whose  junction  with  the  Narin  below  Baiikchi  forms  the  Sir.  Vzgheni,  at 
the  issue  of  the  Tian-shan  defiles,  has  become  famous  from  the  shrine  of  Haji 
Yusuf,  the  frequent  resort  of  pilgrims.  In  this  district  is  the  frontier  stronghold  of 
Qulcha,  guarding  the  Terek-davan  Pass  against  the  Chinese.  Andijan,  the  chief 
town  in  this  basin,  though  at  a  distance  from  the  river,  receives  its  waters  through 
the  irrigation  canals.  It  is  one  of  the  pleasantest  places  in  Ferghana,  thanks  to  its 
shady  gardens  and  deer  park  in  the  middle  of  the  town.  In  the  Kugaran  valley, 
lying  to  the  north-east,  are  the  carbonated  and  sulphur  hot  springs  of  Jalabad-ayup, 
much  frequented  by  the  Sartes. 

Osh,  south-east  of  Andijan,  and  on  the  same  river  Ak-bara,  a  tributary  of  the 
Kara-su,  occupies  the  issue  of  a  fertile  and  healthy  valley  leading  to  the  Alai  and 
Pamir.  Here  is  the  famous  Takht-i-Suleiman  ("  Solomon's  Throne  "),  a  moimtain 
the  theme  of  so  many  Eastern  legends ;  and  here,  according  to  some,  the  wise  king 
summoned  the  genii  to  execute  his  mandates,  while  according  to  others  it  was  here 
that  he  was  assassinated.  The  rock,  which  is  much  frequented  by  pilgrims,  com- 
mands a  superb  view  of  the  surrounding  highlands. 

Several  important  towns  are  scattered  over  the  Ferghana  basin  west  of  the  Ak- 
bara  valley.  Naukat,  Aravdn,  and  Asaakeh  stand  on  a  stream  flowing  to  the  plain 
south  of  Andijan.  Farther  on  are  Sharikhan,  now  much  reduced,  and  Marghilan, 
in  the  midst  of  extensive  gardens,  at  the  point  where  the  Shah-i-mardan  River, 


'"?rf' 


r 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


fit: 


towns  springiiiff 
cring  the  nortli- 
wns  and  villages, 
f  tt  fertile  ousis. 
untuins  are  moro 
a  stream.  Thoy 
the  left  side  aro 
mes  are  occupied 
ities  between  the 

om  the  river.  It 
id  with  a  cotton- 
many  as  300,000 
md  here  also  are 
it  down  the  Sir  to 
a  springs  and  coal 
«d  district,  claims 
the  finest  of  their 
il  Mountains,  is  a 
f  Hissar.  Of  the 
lave  hitherto  been 
Ak-si,  at  one  time 

i-daria,  or  "  Black 
3  Sir.  Uzghent,  at 
he  shrine  of  Haji 
ntier  stronghold  of 
Andijan,  the  chief 
its  waters  through 
hana,  thanks  to  its 
le  Kugaran  valley, 
;s  of  Jalabad-ayup, 

a  tributary  of  the 

ng  to  the  Alai  and 

one"),  a  mountain 

ome,  the  wise  king 

others  it  was  here 

by  pilgrims,  com- 

in  west  of  the  Ak- 
)wing  to  the  plain 
mI,  and  Marghihn, 
h-i-iuardan  Biver, 


flowing  from  the  Alai  glaciers,  ramifies  into  a  number  of  irrigating  rills.  Owing 
to  its  healthy  climate  Marghilan  has  been  chosen  for  the  capital  of  Ferghana, 
although  the  new  Russian  town  springing  up  here  lies  some  9  miles  from  the  old 
Sarte  town.  Besides  gardening  the  chief  industry  of  the  local  Sartes  is  camel-hair, 
wool,  and  silk  weaving. 

South-west  of  Marghilan  is  the  picturesque  valley  of  the  Isfairan,  the  entrance 

Fig.  164.— Fkom  Kokan  to  Mahohilan. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


41' 


ikehi 


n 


4«manjan 
Baltk 


41' 


^Mi'PMKt 


iKokM 


LDfG. 


-ZL. 


7l'5QL, 


ISIOlea. 


to  which  is  guarded  by  the  small  town  of  Uch-kurgan.  Farther  south  is  Vadil,  a 
pleasant  summer  retreat  on  the  Shah-i-mardan  River,  leading  to  the  town  of  like 
name,  one  of  the  most  frequented  places  of  pilgrimage  in  Ferghana,  thanks  to  the 
tomb  of  Ali,  which  it  claims  to  possess  in  common  with  so  many  other  Moslem 
towns. 


278 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


The  route  from  Vudil  to  Kohan,  or  rather  Khukand,  runs  north-west  by  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  to  Rishtan,  where  it  enters  the  plain,  here  watered  by  innuraorul)l(> 
rills  from  the  river  Sokh.  Kokan,  formerly  capital  of  the  state  of  like  name,  which 
has  now  become  the  Russian  province  of  Ferghana,  is  still  the  chief  place  in  the 
country  in  population,  trade,  and  social  culture.  It  was  founded  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  ago,  and  is  well  laid  out  with  broad,  regular,  and  tolerably  clean 
streets,  with  extensive  gardens  in  some  quarters.  Its  Tajik  inhabitants  speak  a 
remarkably  pure  Persian  dialect.  They  are  skilled  artisans,  largely  engaged  in 
paper-making,  weaving,  minting,  gold  and  silver  work,  and  other  industries.  The 
coin  most  generally  current  in  Turkestan,  and  oven  beyond  the  Tian-shan,  is  i\v' 
kohnn,  worth  about  sixpence,  and  struck,  as  stated  in  the  legend,  in  "  Kokan  the 
Delightful "  {^Khokandi  Latif).  The  inhabitants  suffer  much  from  goitre,  and  it 
was  owing  to  this  malady  that  the  Bussians  removed  the  seat  of  Government  from 
Kokan.  Its  bazaar  is  nevertheless  still  the  best  stocked  in  Russian  Turkestan, 
containing,  besides  the  local  produce,  English,  Russian,  Persian,  and  Indian  wares, 
antique  jewellery,  and  genuine  works  of  art.  The  chief  monimients  are  some 
mosques  and  the  old  palace  of  the  khans,  all  in  good  style  and  in  far  better 
preservation  than  those  of  Samarkand. 

Khojend,  the  nearest  town  on  the  Sir  to  Ferghana,  and  the  outlet  for  the 
produce  of  that  province,  has  already  become  a  double  city.  The  Mohammedan 
quarters,  occupied  almost  exclusively  by  Tajiks,  stretch  southwards  along  both 
banks  of  the  Iloja-bakargan,  flowing  from  the  Alai  range.  In  the  north  the 
steadily  increasing  Russian  quarter  occupies  the  space  between  the  old  town  and 
the  loft  bank  of  the  Sir.  In  summer  the  heat  is  intense,  the  solar  rays  being 
reflected  on  the  town  from  the  white  cliffs  of  the  Mogol-tau,  near  the  north  bank 
of  the  river,  while  the  atmosphere  is  charged  with  the  dust  from  the  surrounding 
steppe.  The  Hoja-bakargan  often  runs  dry,  and  then  the  women  have  to  fetch  the 
water  frdm  the  steep  banks  of  the  Sir.  Khojent  is  one  of  the  oldest  places  in 
Turkestan,  and  till  recently  occupied  an  important  strategical  position  near  the  old 
frontier,  over  against  the  fortress  of  Makhram,  and  not  far  from  the  point  where  the 
Sir  bends  north-westward  to  the  Aral.  South-west  of  it  stands  Irjar,  scene  of  the 
decisive  battle  which  in  1866  rendered  the  Russians  masters  of  the  land.  Another 
pi  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  records  of  the  local  wars  is  the  fortified  town  of 
Ura-tepe,  on  the  route  between  Samarkand  and  Jizak. 

Yani-chwnz,  or  New  Ohinaz,  at  the  junction  of  the  Chirchik  and  Sir,  is  a  mere 
hamlet,  which  the  Russians  hoped  to  i  ike  a  flourishing  city  at  the  head  of  the 
navigation  of  the  ri^  '^r.  But  this  project  was  defeated  by  the  diflicidties  encountered 
in  this  part  of  the  stream,  and  Eski-chinaz,  or  Old  Chinaz,  some  distance  off,  still 
remains  the  more  populous  of  the  two.  On  the  other  hand,  Eski-tashkend,  lying  to 
the  north-east  on  the  same  route,  has  been  abandoned  altogether  for  the  new  Tashkend, 
the  present  capital  of  Russian  Turkestan,  and  one  of  the  first  cities  in  the  empire. 
Covering  a  space  as  large  as  Paris,  nearly  8  miles  long  and  over  4  broad,  Tashkend,  or 
the  "  Stone  Castle,"  consists  mostly  of  low  houses  buried  amidst  a  dense  vegetation, 
•  in  which  the  poplars,  willows,  and  other  trees  lining  the  canals  are  topped  only  by 


west  by  the  foot 

by  innuraerublc 

iko  name,  whidi 

ief  place  in  the 

out  one  hundred 

tolerably  clean 

ibitants  speak  a 

yely  engaged  in 

industries.     The 

'ian-shan,  is  thrr 

in  "Kokan  the 

m  goitre,  and  it 

ovemment  from 

ssian  Turkestan, 

id  Indian  wares, 

iments  are  some 

ad  in  far  better 

le  outlet  for  the 
he  Mohammedan 
'^ards  along  both 
n  the  north  the 
;hc  old  town  and 

solar  rays  being 
T  the  north  bank 
I  the  surrounding 
have  to  fetch  the 
e  oldest  places  in 
ition  near  the  old 
e  point  where  the 
rjar,  scene  of  the 
le  land.     Another 

fortified  t«wn  of 

ind  Sir,  is  a  mere 
b  the  head  of  the 
ulties  encountered 
distance  off,  still 
ioshkend,  lying  to 
the  new  Tashkemf, 
ies  in  the  empire, 
■oad,  Tashkend,  or 
,  dense  vegetation, 
pe  topped  only  by 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


which  is  abimdnntly  supplied  with  wuter  from  the  snows  of  tho  Ala-Tau  and  the 
torrents  from  the  Choktal  Mountains.  It  occupies  the  centre  of  the  irrigated  and 
arable  lands  stretching  from  Samarkand  to  the  valleys  of  the  "  Seven  Rivers,  " 
while  communicating  by  easy  routes  with  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Sir,  Talas,  and 
Chu.  After  its  easy  capture  by  Chemaiev  nimierous  adventurers  were  attracted  to 
tho  new  city,  which  in  18G5  had  become  the  centre  of  Russian  authority  in 
Turkestan.  The  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  traders  thought  they  had  discovered 
a  new  Eldorado,  and  rapid  fortunes  were  at  first  made  by  wars  and  commerce.  Hut 
the  good  times  of  wild  speculation  soon  passed ;  most  of  the  Russians  now  resident 
here  are  the  Government  officials  and  the  military,  and  trade  has  again  fallen  mainly 

Fig.  156. — Khojekd  and  Neiohiiouuhood. 

Boale  1 :  460,000.  i 


UVObb. 


into  the  hands  of  the  native  Series  and  Jews.  Immigrants  from  every  part  of 
Central  Asia  are  met  in  the  streets  of  Tashkend,  and  there  is  even  a  considerable 
Nogai  Tatar  community  from  Caucasia.  In  1871 — 5  the  population  was  estimated 
at  82,986,  composed  of  the  following  heterogeneous  elements : — Sartes,  75,176 ; 
Russians  in  the  Asiatic  quarter,  1,289;  Rus^i.ins  in  the  European  quarter, 4,860 ; 
Uzbegs,  708;  Kirghiz,  375;  Jews,  293;  Germans,  110;  Hindus,  93  ;  Afghans,  25; 
Chinese,  3 ;  Nogais  and  others,  64.     Now  the  population  exceeds  100,000. 

The  broad  dusty  streets  lined  with  trees  and  white  houses  in  the  Russian 
quarter  form  a  striking  contrast  with  the  low  flat-roofed  buildings  of  the  Sarte 
districts.     The  roofs  ara  generally  composed  of  willow  branches  and  reeds,  covered 


■■•^ 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


281 


Ua-Tuu  and  tlu' 
le  irrigated  niul 
'  Seven  Rivers," 
B  Sir,  TaliiH,  and 
(vcre  attracted  to 
m  authority  in 
y  had  disco vohmI 
commerce.  Hut 
ans  now  resident 
iiin  fallen  mainly 


n 


B9-50- 


)m  every  part  of 
en  a  considerable 
ion  was  estimated 
— Sartes,  75,176; 
m  quarter,  4,860 ; 
3a  ;  Afghans,  26  ; 
100,000. 

8  in  the  Russian 
ings  of  the  Sarte 
md  reeds,  covered 


with  a  layer  of  earth  laid  out  in  grass-plots  or  flower  botls.  In  the  diy  season 
this  answers  very  well,  but  during  the  heavy  rains  the  whole  framework  is  apt  to 
collapse,  burying  the  inmates  in  its  ruins.  The  houses  have  generally  one  story  only, 
high  buildings,  such  as  palaces  and  mosques,  running  great  risks  from  the  frequent 
earthquakes.  In  summer  the  Russians  retire  to  Zangi-ata  and  ether  pleasant 
retreats,  whore  they  camp  out  like  the  Uzbegs  in  the  midst  of  sylvan  scenery, 
pure  air,  fragrant  flowers,  purling  streams,  and  warbling  songsters. 

The  growth  of  Tashkend  has  outstripped  that  of  its  industries,  which  are  still 
mainly  restricted  to  silk-weaving,  tanning,  the  manufacture  of  china  {chini),  felt, 

Fig.  167.— Plain  of  Tashkend. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


eufg: 


6&°50' 


69?a0' 


ISHflea. 


and  camel-hair  goods.  But  the  local  artisans  are  no  longer  able  to  compete  with 
the  products  imported  from  Russia,  consisting  chiefly  of  cottons,  silks,  hardware, 
wood  and  leather  ware,  and  colonial  produce.  In  return  Tashkend  exports  raw 
cotton  and  silk,  and  its  yearly  increasing  exchanges  now  amount  to  about  £4;000,000. 
Its  trade  was  represented  in  1873  by  82,600  camel-loads,  4,296  horse-loads,  and 
3,648  waggon-loads.  Great  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Government  to  establish 
an  international  fair  at  Tashkend,  such  as  those  of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Irbit.  But 
although  recourse  was  even  had  to  fines  and  other  coercive  measures,  the  commercial 
stream  refused  lo  enter  the  new  bed  prepared  for  it,  and  the  site  of  the  fair,  about 
19 


q^m 


282 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


5  miles  from  tho  rcgiJur  bazaar,  opened  in  1870,  hud  been  completely  abandoned 
four  years  afterwards. 

Tushkcnd  boasts  of  a  club  with  a  library  of  10,000  volumes,  an  observatory, 
a  school  of  sericulture,  a  normal  school,  and  an  Official  Gazette  containing  useful 
documents  on  Turkestan  and  the  surrounding  lands.  In  187U  a  branch  of  the 
Ilussian  Geographical  Society  was  established  here.  But  of  the  two  other  scientitii- 
bodies  one  was  killed  by  official  patronage,  the  other  by  official  oppression. 

Cliinkcnt,  north  of  the  capital,  occupies  an  analogous  position  in  a  well-watered 
district,  and  is  a  place  of  some  commercial  and  strategic  importance,  standing  in  the 
western  issue  of  the  broad  opening  between  the  Kara-tuu  and  the  Alexander  range 


Fig.  168. — A  Stribt  rtt  Tariikexd, 


1^*1 


m 


which  connects  the  Sir  and  Balkhash,  basins.     The  kumis  prepared  by  the  Kirghiz 
in  the  neighbourhood  is  said  to  be  the  best  in  Turkestan. 

Following  the  postal  route  from  Tashkend  to  Orenburg  along  the  southern  foot 
of  the  metalliferous  Kara-tau  range,  the  traveller  reaches  the  old  city  of  Tasi, 
where  Timur  founded  a  famous  mosque  in  1397  in  honour  of  Hazret  Yasavi,  special 
patron  of  the  Kirghiz.  This  mosque,  which  has  suffered  both  from  earthquakes 
and  the  Russian  guns  in  1864,  was  left  unfinished  by  its  Persian  architect.  Yet, 
such  as  it  is,  this  vast  ruin,  the  most  sacred  spot  in  Central  Asia,  still  produces  an 
imposing  effect,  especially  when  seen  from  the  steppe,  towering  with  its  square 
masses  above  the  ruined  walls  of  the  town.     This  region  of  Tatary  is  a  land  of 


¥ 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


288 


>tely  abandoned 

un  obscrvutnrv, 
mtaining  useful 

branch  of  th(^ 
0  othor  scientitif 
rcssion. 

a  well- watered 
,  standing  in  \ho 
A.lcxander  range 


ed  by  the  Kirghiz 

the  southern  foot 
old  city  of  Tasi, 
;ret  Yasavi,  special 
from  earthquakes 
,n  architect.  Yet, 
I,  still  produces  an 
ig  with  its  square 
itary  is  a  land  of 


ruins.  Numerous  fortresses,  formerly  defending  the  fords  of  the  Sir,  are  now 
abandoned,  and  the  plains  are  strewn  with  kurgans.  Otrar,  on  the  Sir  south  of 
Turkestan  (Yasi)  witnessed  the  death  of  Timur  in  1405,  and  the  site  of  Suran,  or 
Savrun,  another  ruined  city  west  of  the  same  place,  was  till  recently  marked  by 
two  elegant  minarets. 

The  ancient  Ak-meched,  or  "  White  Mosque,"  on  the  Lower  Sir,  takes  its  present 
name  of  Pcrovsk  from  the  Russian  General  Pcrovsky,  who  captured  it  in  1853, 
and  made  it  a  military  station,  round  which  a  now  town  has  sprung  up.  Standing 
at  the  head  of  the  old  delta  near  the  Yani-daria  branch,  it  lies  on  the  direct  route 
from  Persia  through  Khiva  to  Siberia,  and  is  doubtless  destined  one  day  to  become 
a  great  commercial  emporium.  Meantime  its  trade  is  less  active  than  that  of 
Kazalinsk,  on  the  main  branch  of  the  Sir.  This  town,  formerly  known  as  Fort 
No.  1,  succeeded  in  1855  to  Raim,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  as  the  military  station 
of  this  district.  It  lies  in  a  cultivated  and  well-watered  tract  at  the  intersection 
of  the  main  routes  from  Orenburg  .to  Tashkend,  and  from  Herat  through  Khiva  to 
Yekaterinburg,  and  has  already  become  a  thriving  trading-place. 

On  the  Lower  Oxus  there  are  nothing  but  military  posts  such  as  Petro- 
Alexandrovsk  and  Nukus,  commanding  the  banks  of  the  river,  or  villages  such 
as  Chambai,  mostly  deserted  in  summer,  in  winter  often  crowded  by  thousands 
of  Kara-Kalpak  nomads.  The  now  desert  tract  between  the  Sir  and  Oxus,  for- 
merly watered  by  the  Yani-daria,  was  at  one  time  dotted  with  numerous  towns, 
of  which  Yani-kend,  or  "  Newcastle,"  was  still  standing  when  Gladishev  passed 
this  way  in  1742. 

In  the  Kirghiz  steppes  stretching  north  of  the  Aral  Sea  Turgai  and  Irghiz 
are  small  towns,  deriving  some  importance  from  their  position  as  centres  of 
administration.  They  are  stations  gladly  hailed  by  the  traveller  after  his  long  and 
weary  journey  across  the  sands  and  steppes. 

Along  the  northern  foot  of  the  Tian-shan  there  stretches  a  zone  of  cultivated 
lands  comparable  to  that  of  the  western  slope,  but  containing  no  large  towns 
since  the  massacres  that  have  changed  most  of  the  Hi  basin  to  a  wilderness. 
Aftli-ata,  on  the  Talas,  the  first  post  occupied  by  the  Russians  east  of  the  Kara- 
tau,  although  not  yet  ranking  as  a  town,  does  a  brisk  trade  in  wheat  and  cattle. 
About  9  miles  farther  north  are  the  ruins  of  Tumkent,  also  on  the  Talas,  and 
30  miles  higher  up  are  the  far  more  remarkable  ruins  of  a  vast  structure,  whose  • 
blocks  of  red  sandstone,  6  or  7  feet  long,  cover  a  space  of  nearly  8  acres.  They  are 
said  to  have  been  hewn  for  a  Buddhist  monastery,  though  the  Chinese  traveller 
Chang-Chun,  who  visited  the  place  in  1221,  speaks  of  a  "  red  stone  town."  He 
also  mentions  the  great  tumuli "  disposed  like  the  stars  of  the  Great  Bear,"  and  known 
to  the  Kirghiz  as  the  "  Seven  Mounds,"  although  there  are  sixteen  altogether. 

The  region  stretching  east  of  Aiili-ata  along  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Alexander  range  is  the  country  of  the  "  Thousand  Springs "  mentioned  by  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  Hwen-T'sang,  and  where  was  established  the  kingdom  of  Kara- 
kitai,  or  "  Black  China,"  by  many  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  those  kingdoms 
of  "Prester  John,"  long  sought  for  in  Abyssinia,  Caucasia,  and  Central  xitsia. 


'«^B«as«!a«*«« 


tmmtmtmm 


9M 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


M 


IMr 


Hero  ruiiH  tho  grout  InHtoricnl  route  botweon  China  uiul  the  "NVpnI  ;  but  the  cities 
founded  along  this  route  by  one  conijueror  were  overthrown  by  another,  and 
nothing  now  remains  but  ruiuN.  Such  is  Tokmok,  the  old  capital  of  the  Ki{K-hak 
state,  10  miles  above  the  new  Tokmak,  centre  of  the  chief  Ilussian  colony  in 
the  valley  on  tl)e  route  loading  through  the  Koslek  Vam  to  Verniy.  This  place, 
now  capital  of  the  province  of  the  "  Seven  Rivers,"  is  the  old  Ahnati,  dutinir 
as  a  Russian  town  only  from  18(57.  Consisting  of  separate  (piarters  gradually 
approaching  each  other,  it  presents  quite  u  Siberian  aspect  with  its  broad  streets, 
low  wo(m1  or  brick  houses,  and  Russian  sign-lniards.  Yet  the  population  is  far 
from  being  exclusively  Russian,  including  representatives  of  nearly  all  the  Central 
and  Northern  Asiatic  races,  besides  Afghans,  Mordvinians,  Chuvashes,  and  Chcro- 
raissians.  Trade  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  who  have  several  indus- 
trial establishments  licre.  Verniy  is  the  depot  of  the  copper  utensils  of  Russian 
manufacture  used  by  all  the  i.. habitants  of  Central  Asia  as  far  us  the  confines  of 
Tibet.  North  of  it  are  the  village  and  fort  of  Iliisk,  guarding  the  passage  of 
the  river  and  the  routes  to  Kulja  and  the  territory  of  the  "  Seven  Rivers." 

In  the  latter  region  the  most  populous  place  is  the  city  of  Kopat,  at  tlie 
northern  foot  of  the  Zungurian  Ala-tuu,  and  on  the  river  Kopul,  which  is  lost 
in  the  swamps  some  60  miles  south  of  Lake  Balkhash.  Lcpsinak,  chief  town  of 
the  Lepsu  valley,  is  a  thriving  place,  and  Vjarskat/n,  beyond  the  Sussik-kul  und 
Alu-kid  Lukes,  does  a  considerable  trade  with  the  nomads.  Sergiopoly  the  old 
Aya-guz  of  the  Tatars,  is  conveniently  situated  on  the  Aya-guz,  flowing  to  the 
east  end  of  Luke  Balkhash.  Lastly,  in  the  heart  of  the  Tian-shan  the  centre  of 
Russian  civilisation  is  Karakol,  nearly  10  miles  from  the  custem  extremity  of 
Luke  Issik-kul. 

So  long  us  the  Slav  population  of  the  coimtry  was  limited  to  Cossack  detach- 
ments settled  here  as  military  colonists,  every  Russian  village  was  the  scene  of 
drunkenness  and  excesses  of  every  sort.  Instead  of  cultivating  their  own  gardens 
the  Cossacks  plundered  those  of  their  neighbours,  cutting  down  their  orchards  for 
fuel.  So  far  from  civilising  the  Ealmuks,  they  gradually  became  assimilated  to 
those  nomads,  not  in  their  honesty,  but  in  the  rudeness  of  their  manners.  To 
give  themselves  grand  airs  they  spoke  Mongolian  like  them,  as  if  their  Slav 
origin  were  a  mark  of  inferiority.  But  the  free  immigration  of  the  Russian 
peasantry  has  entirely  changed  the  system  of  colonisation,  which  is  now  making 
rapid  progress.  The  mir,  or  communal  system,  has  penetrated  into  these  fertile 
valleys,  where  Russian  is  replacing  Mongolian  culture,  though  many  years  must 
pass  before  the  land  can  be  as  extensively  cultivated  and  peopled  as  formerly. 
Everywhere  are  visible  the  remains  of  towns  and  Buddhist  monuments,  the  truces 
of  canals,  fimeral  momids,  many  of  which  contain  gold  vases  incrustated  with 
precious  stones. 

KuiJA  Basin — Topography. 

East  of  Verniy  the  river  Hi  waters  the  fertile  province  of  Kulja,  which  before 
the  terrible  events  of  1869  is  said  ,to  have  had  a  population  of  2,600,000.     But 


KITLJA  BASIN— TOl'OORAI'UY. 


;  but  the  cities 
[v  anotluT,  anil 
lof  tho  Kipchak 
iNNiun  colony  in 
liy.     Thin  place, 

Alinuti,  (latinj,^ 
[irters  f^nidually 

8  broad  streois, 
[opulation  is  far 
jy  all  the  Central 
fhcH,  and  Choro- 
'0  several  indus- 
nisils  of  RuMHian 
IS  the  confines  of 

the  passage  of 
Rivers." 

f  Kopa/,  at  tlie 
al,  which  is  lost 
ak,  chief  town  of 
e  8assik-kul  and 
^ei'ijiopol,  the  old 
z,  flowing  to  the 
han  the  centre  of 
em  extremity  of 

D  Cossack  detach- 
was  the  scene  of 
their  own  gardens 
their  orchards  for 
me  assimilated  to 
leir  manners.  To 
as  if  their  Slav 
1  of  the  Russian 
;h  is  now  making 
into  these  fertile 
many  years  must 
»pled  as  formerly, 
uments,  the  traces 
incrustated  with 


ulja,  which  before 
■  2,600,000.     But 


after  the  massacres  the  country  was  changed  to  a  vast  necroiKjlis.  On  all  siden 
nothing  is  visible  but  canals  choked  or  changed  to  swamps,  abandoned  fields, 
wasted  forests,  towns  and  villages  in  ruins.  Ascending  the  Hi  valley  lu'yond 
the  fort  of  liorokhud/ir  and  the  forest  of  dwarf  elms  planted  by  the  (Chinese, 
])ile8  of  stone  mark  in  succession  the  sites  of  the  towns  of  Turgcn,  Jar-kend, 
Ak-kend,  Khorgos,  Alim-ta.  The  walls  and  towers  of  some  old  fortresses  arc 
still  standing,    but   through    the 

breeches  nothing  is  visible  except  Fig.  IfiO— Kvua  and  Nriohhouhimo  Minks. 

heaps   of    ruins   half    concealed  *»!" '  =  i,8oo,ooo. 

beneath  the  rank  vegetation  and 
roots  of  trees.  The  city,  founded 
by  the  Chinese  in  1764  as  the 
capital  of  the  province  under  the 
various  names  of  Hi,  New  Kulja, 
Manchu  Kulja,  Hoi-yuan,  pre- 
sents a  woeful  spectacle.  The  walls 
of  the  fortress  are  still  standing ; 
here  and  there  is  seen  a  dilapi- 
dated tower  ;  sculptured  gateways 
and  walls  covered  with  frescoes 
contrast  with  the  confused  masses 
of  debris;  while  in  some  places  the 
ground  is  strewn  with  bleached 
bones.  After  the  Taranchi  but- 
chers had  done  their  work  the 
streets  of  Hi  were  choked  with 
80,000  bodies  of  their  victims, 
and  even  in  1876  the  only  symp- 
ton  ^  of  revival  were  two  or 
three  houses  occupied  by  Dun- 
gans.  Bayand>n,  farther  east, 
said  to  have  had  150,000  souls, 
has  now  nothing  but  a  few  frag- 
ments of  walls ;  but  the  little  town 
of  Snidun,  lying  north  of  it,  is  still 
inhabited. 

OUI   Kulja,    known    also    as 
Tatar  Eiilja,  Nin-yuon  and  Ku- 

ren,  standing  like  Hi  on  the  right  bank,  is  the  present  capital ;  but  it  enjoyed  this 
position  before  Hi  itself.  Like  all  the  towns  built  by  the  Chinese,  it  forms  a 
regular  square  surrounded  by  a  high  crenellated  wall,  broad  enough  on  top  to  serve 
as  a  carriage  drive.  Two  main  streets  leading  to  the  four  gates  intersect  each  other 
at  right  angles,  thus  forming  four  smaller  squares  of  equal  size,  and  themselves 
subdivided  into  others  by  streets  and  lanes.     But  although  laid  out  by  the  Chinese, 


1   Lead. 

X 

Copper. 

X 

Coal  Bed. 

1  8UT«r. 

^    A 

Cool  Kine. 

* 

Iron  Ore. 

••  MarMe. 
h.  Graphite. 

f 

t 

Abandoned  Iron 

Foundry. 
Abindoned  Qold- 

wuchlng. 

21  Milei. 

Manganese 
Coal-flelda. 

HilBaBiiii 


280 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Kulju  retains  tbo  uppouranco  of  ii  TurkcHtun  city  in  tho  architocturo  of  itn  inonu- 
inontM,  and  in  itH  bakod-ourth  honpoH  covorcdwith  (?luy  r<M»fM  liko  thoH(U)f  tho  Uzbeks 
and  SartcH  of  Central  A»<ia.  Tho  DunganH  and  ( 'hinow  f)f  tliis  phicc  do  u  oonHidcrabIc 
trade,  and  even  posNCHH  nouie  industrial  cstabliHhments,  niilln,  and  the  like.  But  the 
niarbloH,  iron,  sulphur,  coal,  and  other  minerals  of  tho  neighbourinj^  hills  are  littlr 
worked.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  and  amidst  tho  numerous 
mostjues  there  are  but  two  Buddhist  temples  besides  u  Roman  Catholic  chapel, 
serve<l  by  French  missionaries,  uud,  since  tho  Muscuvito  occuputiuu,  some  llussian 
chur(^hes. 

The  Russian  Government  having  occupied  Kulja  only  pending  tho  pocificatioii 
of  the  country  by  tho  Chinese,  tho  Slav  colonists  have  not  been  authorised  to  settle 
in  the  country.   A  few  soldiers,  traders,  and  travellers  have  been  the  only  Europeans 

Fig.  ICO.    DupuTRD  Tbrbitohy  in  Kulja. 

Boalt  1 !  0,000,000.  I 


lauMilM. 


in  the  Hi  valley,  in  the  midst  of  its  Tatar,  Kalmuk,  Taranchi,  Dungan,  and 
Chinese  inhabitants.  After  tedious  diplomatic  negotiations  a  treaty  was  at  last 
ratified  in  August,  1881,  in  virtue  of  which  Russia  restores  to  China  the  Kulja 
territory  as  far  as  the  river  Khorgos,  but  retains  a  strip  of  land  for  the  settlement 
of  those  who  may  become  Russian  subjects  within  the  year.  The  threatened  war 
having  thus  been  averted,  it  is  probable  that  other  settlers  from  the  West  will 
now  also  begin  to  make  their  appearance  in  the  fertile  valleys  watered  by  the 
affluents  of  the  Upper  Ili.  On  the  streams  in  this  part  of  the  Tian-shan  high- 
lands there  are  no  more  towns  or  villages,  but  the  numerous  rivers  show  that 
the  country  was  formerly  well  peopled.  In  the  valley  of  the  Tekes,  south-east  of 
Kulja,  are  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  capital  of  the  Mongol  khans,  now  known  to  the 
Kirghiz  as  the  Ak-kurgan,  or  "  White  Mound."  Buildings  belonging  to  diverse 
civilisations  still   give  evidence  of  the  struggles  formerly  engaged  in   for  the 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  TURKESTAN. 


\v  of  I'fH  innini- 

41  of  tho  lJi!b<'^;s 

oil  coiiNuhTabli' 

like.     Hut  till' 

hilU  uro  littlt' 

tho  numcruuH 

!)utholic  oliupol, 

|i,  some  ItuHhiu)! 

I  tho  pucificatioii 
loriscd  to  scttlu 
I  only  Europeans 


^gf 


Ay 


142 


li,  Dungan,  and 
eaty  was  at  last 
^hina  the  Eulja 
ir  the  settlement 
I  threatened  war 
a  the  West  will 
watered  by  the 
Tian-shan  high- 
ivers  show  that 
es,  south-east  of 
3W  known  to  the 
aging  to  diverse 
ged  in   for  the 


possession  of  this  magnitietMit  region.  In  tho  valley  of  tho  KuNh  nro  seen  miiny 
idols  and  blocks  bearing  Tibotan  iiiHcriptionM,  and  near  Khorgos,  oust  of  Kiilja, 
stands  u  most^ue,  in  its  style  resembling  those  of  Sumurkund. 

AdMIMSTRAIION   or  TrUKESTAN. 

Most  of  Russian  Turkestan  conNistH  t>f  pasturoH,  doHort,  and  other  wiisto  lands,  tho 
arable  space  being  cstinmtcd  at  present  ut  no  more  than  ono-fiftceuth  of  the  whole 
area.  But  altliough  the  water  supply  is  less  abundant  than  formerly,  the  rivers  now 
Howing  to  saline  basins  or  unhealthy  marshes  might  be  utilised  in  reclaiming  vast 
tracts  from  tho  desert.  Estimating  such  tracts  at  alK)ut  one-sixth  of  the  whole 
Aralo-Caspian  region,  this  would  still  represent  an  urea  larger  than  France,  and 
suiHcient  to  support  40,000,000  pitople.  Most  of  the  ro(piire<l  irrigation  works 
would  also  consist  of  restorations 
of  older  systems.     The  banks  of  tho  Fig.  lfll.-Ciu.NE.B  Tvpk,  Ktu*. 

8ir  north  and  west  of  Bokhara,  and 
nearly  all  the  space  between  the  two 
main  arteries,  were  formerly  under 
cultivation,  and  the  steppe  of  "  Hun- 
ger "  has  borne  this  name  only  since 
the  sands  have  invaded  mo  arlh, 
by  which  it  was  at  one  time  fur- 
rowed in  all  directions,  and  which  it 
is  now  proposed  to  repair. 

Tho  lands  brought  under  irriga- 
tion give  excellent  results,  even 
under  the  rude  system  practised  by 
the  natives.  All  tho  oases  laid  out 
as  gardens  support  one  or  more 
towns,  and  it  is  by  gardening  rather 
than  by  ordinary  tillage  that  the 
people  chiefly  live.  In  the  Bok- 
hara plains  the  gardens  ar*^   seven 

times  more  extensive  than  the  land  under  crops,  which  occupy  large  spaces  only 
on  the  slopes  of  the  hills. 

The  cotton  crop,  which  has  considerably  increased  of  late  years,  is  valued  at 
50,000  tons,  of  which  two-thirds  come  from  Bokhara.  This  plant  grows  us  far  as 
Eazalinsk,  on  the  Lower  Sir,  but  the  Asiatic 'fibre  is  much  inferior  to  the  American, 
iikd  is  also  prepared  in  such  a  slovenly  way  as  to  exclude  it  altogether  from  the  West 
European  market.  The  quantity  exported  to  Russia  rose  from  677,000  roubles  in 
1868  to  5,513,000  in  1867.  Silk  has  made  still  more  rapid  progress,  the  export  to 
Russia  having  increased  from  69,000  to  1,273,900  roubles  between  the  same  years. 
The  Bokhara  crop  alone  now  amounts  to  about  2,500,000  lbs.  In  some  districts 
the  mulberry  is  the  ordinary  tree  everywhere  lining  the  hedges  and  fields.  The 
native  wool  is  very  coarse,  and  so  badly  sorted  and  washed  that  it  is  useless  except 


Ui 


288 


•   ASIATIC  WU8SIA. 


for  \vi'uviii)<  inferior  cloth.  Yet  non»o  of  tho  curjK'tM  uri»  rcniurkaWlo  for  thi'ir 
HtrcMf^tl),  and  i>N|H>cially  for  tlio  iMMuity  aii'l  ori^:iiiality  of  tli«>ir  dcMi^iiN.  Thoy  ar<' 
woven  by  the  Turkoman  women  under  the  ^uidanee  of  u  matre'i.  who  trucer«  the 
(h'Mi^n  on  the  wind,  conntM  the  nmnlM>r  of  threa<li*,  und  .;;{'•  ^-^  ^hv  cdourn  an.i 
HhudeH.  Tlie  ctiniel-hair  fahricH,  also  very  mdid,  have  roplao^  i  \\ir--i  ''ir  oiekin^f, 
HohlierH'  l)loum^H,  and  other  ])iir|M)NeN. 

Hut  tlie  j'hief  wealth  of  the  eountry  in  itn  livo  Htoek,  vahie<l  altr  etlier  al 
l()(),(H)0,0(H)  rouhh'H.  The  fat-tuilinl  Hheep  NUpply  n  hir^e  quantity  of  the  talluw 
recpiired  for  h)cul  couHuniption.  The  Kirj^hiz  yearly  exjMirt  to  UuNNiu  ttlM)ut 
500,000  rouhloH*  worth  of  w«mi1,  while  the  mile  of  the  animals  theniHelveM  all  uh)n^ 
the  line  lu'tween  Troitzk  and  SomipalatinHk  amountH  to  .'{,.'jOO,000  roid)leH.  The 
Kirghiz  derive  an  annual  revenue  of  over  5,000,000  rouhleH  from  their  horwH,  and 
altogether  the  "balance  o\'  trade"  in  in  favour  of  thcNe  iiomadH  an  agaiiiHt  their 
IluHHian  nuiNters.  Yet  the  live  Ht(K'k  in  diminiNhing  from  the  effectM  «)f  cold,  NturniH, 
diNeaH(>,  and  other  cnuHCH.  Tlu*  importation  of  corn  into  the  HteppcN  Iuih  also  fallen  olf, 
owing  to  the  increamng  poverty  of  the  ntmiuds.  In  the  province  of  Turgai  the  cuttlu 
are  said  to  have  Iwcn  reduced  in  the  winter  of  1870-80  from  8(50,000  to  50,000. 

In  theory  the  Hoil  of  Turkestan  cannot  bo  hehl  absolutely,  the  right  of  poMHcs- 
Hion  existing  only  ho  long  uh  it  Ih  kept  under  cultivation.  If  allowed  to  lie  fallow 
for  three  years  it  reverts  to  the  State,  which  again  disposes  of  it  to  whoever  is 
willing  to  pay  the  tax.  The  land  incapable  of  tillage  may  be  said  to  bo  conunon 
property,  all  having  unrestricted  right  to  its  pastures  and  timber.  The  cultivated 
land  is  inherited  from  father  to  sou  without  tho  intervention  of  the  State,  except 
where  it  is  enjoyed  in  usufruct,  as  with  the  vaku/ lands,  whoso  revenues  belong  to 
religious  or  educational  bodies.  The  State  allows  the  owners  tho  right  to  a  certain 
quantity  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes,  but  may  regulate  the  rotation  of  tho 
crops  according  to  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  tho  supply. 

Comjjrising  so  many  desert  tracts  and  so  few  inhabitants  and  towns,  the  adminis- 
tration of  Russian  Turkestan  presents  special  difHcultios.  Owing  to  tho  absence 
of  any  common  centre,  tho  people  easily  escape  from  tho  direct  control  of  the  autho- 
rities, and  till  recently  many  were  able  to  maintain  their  indei)eudencc,  thanks  to 
thoir  nomad  life  and  the  vast  regions  over  which  they  roamed.  Tho  sedentary 
populations  also  occupy  the  territories  farthest  removed  from  the  centre  of  the 
empire,  and  if  loft  to  themselves  they  would  soon  form  new  political  groups  without 
much  regretting  thoir  release  from  the  Slav  yoke.  Tho  annexation  of  these  lands 
to  Russia  is  a  question  of  brute  force,  and  has  its  justification  neither  in  the 
sympathy  of  the  people  for  their  conquerors,  nor  in  any  resemblance  in  origin, 
speech,  culture,  habits,  or  customs.  In  every  respect  the  racial  antagonism  is 
complete.  But  for  the  ultimate  goal  of  India,  and,  perhaps,  China,  tho  Russians 
would  never  have  cared  to  penetrate  much  beyond  the  banks  of  the  Ural  and  tho 
shores  of  the  Caspian. 

Central  Asia  is  meantime  held  in  military  tenure.  Hence  the  necessity  of  con- 
necting this  region  with  European  Russia  by  means  of  good  highways.  Tho 
small  trade  and  resources  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  provinces  are  far  from  sufficing  to 


n  AIL  WAY  I'llOJKCTS. 


luibic    for   fh<'ir 

imiH.     Tlwy  MIC 

wlin  trii«"(th  the 

'•'■   (-tlourM  ati.i 

i«'      'if   on'kiii^, 

<1   alti   ;(<tlior  at 

ty  of  tlio  lullow 

)    UuNNJa    alMiiit 

iiHclvuM  all  ulon^ 

0  roublcH.     Tho 

heir  Iioi'nch,  and 

aH  a^aiiiHt  their 

t  of  cold,  NtoniiH, 

an  alw)  fullon  oil', 

Turffai  the  cuttk' 

00  to  50,000. 

right  of  poHMcs- 

wc'«l  to  lio  faUow 

it  to  wh(K«vt'r  is 

(1  to  bo  cotiunon 

The  cultivated 

the  State,  except 

k'enues  belong  to 

riglit  to  a  certain 

3  rotation  of  the 

wns,  the  udininis- 
^  to  the  absence 
trol  of  the  autho- 
idence,  thanks  to 
The  sedentary 
bo  centre  of  the 
il  groups  without 
>n  of  these  lands 
a  neither  in  the 
blance  in  origin, 
il  antagonism  is 
ina,  the  Russians 
the  Ural  and  the 

necessity  of  con- 
highways.  The 
from  sufficing  to 


jMiy  till'  (■«)Nt  iind  niaintcnaiice  of  a  gnnit  liin'  of  railway,  and  tln>  n>i|uir<>men(M(<v<>n 
f«ir  a  gn-utly  intn-am'*!  (raflic  wiuild  .still  lie  met  by  fho  caravan  Kcrvicc  acnmn  tint 
natural  routcH  of  tin-  Mtrp|M'  and  d»'M«'rt.  T\w  new  lincH  nttw  pnijccti'd  art>  acc(»rd- 
ingly  mainly  intended  to  eonnert  Tatary  with  lluNnia,  and  Muiro  the  abMoluto 
am!endttm'y  of  the  Czar  in  Central  An'm.  l-'or  miuIi  a  piir|tow>  the  rivers  and  houh 
of  the  land  are  of  littl««  u^e.  The  Oxuh  no  longer  tlown  to  the  CaHpian,  while  the 
Aral  and  itH  atllnentH  arc  navigable  only  for  liglil  «'raft  and  for  a  pnrt  of  the 
year.  The  cont  of  thiw  navigation  already  far  cxcectU  tlie  military  and  <•■  tnim  icial 
advantages  to  Ik*  derivinl  from  it.  Ilentie  the  project  of  a  trunk  line  lo  coiine«t 
Tashkend,  Samarkand,  and  llokhara  with  the  European  railway  system.     This  liuo 

Fiff.  162.— Phujrctii)  Railway  LiNrH  in  Wmtrhn  Aria. 

HoaId  1  :  flO.miO.OOO. 


Open 


•«— •— —     InPrcgnn. 


Riiuian  Projeeii 

..  Enffliib  Projeofi 

.  0<)0  Mile*. 


has  already  by  anticipation  been  named  the  "  Great  Central  Asiatic,"  and  hopes 
are  entertained  that  somo  day  the  trade  of  India  may  be  attracted  this  way. 

But  this  question  of  the  future  trimk  lino  to  India  is  affected  by  political 
rivalries.  The  Russians  on  the  one  hand,  the  English  on  the  other,  have  a 
national  interest  in  looking  at  things  from  different  points  of  view ;  and  the  lino 
oscillates  between  north  and  south  according  to  the  nationality  of  the  engineers. 
To  tho  projects  of  Lesseps  and  Baranovsky,  favoured  by  Russia,  are  opposed  those 
of  Hochstetter  and  Rawlinson,  more  convenient  for  Austro- Hungary  and  England. 
But  viewing  the  question  from  the  higher  standpoint  of  the  general  interest  of 
mankind,  apart  from  the  political  balance  of  the  states  struggling  for  exclusive  sway 


290  ASIATIC  EUSSU. 

in  Asia,  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  best  route  is  that  which  follows  the  most 
direct  lino  from  the  great  centres  of  trade  and  population  in  Europe  to  the  Ganges 
basin.  This  line  is  obviously  that  which,  starting  from  Calais  and  Ostend,  will  ere 
long  connect  the  Atlantic  seaboard  with  Constantinople,  and  Constantinople 
ultimately  with  India  through  Kandahar  and  Eurachi.  To  this  line  the  Caucasian 
might  be  connected  by  a  junction  or  branch  line.  With  the  north  Russia  will  also 
possess  one  of  the  great  highways  of  the  world's  trade,  running  from  the  Volga  to 
the  Hoang-ho  basin  by  the  historic  route  through  the  Zimgarian  depression.  Thus 
the  projected  Turkestan  lines  must  always  remain  subordinate  as  connecting  links 
between  the  two  great  trunk  lines  from  Europe  to  India  and  from  Russia  to  China.* 

However  useful  it  may  prove  from  the  commercial  point  of  view,  the  Turkestan 
line  will  at  all  events  have  no  great  physical  difficulties  to  overcome.  The  chief 
obstacle  occurs  at  Orenburg  itself ,1  its  western  terminus,  where  the  Ural  River  will 
have  to  be  crossed  by  a  bridge  over  1,330  feet  long.  The  "  Black  Sands  "  north  of 
the  Aral  will  not  prove  so  difficult  as  was  formerly  supposed,  the  dunes  being  here 
separated  from  each  other  by  level  tracts  nmning  south-eastwards  right  in  the 
direction  of  the  line.  Another  route  crossing  the  Emba  morass  follows  the  Ust-urt 
depressions  and  the  plains  of  Khiva,  ascending  the  Oxus  valley  towards  Afghan 
Turkestan  and  the  passes  in  the  Indian  iCaucasus.  Other  projects  consist  in  turn- 
ing the  Kara-kum  desert  on  the  north,  with  a  junction  to  the  future  Siberian 
system  vi&  Tro'itzk  and  Yekaterinburg.  The  section  from  Orenburg  to  Tashkend 
might  probably  be  laid  down  for  £8,000,000.  But  beyond  that  point  towards  the 
Indian  frontier  many  serious  difficulties  present  themselves,  nor  have  any  prelimi- 
nary surveys  yet  determined  the  best  route  through  Baktriana  and  over  the  Hindu- 
Kush. 

The  government  of  Turkestan  is  purely  military.  The  Governor-General, 
known  to  the  natives  as  the  "  Yarin-padishah,"  or  "  Half  King,"  disposes  of  royal 
powers  over  his  subjects.  He  is  at  once  the  head  of  the  administration,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  military  forces,  plenipotentiary  of  the  Czar  in  all  diplomatic  relations 
with  the  neighbouring  lands.  His  salary  is  fixed  by  no  regulations,  depending 
entirely  on  the  will  of  the  Czar.  In  order  to  increase  his  power  the  Siberian 
provinces  of  Semirechinsk,  Turgai,  Akmolinsk,  and  Semipalatinsk  have  been  attached 
to  Turkestan,  which  is  now  nearly  as  extensive  as  the  whole  of  European  Russia. 

The  various  provinces  are  administered  on  the  model  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ments, with  such  modifications  as  are  occasioned  by  the  preponderance  of  the 
military  element.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  named  by  the  Minister 
of  War,  and  assisted  by  a  provincial  council  chosen  by  the  Governor-General.     At 

*  Respective  length  of  the  projected  lines  of  railways  and  navigation  between  London  aud 
Oalcatta  :— 

Uiln. 

By  Calais,  Constantinople,  and  Eandahar 5,470 

„    Ostend,  Warsaw,  Baku,  and  Teheran 6,880 

i>  .,  Orenburg,  and  Tashkend         ....        6,480 

„    Brindisi,  Alexandretta,  and  Bassorah 0,88.5 

„         ..        Suez,  and  Bombay 7,200 

„    thfc  Cape  of  Good  Hope ,12  870 


follows  the  most 
ipe  to  the  Ganges 
[d  Ostend,  will  ere 
id  Constantinople 
line  the  Caucasian 
;h  Russia  will  also 
[from  the  Volga  to 
depression.     Thus 
s  connecting  links 
Russia  to  China.* 
lew,  the  Turkestan 
Ircome.     The  chief 
le  Ural  River  will 
Sands  "  north  of 
3  dunes  being  here 
ards  right  in  the 
bllows  the  Ust-urt 
y  towards  Afghan 
cts  consist  in  tum- 
le  future  Siberian 
iburg  to  Tashkend 
point  towards  the 
have  any  prelimi- 
id  over  the  Hindu- 

Govemor-General, 
"  disposes  of  royal 
•ation,  commander- 
iplomatic  relations 
lations,  depending 
ower  the  Siberian 
have  been  attached 
luropean  Russia. 
I  Russian  govem- 
jonderance  of  the 
1  by  the  Minister 
mor-General.     At 

between    London  and 

Miles. 
6,470 
6,880 
6.480 
C,88.5 
7,200 
12,870 


FINANCE. 


^ 


the  head  of  the  "  circles  "  is  a  prefect,  who  is  responsible  for  the  taxes  and  the 
maintenance  of  peace.  At  the  same  time  the  autonomy  of  the  tribes  is  not 
altogether  ignored,  and  their  usages  are  respected  so  far  as  is  compatible  with  le 
general  interests.  The  Kirghiz,  grouped  in  au/a  of  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  families,  and  in  larger  communities  known  by  the  Russian  name  of  rolost, 
or  "  bailiwick,"  choose  their  own  elders  and  judges  for  all  tribal  affairs.  The 
Uzbegs,  Sartes,  and  Tajiks  of  the  towns  also  appoint  their  akmkal,  or  "  white 
beards ;  "  but  this  privilege  depends  on  the  will  of  the  Governor-General,  who  may 
set  aside  any  of  the  elected  magistrates.  Hence  the  urban  elections  have  mostly 
become  a  mere  formality,  and  all  the  military,  administrative,  and  judicial  functions 
may  be  said  to  be  practically  in  the  hands  of  the  Russian  officer  of  highest 
rank  in  the  Turkestan  cities.  Freedom  of  worship  is  absolute,  and  the  absence  of 
persecution  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  diminished  zeal  of  the  Mussulmans. 
Public  instruction  is  still  but  slightly  appreciated  by  the  people,  and  in  thb  whole 
of  Turkestan  there  are  scarcely  more  than  6,000  Moslem  children  receiving 
a  regular  education.  Secondary  instruction  is  represented  by  the  medresse/i,  or 
"  colleges,"  where  little  is  learnt  except  the  reading  of  the  Koran.  In  some  of 
the  primary  schools  the  Russian  language  is  already  taught. 

The  chief  source  of  expense  is  the  army,  which  averages  30,000  men, 
but  which,  as  in  1880,  may  be  raised  to  80,000.  All  supplies  have  to  be 
drawn  from  Russia,  a  distance  of  2,400  miles,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the 
Turkestan  budget  always  shows  a  yearly  deficit  of  from  2,000,000  to  10,000,000 
roubles.  The  expenditure  is  about  four  times  the  income,  and  three-fourths  of  this 
expenditure  are  absorbed  by  the  army.  The  land  tax,  which  gives  rise  to  great 
waste,  produces  about  1,275,000  roubles,  and  the  whole  revenue  scarcely  exceeds 
2,600,000  roubles,  while  the  expenditure  averages  8,000,000  roubles.  The  income 
of  the  khanate  of  Kokan  alone  amounted,  before  the  Russian  conquest,  to  2,290,000 
roubles. 


■LJi^.-.l.i--  ,-....L^^.ij^..-:..^i.^.^'....  ^  ..^...t^.  .^...   ■^■^.    Y    "ii'  ifi  ■ 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SIBERIA. 


I.— SIBERIA. 

IBERIA  is  emphatically  the  "  Land  of  the  North."  Its  name  has  hy 
some  etymologists  been  identified  with  "  Severia,"  a  term  formerly 
applied  to  various  northern  regions  of  European  Russia.  The  city 
of  Sibir,  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  whole  of  North  Asia,  was 
so  called  only  by  the  Russians,  its  native  name  being  Isker.  The 
Cossacks,  coming  from  the  south  and  centre  of  Russia,  may  have  naturally  regarded 
as  pre-eminently  the  "  Northern  Land  "  those  cold  regions  of  the  Ob  basin  lying 
beyond  the  snowy  mountains  which  form  the  "  girdle  of  the  world." 

Long  before  the  conquest  of  Sibir  by  the  Cossacks,  this  region  was  known  to 
the  Arab  traders  and  missionaries.  The  Tatars  of  Sibir  were  Mohammedans,  and 
this  town  was  the  centre  of  a  great  fur  trade.  The  Russians  themselves  had 
constant  relations  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  Asiatic  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  the 
Novgorodians  were  acquainted  with  the  regions  stretching  "  beyond  the  portages." 
Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  the  Moscow  Czars,  heirs  of  the  Novgorod  power, 
called  themselves  lords  of  Obdoria  and  Kondinia ;  that  is,  of  all  the  Lower  Ob  basin 
between  the  Konda  and  Irtish  confluence,  a,  .d  the  station  of  Obdorsk,  under  the 
Arctic  Circle.  Their  possessions — that  is,  t^ie  hunting  grounds  visited  by  the  Russian 
agents  of  the  Strogonov  family— consequently  skirted  the  great  river  for  a  distance 
of  600  miles.  But  the  Slav  power  was  destined  soon  to  be  consolidated  by 
conquest,  and  such  is  the  respect  inspired  by  force  that  the  successful  expedition  of 
a  Cossack  brigand,  on  whose  head  a  price  had  been  set,  was  supposed  to  have  led  to 
the  discovery  of  Siberia,  although  really  preceded  by  many  visits  of  a  peaceful 
character.  Even  still  the  conquering  Yermak  is  often  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
explorer  of  the  lards  beyond  the  Urals.  But  he  merely  established  himself  as  a 
master  where  the  Strogoi.ov  traders  had  been  received  as  guests.  Maps  of  the  Ob 
and  of  the  Ostiak  country  hud  already  been  published  by  Sebastian  Munst^r  and  by 
Herberstein  a  generation  before  the  Cossacks  entered  Sibir.  The  very  name  of  this 
town  is  marked  on  Munster's  map. 


ir 


rEOGEESS  OF  CONQUEST  AND  DISCOVEEY. 


m 


Proorkss  of  Conqttest  and  Discovery. 


name  has  by 
erm  formerly 
The  city 
rth  Asia,  was 

Isker.  The 
•ally  regarded 
b  basin  lying 

ras  known  to 
nmedans,  and 
emselves  had 
Jrals,  and  the 
lie  portages." 
gorod  power, 
►wer  Ob  basin 
sk,  under  the 
y  the  Bussian 
for  a  distance 
isolidated  by 
expedition  of 
to  have  led  to 
>f  a  peaceful 
18  a  sort  of 
himself  as  a 
ps  of  the  Ob 
mster  and  by 
name  of  this 


In  1579  Yermak  began  the  second  plundering  expedition,  which  in  two 
years  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  capital  of  the  Tatar  kingdom.  When  the 
conquerors  entered  Sibir  they  had  been  reduced  from  over  800  to  about  400 
men.  But  this  handful  represented  the  power  of  the  Czars,  and  Yermak  could 
sue  for  pardon,  with  the  offer  of  a  kingdom  as  his  ransom.      Before  the  close 

Fig.  163.— Webt  Sibbbu,  accoedino  to  Hebberstein. 


IVH1\.A. 


of  the  sixteenth  century  the  land  had  been  finally  subdued.  Sibir  itself,  which 
stood  on  a  high  bluff  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish,  exists  no  more,  having 
probably  been  swept  away  by  the  erosions  of  the  stream.  But  10  miles  farther 
down  another  capital,  Tobolsk,  arose,  also  on  the  right  bank,  and  the  whole  of  the 
north  was  gradually  added  to  the  Czar's  dominions.  The  fur  trappers,  more  even 
than  the  soldiers,  were  the  real  conquerors  of  Siberia.  Nevertheless,  many  battles 
had  to  be  fought  down  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  Buriats  of 
the  Angora  basin,  the  Koriaks,  and  other  tribes  long  held  out ;    but  most  of  the 


894 


ASIATIC  EIjSSIA. 


ym^ 


land  was  peacefully  acquired,  and  permanently  secured  by  the  forts  erected  by  the 
Cossacks  at  the  junctions  of  the  rivers,  at  the  entrance  of  the  mountain  passes,  and 
other  strategic  points.  History  records  no  other  instance  of  such  a  vast  dominion 
so  rapidly  acquired,  and  with  such  sltnder  means,  by  a  handful  of  men  acting  mostly 
on  their  own  impiUse,  without  chiefs  or  instructions  from  the  centre  of  authority. 

Even  China  allowed  the  Cossacks  to  settle  on  the  banks  of  the  Amur,  though 
the  treaty  of  Nerchinsk  required  the  Russians  to  withdraw  from  that  basin  in  1689, 
But  during  the  present  century  they  have  been  again  attracted  to  this  region,  and 
the  Government  of  St.  Petersburg  is  now  fully  alivei  to  the  advantages  of  a  free  access 
by  a  large  navigable  stream  to  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Hence  in  1851  Muraviov 
established  the  factory  of  Nikolaievsk,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  and  those  of 
Mariinsk  and  Alexandrovsk  at  either  end  of  the  portage  connecting  that  river  with 
the  Bay  of  Castries.  During  the  Crimean  war  its  left  bank  was  definitely  secured 
by  a  line  of  fortified  posts,  and  in  1859  a  ukase  confirmed  the  possession  of  a  terri- 
tory torn  from  China  in  time  of  peace.  Lastly,  in  1860,  while  the  Anglo-French 
forces  were  entering  Pekin,  Bussia  obtained  without  a  blow  the  cession  of  the 
region  south  of  the  Amur  and  east  of  the  Ussuri,  stretching  along  the  coast  to  the 
Corean  frontier. 

And  thus  was  completed  the  reduction  of  the  whole  of  North  Asia,  a  territory 
of  itself  alone  far  more  extensive  than  the  European  continent.  In  other  respects 
there  is,  of  course,  no  point  of  comparison  between  these  two  regions.  This 
Siberian  world,  where  vast  wildernesses  still  remain  to  be  explored,  has  a  foreign 
trade  surpassed  by  that  of  many  a  third-rate  European  seaport,  such  as  Dover  or 
Boulogne.  Embracing  a  thirteenth  part  of  the  dry  land  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  its  population  falls  short  of  that  of  London  alone  ;  it  is  even  more  sparsely 
peopled  than  Caucasia  and  Turkestan,  having  little  over  one  inhabitant  to  1,000 
acres. 

Accurate  surveys  of  the  physical  features  and  fron*''9r-lines  are  still  far  from 
complete.  Only  quite  recently  the  first  cirr-  .navigation  of  the  Old  World  round 
the  northern  shores  of  Siberia  has  been  ^  scomplished  by  the  Swedish  explorer, 
Nordenskjold.  The  early  attempts  made  by  Wiiloughby,  Chancellor,  and  Burrough 
failed  even  to  reach  the  Siberian  coast.  Hoping  later  on  to  reach  China  by 
ascending  the  Ob  to  the  imaginary  Lake  Kitai — that  is,  Kathay,  or  China — the 
English  renewed  their  efforts  to  discover  the  "  north-east  passage,"  and  in  1580 
two  vessels,  commanded  by  Arthur  Ket  and  Charles  Jackman,  sailed  for  the  Arctic 
Ocean ;  but  they  never  got  beyond  the  Kara  Sea.  The  Dutch  succeeded  no  better, 
none  of  the  voyages  undertaken  by  Barents  and  others  between  1594  and  1597 
reaching  farther  than  the  Spitzbergen  and  Novaya  Zemlya  waters.  Nor  were 
these  limits  exceeded  by  Hendrich  Hudson  in  1608.  This  was  the  last  attempt 
made  by  the  navigators  of  West  Europe  ;  but  the  Russian  traders  and  fishers  of  the 
White  Sea  were  familiar  with  the  routes  to  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  Gulfs,  as  is  evident 
from  a  map  published  in  1600  by  Boris  Godunov.  However,  sixteen  years  after- 
wards the  navigation  of  these  waters  was  interdicted  under  paiu  of  death,  lest 
foreigners  should  discover  the  way  to  the  Siberian  coast. 


T 


PROOEESS  OF  CONQUEST  AND  DISCOVERY. 


MS 


cted  by  the 

passes,  and 

st  dominion 

ting  mostly 

authority. 

ur,  though 
sin  in  1689. 
region,  and 
a  free  access 
1  Muraviov 
nd  those  of 
|at  river  with 
tely  secured 
an  of  a  terri- 
nglo-French 
ission  of  the 
coast  to  the 

a,  a  territory 
ther  respects 
jgions.  This 
has  a  foreign 
I  as  Dover  or 
^ace  of  the 
more  sparsely 
itant  to  1,000 

still  far  from 
World  round 
lish  explorer, 
ind  Burrough 
ch  China  by 
ir  China — the 
'  and  in  1580 
For  the  Arctic 
led  no  better, 
594  and  1597 
9.  Nor  were 
3  last  attempt 
fishers  of  the 
us  is  evident 
tt  years  after- 
)f  death,  lest 


The  exploration  of  this  seaboard  b  id  thus  to  be  prosecuted  in  Siberia  itself  by 
means  of  vessels  built  for  the  river  navigation.  In  1648  the  Cossack  Dejncv 
sailed  with  a  flotilla  of  small  craft  from  the  Kolima  round  the  north-oast  extremity 
of  Asia,  passing  long  before  the  birth  of  Bering  through  the  strait  which  now  bears 
the  name  of  that  navigator.  Stadukhin  also  explored  these  eastern  seas  in  search 
of  the  islands  full  of  fossil  ivory,  of  which  he  had  heard  from  the  natives.  In  1735 
Pronchishchev  and  Lasinius  embarked  at  Yakutsk  and  sailed  down  the  Lena,  explor- 
ing its  delta  and  neighbouring 

coasts.    Pronchishchev  reached  a        Fig.  1 64.— Sakhalin,  accohdino  to  La  PfiRousE. 
point  east  of  the  Taimir  penin-  Soaioi:ii,uo,ooo. 

sula,  but  fpiled  to  double  the 
headlands  between  the  Lena  and 
Yenisei  estuaries.  The  expedition 
begun  by  Laptiev  in  1739,  after 
suffering  shipwreck,  was  continued 
overland,  resulting  in  the  explora- 
tion of  the  Taimir  peninsula  and 
the  discovery  of  the  North  Cape 
of  the  Old  World,  Pliny's  Tabin, 
and  the  Cheluskin  of  modem 
maps,  so  named  from  the  pilot 
who  accompanied  Pronchishchev 
and  Laptiev.  The  western  sea- 
board between  the  Yenisei  and 
Ob  estuaries  had  already  been 
surveyed  by  Ovtzin  and  Minin  in 
1737_9. 

But  the  problem  was  already 
being  attacked  from  the  side  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  In  172S  ihe  Danish 
navigator  Bering,  ir.  the  service 
of  Russia,  crossed  Hib(?ria  overland 
to  th .  I'acific,  whence  he  sailed 
thnwgh  the  strait  now  named 
from  him,  and  by  him  first  re- 
vealed    to    the    West,     though 

known  to  the  Siberian  Cossacks  eighty  years  previously.  Even  Bering  himself, 
hugging  the  Asiatic  coast,  had  not  descri.^  the  oppopfte  shores  of  America,  and  was 
uncertain  as  to  the  exact  position  of  the  strait.  This  point  was  not  cleared  up  till 
Cook's  voyage  of  1778,  and  even  after  that  the  Sakhalin,  Yesso,  and  Kurile  waters 
still  remained  to  be  explored.  The  shores  of  the  mainland  and  islands  were  first 
traced  by  La  P^rouse,  who  determined  the  insular  character  of  Sakhalin,  and 
ascertained  the  existence  of  a  strait  connecting  the  Japanese  Sea  with  that  of 
Okhotsk.     This  completed  the  general  survey  of  the  whole  Siberian  seaboard. 


iflOMilM. 


The  scientific  exploration  of  the  interior  began  in  the  eighteenth  century  with 
Messerschmidt,  followed  by  Gmelin,  MiiUer,  and  Delisle    de  la    Croyere,  who 


WATEE  HIGHWAYS— FOETAOES— HIGHLANDS. 


297 


century  with 
[^royere,  who 


determined  many  important  physical  points  between  the  years  173'3  and  1742.  The 
region  stretching  beyond  Lake  Baikal  was  explored  by  Pallas  and  his  associates  in 
1770 — 3.  The  expeditions,  interrupted  by  the  great  wars  following  on  the  French 
devolution,  were  resimied  in  1828  by  the  Norwegian  Hansteen,  whose  memorable 
expedition  in  company  with  Ennan  had  such  important  results  for  the  study  of 
terrestrial  magnetism.  While  Hansteen  and  Erman  were  still  prosecuting  their 
labours  in  every  branch  of  natiiral  science,  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  Ehrenberg, 
and  Gustav  Rose  made  a  short  visit  to  Siberia,  which,  however,  remaiuod  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  history  of  science.  Middendcrff 'g  journeys  to  North  and 
East  Siberia  had  also  some  very  valuable  results,  and  were  soon  followed,  in  1854,  by 
the  "  expedition  to  Siberia  "  undertaken  by  Schwartz,  Schmidt,  Glehn,  Usoltzev, 
and  associates,  extending  over  the  whole  region  of  the  Transbaikal  to  the  Lena  and 
northern  tributaries  of  the  Amur.  Thus  began  the  uninterrupted  series  of  modem 
journeys,  which  are  now  being  systematically  continued  in  every  part  of  Siberia, 
and  which  promise  soon  to  leave  no  blanks  on  the  chart  of  that  region. 

The  work  of  geographical  discovery,  properly  so  called,  may  be  said  to  have 
been  brought  to  a  close  by  Nordenskj  old's  recent  determination  of  the  north-east 
passage,  vainly  attempted  by  Willoughby,  Burrough,  and  so  many  other  illustrious 
navigators.  ^ 

Water  Highways — Portages — Highlands. 

A  large  portion  of  Asiatic  Russia  is  no  less  uniform  than  Russia  in  Europe 
itself  in  the  general  features  of  its  relief.  East  and  west  of  the  Urals  alike  there 
stretch  vast  plains  or  rolling  prairi°s  offering  no  obstacles  to  free  migration.  To 
traverse  Siberia  from  end  to  end  the  sole  difficulties  man  had  had  to  contend  with 
were  the  boimdless  distances  themselves,  the  severity  of  the  climate,  dense  forests,  and 
swampy  wastes.  Instead  of  arresting  their  progress,  the  great  streams  were  the 
natural  highways  by  which  the  Cossacks  were  enabled  to  overrun  these  solitudes 
as  far  as  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Owing  to  the  slight  elevation  of  the  land  the  main 
river  basins  merge  imperceptibly  with  each  other,  and  Cossacks  and  natives  alike 
generally  followed  these  routes  in  their  migratory  movements,  warlike  or  peaceful 
expeditions.  Hamlets,  villages,  towns,  have  thus  sprung  up  along  the  river  banks 
wherever  productive  lands  invited  colonisation.  From  the  Ural  to  Yakutsk,  a 
distance  of  about  6,000  miles,  the  continuous  water  highway  is  broken  only  by  two 
portages,  the  first  between  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  basins,  the  second  between  the  latter 
and  that  of  the  Lena. 

On  leaving  the  Ural  valleys  the  chief  navigable  route  follows  successively  the 
course  of  the  Tura,  Tobol,  Irtish,  Ob,  Ket,  Yenisei,  Upper  Tunguska  or  Angara, 
Lena,  and  Aldan.  Farther  north  other  rivers,  also  connected  by  portages,  lay 
open  to  the  conquerors  of  Siberia  ;  but  between  the  Middle  Lena  and  Amur  basios 
many  Cossack  expeditions  were  defeated  by  the  obstacles  presented  by  the  reefs 
and  rapids,  dense  woodlands,  morasses,  and  the  unproductive  character  of  this  region. 
Their  plans  were  often  badly  conceived,  and  in  their  search  for  the  "  White 
Fountain  "  or  the  "  Land  of  Gold,"  they  often  proceeded  in  the  wrong  direction. 
20 


_J 


298 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


ThuH  Tiiiko  Huikul  was  long  sought  for,  not  in  the  YoiiiHci  basin,  hut  east  of  the 
J,ena  lowards  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Poyarkov,  the  first  Russian  who  in  1673  reached 
the  Amur  valley,  ascended  the  river  Aldan,  and  then  crossing  the  Stanovoi  range, 
iollowed  the  southern  course  of  the  Zieya;  hut  he  lost  one- third  of  his  130  men 
on  the  road,  and  the  survivors  had  to  live  on  their  dead  comrades  or  on  the  natives 
slain  in  hattle. 

The  journeys  hy  water,  which  rendered  the  conquest  of  Siberia  so  oasj',  can 
scarcely  lie  made  except  in  the  middle  region  running  east  and  west.  Southwards 
the  river  basins  are  separated  from  each  other  by  plateaux,  highlands,  and  mountain 
ranges;  farther  north  the  main  streams  have  already  received  all  their  chief 
affluents,  so  that  here  there  are  no  more  available  water  byways,  while  in  any 
case  these  frozen  wastes  are  too  inhospitable  to  be  easily  traversed  by  the  most 
daring  adventurers.    East  of  the  Yenisei,  again,  the  lowlands  change  their  character. 


Fig.  166. — Watrr  Hiohwayb  and  Fortaoes  acroab  Sibehia. 

Scale  1  :  85,000,000. 


eOOMUea. 


II' 


''mi's 


the  low-lying,  fertile,  or  lacustrine  tracts,  swamps,  and  trembling  prairies  being  here 
succeeded  by  hilly  and  gravelly  lands,  here  and  there  crossed  by  rocky  ridges,  and 
rising  even  to  groups  of  eminences  difficult  of  access.  The  Yenisei  and  Lena  basins 
are,  in  fact,  separated  by  a  real  plateau  of  palaeozoic  rocks,  compelling  the  traveller 
to  turn  southwards.  Hence  the  administrative  division  of  the  land  into  "West  and 
East  Siberia  is  fully  justified  by  the  physical  contrast  between  the  two  regions,  a 
contrast  extending  t-o  their  flora,  fauna,  and  inhabitants. 

Even  in  the  extreme  north  the  monotony  of  the  plains  is  sometimes  interrupted 
by  clusters  of  elevated  hills.  MiddendorfE  has  given  the  name  of  "  moimtains  "  to 
the  Siverma  chain  ruiming  west  of  the  Yenisei  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  to 
the  Birranga  range,  which  occupies  the  northern  part  of  the  continent  between  the 
Yenisei  and  the  Khatanga,  and  which  forms  the  double  Taimir  peninsula  projecting 
far  into  the  Frozen  Ocean.     Some  of  the  summits  on  the  east  coast  of  this  peninsula 


•mmf^tmn 


mm 


WATER  I1I0HWAY8-P0RTA0ES— IliailLANDS 


299 


t  oast  of  tlic 
167!J  reached 
novoi  ratipc, 
his  130  men 
»u  the  natives 

so  easy,  can 
Southwards 
and  mountain 
I  their  chief 
while  in  any 

by  the  most 
leir  character, 


eo' 


iries  being  here 
sky  ridges,  and 
nd  Lena  basins 
ig  the  traveller 
into  West  and 
two  regions,  a 

nes  interrupted, 
mountains  "  to 
!  Circle,  and  to 
jnt  between  the 
isula  projecting 
f  this  peninsula 


are  said  to  have  an  elevation  of  no  less  thun  3,000  feet.  Still  Siherin  may,  on  tlio 
whole,  be  describtnl  us  u  plain  sloj^ing  uniformly  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  A 
distinct  wuter-partinjj;  between  the  rivers  flowing,  on  the  one  liand,  northwards  to 
the  Arctic,  on  the  other  to  the  inland  basins  of  Central  Mongolia  and  to  the  Pacific, 
is  formed  by  the  great  orographic  system  comprising  the  Tian-shan  and  Zungarian 
Ala-tau,  the  Tarbagutai  and  Altai,  the  Sayan  Mountains,  the  Baikal  highlands,  the 
Vitim  plateau,  the  parallel  YaWonoi  ranges,  and  the  north-east  section  of  the 
Stanovoi,  or  "  Dorsal  Chain,"  running  towards  Bering  Strait. 

This  vast  system  is  itself  composed  of  distinct  sections,  dearly  separated  one 
from  the  other.  North  of  the  Tian-shan  is  the  Zungarian  depression,  where  at 
one  time  flowed  a  marine  struit.  The  Upper  Irtish  valley,  between  the  Tarbagatai 
and  Altai  ranges,  also  forms  a  broad  opening  connecting  the  Kirghiz  and  Mongolian 
domains  west  and  cast.  Between  the  Altai  and  Sayan  Mountains  the  northern  and 
southern  basins  are  connected  by  similar  depressions,  while  farther  east,  about  the 
sources  of  the  Yenisei  and  its  western  affluents,  uplands  with  a  mean  elevation  of 
from  7,000  to  10,000  feet  form  the  frontier  chain  skirting  the  Mongolian  plateaux, 
every  stream  hero  affording  easy  access  from  Siberia  to  the  Chinese  Empire. 
Transbaikal  is  itself  a  hilly  plateau,  limited  south-west  by  two  eminences — the 
Earaar-daban,  at  the  extremity  of  the  lake,  and  the  Sokhondo,  commanding  one  of 
the  main  ridges  of  the  Yablonoi  system,  on  the  Mongolian  frontier.  From  this 
plateau  the  ascent  is  almost  imperceptible  to  the  hills  from  3,500  to  4,000  feet 
high,  which  lead  from  the  Selenga  to  the  Amur ;  that  is,  from  the  Arctic  to  the 
Pacific  basin.  North-eastwards  the  water-partings  diminish  in  height,  and  beyond 
the  Sokhondo  none  of  the  Yablonoi  or  Stanovoi  summits  would  appear  to  reach 
9,500  feet,  which  is  about  the  elevation  of  that  mountain.  North  of  the  Amur  and 
Ud  basins  the  lofty  ranges  figuring  on  the  maps  as  portions  of  the  "  Great  Divide  " 
are  often  in  reality  little  more  than  marshy  tracts  with  imdecided  inclination.  But 
the  whole  of  Eastern  Siberia  skirting  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  north-eastwards  to  the 
Bering  Sea  is  mountainous,  or  at  least  very  diversified,  and  here  the  land  every- 
where rises  highest  near  the  sea-coast. 

South  of  the  Stanovoi  highlands  the  region  watered  by  the  Amur  and  its 
affluents  may,  on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  a  mere  continuation  of  the  Mongolian 
plateau.  The  land  slopes  towards  the  Pacific  in  a  series  of  terraces  intersected  by 
a  number  of  nearly  parallel  ridges,  including  the  Great  Ehingan,  the  Little 
Khingan,  and  the  coast  range  running  north  of  the  Corean  peninsula.  These 
Eastern  Asiatic  river  and  coast  ranges  are  regularly  disposed  in  curves,  with  their 
convex  sides  facing  east  and  south-east,  and  often  describing  perfectly  equal  seg- 
ments of  a  circle.  Some  are  connected  at  their  extremities  in  a  series  of  continuous 
chains  festooned  at  uniform  intervals;  others  are  disposed  in  parallel  concentric 
arcs,  while  the  more  important  are  rooted  at  one  end  with  different  systems.  Thus 
the  Kamchatka  peninsula  and  Kurile  Archipelago  (the  most  geometrical  of  all) 
are  connected  with  the  hills  of  the  Chukchi  country.  This  prevailing  uniformity 
in  the  disposition  of  the  North-eastern  Asiatic  mountain  systems  must  be  largely 
due  to  volcanic  agencies.     While  old  sedimentary  formations  prevail  in  the  South 


800 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Silwriau  highland  rangos  Iwrdcring  on  tho  Munfj^liun  ph't'*  u.  tJio  Sikhotu-ulin, 
an  well  as  various  Muni^hurian  inouutuins,  in  former  tinus  ejcriiid  lava  streaniN, 
and  stil'-activo  volcanoes  fringe  th(»  east  roust  of  Kamchatka.  These  Kainchulkii 
mountains  are,  however,  totally  distinct  from  the  East  Silx?rian  systems,  and  are  the 
most  elevated  in  Asiatic  Russia  next  to  the  Tian-shon.  One  of  tho  volcanoes  in 
the  peninsula  is  nearly  us  high  as  Mont  Blanc. 

River  Systems. 

The  rivers  rising  in  the  glaciers  and  perpetual  snows  of  fh--  Altoi  and  Sayan, 
or  on  tho  slopes  of  tho  less  elevated  ranges  falling  short  of  the  snow-line,  arc 
remarkable  for  tho  great  uniformity  of  their  windings.  Owing  to  tho  general  tilt 
of  the  land  they  flow  mainly  north  and  north-west  in  the  whole  of  Siberia, 
limited  southwards  by  the  ranges  stretching  from  the  Tian-sliun  to  the  Stanovoi. 
Not  only  the  three  main  streams,  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  but  nearly  all  the  other 

Fig.  107. — Duration  op  thk  Fnoar  and  Thaw  on  thb  Ybnibii  and  Lkna. 


La1<tud« 


N 


.4m 

Jtejr _ 


MtiJL 


NMnhh 


[...Jitt^l      ', 


Uodt 

■"Til I  'I  I'  11  f  ||  [■■■■'-  J  -  ■    ■ '     i^l  "■fflpVwA^ 


0'tpr4«  Kropotki* 


Thuw  on  the      Yenisei 
Yenlaei.       loe-bounl. 


Thaw  on  tho        Lens 
Lena.         loe-bound. 


rivers,  follow  the  lino  of  the  meridian  in  their  northerly  course.  The  Lena,  how- 
ever, so  far  contrails  with  its  two  western  rivals  that  it  is  deflected  a  long  way 
eastwards  by  the  palax)zoio  rocks  of  Central  Siberia  before  resuming  its  northern 
course  parallel  with  the  neighbouring  Olonek  and  Tana. 

These  great  arteries  rank  with  the  largest  rivers  on  the  globe,  both  in  volume  ond 
tho  extent  of  their  basins.  In  these  respects  the  Ob,  Yenisei,  and  Lena  surpass  all 
the  European  streams.  Yet  the  mean  annual  rainfall  in  all  the  Siberian  lands 
draining  northwards  scarcely  exceeds  8  inches.  But  the  ground  being  frozen  to 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface,  there  is  no  loss  by  infiltration,  so  that  wherever 
the  land  slopes  ever  so  slightly  every  drop  of  water  from  the  rains  or  melting 
snows  must  necessarily  find  its  way  to  the  affluents  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Else- 
where it  remains  in  flats,  marshes,  or  shallow  lakes,  which  form  a  labyrinth  of 
land  and  water,  constantly  shifting  its  outlines  with  the  abimdance  of  the  rains 
and  intensity  of  the  evaporation.  The  Taimir  peninsula  has  thus  become  a  lacus- 
trine region  of  stagnant  waters. 

Estimating  at  about  half  of  the  anniial  snow  and  rain  fall  the  quantity  discharged 


niVEB  SYSTEMS. 


801 


Sikhotu-ulin, 
avii  HtrcuiiiM, 
Kaincbutkii 
s,  uH(i  are  the 
)  volcanoes  in 


) 


ai  und  Sayan, 
inow-line,  are 
10  general  tilt 
e  of  Siberia, 

the  Stanovoi. 

all  the  other 


KNA. 


Vars 

/wlitt 

Stfifnoir* 
Octotr0 

Orcemtrr 


lie  Lena,  how- 
ted  a  long  way 
Qg  its  northern 

li  in  volume  and 
jena  surpass  all 

Siberian  lands 
being  frozen  to 
3  that  wherever 
lins  or  melting 
5  Ocean.     Else- 

a  labyrinth  of 
ce  of  the  rains 
become  a  lacus- 

itity  discharged 


by  the  three  main  streams,  the  mean  volume  of  each  muMt  bo  at  least  c({ual  to 
350,000  cubi(!  foot  jwr  second,  or  four  tinum  that  of  the  llhino  or  llhono.  Hut  the 
diH(;hurge  in  very  unevenly  distributi'd  over  the  year,  Inung  much  rcduciMl  in  the 
ice-lK)und  bedH  of  the  streams  in  winter,  when  the  Hnuiller  rivers  are  frozen  to 
the  l)<>ttom,  and  the  largo  streams  and  lakes  to  a  depth  of  from  4  to  7  f(H>t.  Kxcopt 
those  fed  by  underground  rivulets  frcmi  the  groat  lakes,  all  the  rivers  rising  within 
the  Arctic  ('ircle  thus  cease  to  flow  in  winter.  Hut  with  the  nx'Uing  of  the 
snows  the  river  beds  are  soon  tilled  again,  oft^ni  overflowing  their  bunks  to  grout 
distances. 

In  winter  the  water  flowing  l)oneath  its  thick  icy  covering  is  said  gruduuUy  to 
"  die,"  and  the  fish  are  no  longer  uble  to  live  in  the  vitiated  atmosphere  ut  these 
depths.  Towards  the  end  of  autumn  they  escape  in  multitudes  either  to  the  lakes 
and  d(  op  pools  or  to  the  estuaries.  Tln-n  they  may  be  easily  taken  in  large  quantities 
by  simply  breaking  the  ice  wherever  the  water  has  remained  "  alive."     Immediately 

Fig.  168.— DawT  Ici  un  thh  Bank*  or  thh  Yimiui. 


SSOTard*. 


after  the  thaw  they  ascend  the  streams  in  vast  shoals,  and  spread  over  the  flooded 
plains  and  forests.  Here  also  they  are  captured  in  great  numbers  by  means  of  the 
system  of  weirs  set  up  at  the  mouths  of  the  affluents. 

The  flow  of  the  Siberian  rivers  along  the  line  of  the  meridian  causes  the  break- 
up of  the  ice  to  assume  a  special  character.  In  the  extreme  south,  or  at  the  base  of 
the  Altai,  they  are  ice-bound  for  from  three  tc  five  months  only ;  but  this  period  is 
extended  as  they  flow  northwards,  and  the  estuaries  "between  the  72nd  und  75th 
parallels  are  free  only  for  periods  varying  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  days  in  the 
year.  Free  navigation  can,  in  fact,  be  depended  upon  only  from  about  the  end  of 
July  to  the  middle  of  September.  Middendorff  has  calcidated  that  for  every  degree 
of  latitude  between  the  56th  and  72nd,  the  ice-bound  period  increases  on  an  average 
rather  more  than  nine  days.  But  farther  south  the  increase  is  not  quite  seven 
days,  this  discrepancy  being  largely  due  to  the  absence  of  springs  in  the  north. 

In  spring,  when  the  current  begins  to  resume  its  course  and  break  through  its 


802 


AHIATIC  UUaSlA. 


wintry  fottorH,  it  mnm  Ho<m1h  lx)th  itit  ImnkH,  thim  forming  tv  tnhcretji,  or  latenil 
chuiiMolH,  whilo  tho  main  Ntnuiin  i^  Ntill  fro/en  on  tht>  Hiirfr  .'.  ll(>ro  tint  'wv  then 
bcyfinH  gnidiially  to  an*li  npwiinlN  until  it  l>r(>akN  into  hu'  J  irrcguliir  fruginvnt.x, 
wliii'h  aro  Hwopt  along  l)y  the  continually  riMing  Ntrruni.  Thcw  fragini'iitH  torn 
from  tho  river  bunkH  carry  with  them  mud,  clay,  gravel,  and  oven  largo  bouIdorN, 
which  in  their  northward  courHe  noou  nu>etwit)i  ntill  unbroken  inaNHeNNtrong  enough 
to  reuiHt  their  prcMHure.     Tho  moving  niaNNeH  aro  ulm>  ut  timcH  retarded  by  the 


Fiff.    160.-  81IOHM  Uir  THI  YiNIIII    WORN    BY   UlACIAL  ACTION. 


"■:^^- 


^^i^: 


•iSS*f -'• 


'^^-^' 


^<i^'-.'^' 


f*-'..  if. 


fierce  polar  winds,  and  perhaps  lodged  at  the  foot  of  some  projecting  bluff. 
Here  the  blocks  are  piled  one  on  the  other,  damming  up  the  river,  and  causing  it  to 
rise  3  or  4  feet  in  a  few  hours.  Finding  no  escape,  ice  and  water  spread  laterally, 
dashing  against  the  banks,  sweeping  away  the  shingle,  in  one  place  forming  fresh 
dams,  in  another  scoring  the  ground  with  deep  furrows.  Thus  a  .  vuy  river  banks 
yearly  modified  by  glacial  action. 

Even  more  than  the  rivers  of  European  Russia,  those  of  Siberia,  flowing  nearer 


ir<ji,  or  Itttoni! 
V  tlm  i<'e  thfii 
liir  frupfinciitx, 
riif^incntH  torn 
lur^o  InmldiTN, 
Htron^  enough 
iturdwl  by  the 


projecting  bluff. 
,  and  causing  it  to 
r  spread  laterally, 
ace  forming  fresh 


I  .  v*iy  nver 


banks 


ria,  flowing  nearer 


■'f-'  ..'■■ 


.    .3 

-f 


.\-<^4f^f^^'^ 


^f^"^.^ 

'^♦T^.^, 


ni'- 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


Photographic 

Sdmces 

Ckarporatiai 


4> 


\ 


\ 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/iCIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


C«M<H*n  IratKuM  for  HMorical  MlcroMproductloM  /  liwtftut  e*n«ii«i  <!•  mlororeprodiietlOM  hinoriquM 


J* 


r 


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HilWUMi   ■mill 


i^ 


T 


NORTHERN  SEABOARD. 


808 


to  the  pole,  present  the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  a  normal  lateral  pressure  on 
their  right  banks.  This  side  thus  becomes  continually  sapped  and  corroded,  while 
the  left  bank,  covered  with  alluvia,  and  here  and  there  furrowed  by  old  channels,  is 
steadily  abandoned  by  the  receding  waters.  Hence  the  contrast  presented  by  the 
relief  of  both  bauku.  The  left,  still  swept  by  the  current  and  gradually  formed  by 
alluvial  deposits,  is  flat,  and  generally  at  the  level  of  high  water.  The  right, 
constantly  eroded  by  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  stream,  and  representing  the 
original  soil,  rises  in  hills  or  steep  cliffs  along  the  course  of  the  river.  So  universal 
is  this  feature  that  even  before  sighting  a  river  the  natives  will  speak  by  anticipa- 
tion of  its  "  high  bank  "  and  "  low  bank."  As  in  Russia,  the  towns  are  usually 
erected  on  the  "  high,"  or  right  bank,  which  is  leas  exposed  to  inundations.  But 
this  advantage  is  dearly  purchased,  and  several  recently  founded  towns,  such  as 
Tobolsk,  Semipalatinsk,  and  Narim,  have  already  had  to  be  partially  reconstructed. 


Northern  Seaboard. 

The  northern  seaboard  of  Siberia,  though  washed  by  colder  waters,  is  less 
indented  by  fiords  than  those  of  Norway  and  Scotland.  The  inlets  resemble  those 
of  Scandinavia  only  between  the  Kara  and  Yenisei  mouths.  The  Kara  Sea,  the  Ob 
and  Taz  estuaries,  the  Gulf  of  Yenisei,  and  their  various  indentations ;  lastly,  the 
lakes,  at  one  time  marine  bays,  but  now  separated  from  the  sea,  give  a  Norwegian 
aspect  to  this  region.  But  east  of  the  Yenisei  the  coast-line  becomes  far  more 
uniform,  broken  by  rare  inlets,  few  of  which  penetrate  far  inland.  This  dearth  of 
fiords  is  due  to  the  slight  inclination  of  the  mainland  and  of  its  submarine  con- 
tinuations, precluding  the  formation  of  true  glaciers  on  the  coast,  the  action 
of  which  might  have  prevented  the  original  indentation  from  being  gradually 
effaced. 

The  present  seaboard  itself  is  an  old  marine  bed  gradually  upheaved  above  the 
Arctic  waters.  The  old  coast-line  has  been  traced  by  Erman,  Middendorff,  and 
others  over  120  miles  inland,  and  upwards  of  330  feet  above  the  present  sea-level. 
Quantities  of  drift-wood,  the  so-called  "  Adam's "  or  "  Noah's  wood,"  have  been 
foimd  at  great  distances  from  the  ocean.  Here  also  have  been  met  numerous  bays 
which  have  become  lakes,  or  quite  dried  up,  besides  perfectly  preserved  frozen  banks 
of  shell-fish  in  no  respect  differing  from  the  species  n6w  inhabiting  the  Arctic  seas. 
Headlands  have  even  been  recognised  which  were  islands  when  seen  by  earlier 
explorers.  Several  phenomena  of  a  like  character  were  recently  observed  by  Bove, 
of  the  Nordenskjold  expedition,  near  Bering  Strait.  The  disappearance  of  the 
whale  has  by  some  been  attributed  to  the  upheaval  of  the  sea-bed,  while  Erman, 
with  others,  has  suggested  that  the  remains  of  trees  occurring  on  the  coast  represent 
the  forests  that  flourished  on  the  spot  at  a  time  when  the  climate  was  much  warmer 
than  at  present.  But  the  condition  in  which  this  "  Adam's  wood  "  is  found  shows 
that  it  is  really  so  much  drift-wood,  barked  and  otherwise  affected  by  glacial  action. 
It  consists  of  conifers  like  those  which  are  still  floated  down  the  great  Siberian 
rivers.    In  the  course  of  ages  "  mountains  of  timber  "  have  thus  been  accimiulated 


804 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


■ 


almost  everywhere  along  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean  and  around  the  coasts  of 
New  Siberia,  Novaya  Zemlya,  Franz-Joseph  Land,  and  Spitzbergen. 

The  current  of  the  Siberian  rivers  is  strong  enough  perceptibly  to  affect  the 
normal  marine  currents.  On  entering  the  sea  the  streams  have  naturally  an 
eastward  tendency,  derived  from  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  But  this  is 
also  the  direction  of  the  waters  from  the  tropical  seas,  which,  after  rounding 
Scandinavia  and  Novuya  Zemlya,  continue  to  flow  slowly  eastwards  along  the 
Siberian  seaboard.  This  tendency  is  doubtless  preserved  by  the  action  of  the  fluvial 
currents,  for  near  the  coast  the  water  is  far  less  salt  than  in  the  Atlantic.   Between 


\ 


Fig.  170. — Bamu  or  thi  Yuiibii:  Icb-puhmbu  Ijitbb. 


the  Khatanga  Fiord  and  the  Lena  estuary  the  proportion  of  salt  is  only  as  1  to  100, 
or  about  one-third  of  the  normal  quantity.  On  these  shores  the  sea  is  so  shallow 
that  two-thirds  of  its  volume  are  probably  of  fluvial  origin. 

Pacific  Seaboard — Transbaikalia. 

Along  the  shores  of  the  Okhotsk  and  Bering  Seas  the  slope  is  too  short  to  allow 
of  any  large  rivers.  Here  the  ranges  forming  the  water-parting  run  near  the 
Pacific  seaboard,  and  some  head-streams  of  the  Lena  rise  actually  within  60  miles 
of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.     The  only  important  river  north  of  the  Amur  draining  to 


■m 


CLIMATE. 


808 


ho  coasts  of 

3  affect  the 
aturally  an 
But  this  18 
tr  rouudiug 
8  along  the 
f  the  fluvial 
,c.   Between 


the  Pacific  is  the  Anadir,  which  falls  into  the  gulf  of  like  name  between  Bering 
Strait  and  Kamchatka.  But  south  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  the  Amur,  draining  all 
the  lacustrine  basins  which  fonnerly  covered  the  plateaux  of  Da(^ria  and  Mongolia, 
escapes  through  a  gap  in  the  coast  range  to  the  Pacific. 

The  middle  course  of  this  river,  forming  the  frontier-line  between  Russia  and 
China,  is  free  of  ice  for  six  or  seven  months  in  the  year.  But  the  lower  reaches 
flowing  north-east  and  north  present  the  same  phenomena  as  the  rivers  of  North 
Siberia.  The  annual  breuk-up  is  retarded  down  stream ;  the  ice  forming  temporary 
dams  on  the  reefs  uud  ledges  arrests  the  floods,  causing  them  to  overflow  and  break 
down  their  banks,  uproot  the  forests,  and  cover  the  land  with  mud  and  stones. 

The  plateaux  separating  the  Lena  and  Amur  basins  seem  of  all  the  Siberian 
lands  to  have  best  preserved  the  aspect  of  the  country  after  the  glacial  period. 
Hero  every  cavity  is  still  flUed  with  a  lake  or  a  marsh  ;  the  riviUets  ond  rivers  are 
mere  links  in  a  chain  of  lacustrine  basins  of  all  sizes  ;  pine-covered  moraines  here 
and  there,  cleared  by  the  action  of  water,  recall  the  presence  of  ancient  glaciers :  and 
there  is  altogether  something  unfinished  in  the  general  aspect  of  the  land,  as  if  the 
transition  were  not  yet  completed  from  one  geological  epoch  to  another.  The  rivers 
have  not  yet  scooped  out  their  valleys  or  regulated  the  fall  of  their  beds.  In  all 
these  respects  the  Siberian  plateaux  resemble  those  of  Finland  and  Scandinavia, 
which,  like  them,  are  mainly  composed  of  granites,  schists,  and  other  crystalline 
rockiS. 

Most  of  the  myriad  lakes  and  lakelets  of  these  tablelands  have  already 
disappeared,  either  drained  off  by  the  rivers  or  filled  in  by  their  alluvia.  But  Lake 
Baikal,  one  of  the  largest,  still  remains.  This  great  inland  sea,  occupying  two 
continuous  cavities  in  the  plateau  between  the  Yenisei,  Lena,  and  Amur  basins,  stood 
formerly  at  a  far  higher  level  than  at  present.  It  drains  now  through  the  Angara 
to  the  Yenisei.  But  it  is  nevertheless  geographically  distinct  from  that  basin.  Its 
valley  runs  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  Angara,  and  its  bed  sinks  several 
hundred  yards  below  sea-level.     Its  outlet  merely  carries  off  the  surface  waters. 


as  1  to  100, 
is  so  shallow 


hort  to  allow 
im  near  the 
hin  60  miles 
r  di-aining  to 


Climate. 

Such  a  vast  region  as  Siberia,  affected  in  the  west  by  Ai^-otic,  in  the  east  by 
Pacific  influences,  and  stretching  north  and  south  across  2b'  of  latitude,  must 
obviously  present  great  diversities  of  climate.  Even  this  bleak  land  has  its  temperate 
zones,  which  the  Slav  colonists  of  the  north  are  fond  of  calling  their  "  Italics." 
Nevertheless,  as  compared  with  Europe,  Siberia  may,  on  the  whole,  be  regarded  as  a 
country  of  extreme  temperatures — relatively  great  heats,  and,  above  all,  intense 
colds.  The  very  term  "  Siberian  "  has  justly  become  synonymous  with  a  land  of 
winds,  frosts,  and  snows.  The  mean  annual  temperature  in  this  region  comprised 
between  the  rivers  Anabara  and  Indigirka  is  20°  Fahr.  below  freezing  point.  The 
pole  of  cold,  oscillating  diversely  with  the  force  of  the  lateral  pressure  from 
Yakutsk  to  the  Lena  estuary,  is  the  meteorological  centre  round  which  the 
atmosphere  revolves.     Here  are  to  a  large  extent  prepared  the  elements  of  the 


806  ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 

■ 

climate  of  Went  Europe.  Owing  to  the  general  movements  of  the  atmosphere, 
ultornating  hetween  north-east  and  south-west,  and  bt>tween  south-west  and  north- 
east, constant  relations  are  maintained  k^tween  the  Kuroi)eon  seaboord  and  Siberia, 
the  former  exchanging  its  moisture  and  mild  temperature  for  the  cold  and  bright 
skies  of  the  latter. 

In  Northern  Siberio  the  thermometer  remains  in  winter  below  20°  Fahr.,  and 
even  falls  at  times  to  55"  Fahr.  On  December  Jilst,  1871,  the  glass  marked  —69° 
Fahr.  at  Yeniseisk.     During  the  three  summer  months  the  average  is  69°  Fahr., 

Fig.  17  !• — Climati  or  Yakuthk. 
__.-^ 

f       .■    \    --"  '  ""•,  /      -^      \ 

/       /  '-'      \''  .J.  ^'v         ^N         \       \ 

''     /      /      .■'\     .-'■'    '      ---.     /  ■-,      ^,     \     N 

'  '  t  ■  ^     .'  '  -  ^1  ^^  ^..  »  \ 

;    ;    ;    ;    i'    ;    b<i^f^/^<  ^    •  X  \    '    -    '    1    'i-i 

\    \    \    \    N  K  \    V'-.    I    ,.<    /   r\  I    I    I        I 
\    \     \     \  ^'^ A  \     \/     ~"T-     V/    /  f/^J    !     I    I 

X^    v.-        -—---• '-        .>:     / 

~~"Vufy"" 

often  exceeding  86°  and  occasionally  lOl"^  at  Yakutsk,  a  greater  heat  than  usually 
prevails  some  2,000  miles  nearer  the  equator.  As  in  Lapland,  the  baked  surface  of 
the  tundras  is  so  hot  as  to  be  almost  imendurable  to  pedestrians.  Altogether 
the  climate  of  Yakutsk,  or  rather  of  the  Lower  Lena  basin,  is  the  most  typical  on 
the  globe  of  extreme  or  continental  temperature. 

Altitude  compensating  for  latitude,  the  South  Siberian  highlands  might  at  first 
sight  be  supposed  to  be  as  cold  as  the  northern  tundras.  But  such  is  not  the  case, 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  the  higher  we  ascend  towards  the  southern  ranges  the 
warmer  it  becomes.     Thus  up  to  a  certain  still  undetermined  point  the  tempera- 


CLIMATE. 


807 


iitnioNphcre, 
and  north- 

und  Siberia, 
and  brig)it 

'  Fahr.,  ond 

irked  -6^ 

69°  Fubr.. 


><Mr/> 


4^ 


;han  usually 

d  surface  of 

Altogether 

it  typical  on 

light  at  first 
lot  the  case, 
1  ranges  the 
le  tempera- 


ture rises  with  the  elevation  of  the  land.  Siniilur  observationa  have  been  made  in 
the  Alps  and  Pyroncefl ;  but  what  is  the  exception  in  Kuroiio  is  thu  normal  (condi- 
tion in  Kant  Siberia,  whcro  it  iH  cauned  by  the  brightness  and  culnutoHs  of  thu 
atmosphere.  The  hot  air  radiates  into  space,  while  the  cold  und  denHor  atmo- 
spheric strata  sink  with  their  weight  to  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Thus  all  the 
meteorological  conditions  here  combine  to  raise  the  temiwrature  of  the  liigher  and 
diminish  that  of  the  lower  strata.  Relatively  warm  currents  of  air  prevail  in  the 
upper  regions  above  the  cold  air  resting  on  the  lowland  plains,  iind  on  Mount 
Alibert  (7,400  feet)  the  wind  in  winter  stits  steadily  fronj  the  comparatively  warm 
north-west,  south-west,  und  west  quarters.  Such,  combined  with  the  dry  climate, 
are  the  causes  which  prevent  the  formation  of  glaciers  on  the  Dut^riun,  Alduu, 
and  Stanovoi  highlands.  Even  the  mountains  2,000  to  3,000  feet  high  on  the 
north  coast,  east  of  the  Taimir  peninsula,  have  but  few  snow- fields,  and  Nor- 
denskjold  could  not  positively  determine  the  presence  of  any  real  glaciers.  These 
eminences  fall  short  even  of  the  snow-line,  and  in  summer  are  quite  free  of  snow, 
except  perhaps  where  it  is  lodged  in  the  deep  ravines. 

Travellers  speak  of  the  Siberian  winters  with  mingled  feelings  of  terror  and 
rapture.  An  infinite  silence  broods  over  the  land — all  is  buried  in  deep  sleep ;  the 
animals  hibernate  in  their  dens,  the  streams  have  ceased  to  flow,  disappearing 
beneath  the  ice  and  snow ;  the  earth,  of  a  dazzling  whiten>)8s  in  the  centre  of  the 
landscape,  but  grey  in  the  distance,  nowhere  offers  a  single  object  to  arrest  the 
gaze.  The  monotony  of  endless  space  is  broken  by  no  abrupt  lines  or  vivid  tints. 
The  only  contrast  with  the  dull  expanse  of  land  is  the  everlasting  azure  sky, 
along  which  the  sun  creeps  at  a  few  degrees  only  above  the  horizon.  In  these 
intensely  cold  latitudes  it  rises  and  sets  with  hard  outlines,  unsof  tened  by  the  ruddy 
haze  elsewhere  encircling  it  on  the  edge  of  the  horizon.  Yet  such  is  the  strength 
of  its  rays  that  the  snow  melts  on  the  housetop  exposed  to  its  glare,  while  in  the 
shade  the  temperature  is  40°  to  50°  below  freezing  point.  At  night,  when 
the  firmament  is  not  aglow  with  the  many- tinted  lights  and  silent  coruscations  of 
the  aurora  borealis,  the  zodiacal  light  and  the  stars  still  shine  with  intense  bright- 
ness. Probably  no  other  region  of  the  globe  is  so  favourably  circumstanced  for 
astronomic  observation.  Here  the  atmosphere  is  absolutely  pure,  unsullied  except 
perhaps  on  the  river  banks,  whence,  rises  a  dense  fog  charged  with  icy  particles, 
or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vast  herds  shrouded  in  their  vapoury  exhalations. 
And  man  dares  to  face  these  tremendous  frosts,  while  animals  seek  shelter  in  their 
lairs.  The  raven  alone  risks  the  open  uir  with  a  feeble  and  slow  flight,  its  wake 
marked  by  a  slender  hazy  streak.  Yet  these  Siberian  winters  are  less  unendur- 
able than  strangers  might  suppose.  If  well  nourished,  warmly  clad,  and  wrapped 
in  furs,  they  have  nought  to  fear,  for  few  climates  are  more  healthy  than  that  of 
East  Siberia,  with  its  perfectly  dry,  still,  and  pure  atmosphere.  No  case  of  con- 
sumption has  ever  occurred  at  Chita,  in  the  bleak  Transbaikal  province,  where  the 
mercury  remains  frozen  for  weeks  together. 

To  this  severe  winter,  which  fissures  the  surface  and  rends  the  rocks  of  the 
rivers  into  regular  basalt-like  columns,  there  succeeds  a  sudden  and  delightful 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


I 
I 


Mprin^.  So  inHtantitnooiiH  it  f'.M'  clian^fl  that  natiiro  ncciiih  an  if  tiikon  hy  RurpriNo 
and  nidi'ly  iiwakoiUHl.  The  dcliciitt'  f^rt't'ii  of  t\w  o|m>iii  ^  loaf,  tho  fra^raiicu  of 
thu  huddiii^  HowcrN,  tlio  int4>xi('atiii^  Iwlni  of  tho  utinoHphoro,  tlio  radiant  bright- 
noun  of  th(*  hcavcuH,  all  I'otnhiiio  to  impart  to  inrro  oxiiitcnoo  u  voliiptuouH  gladnctw. 
To  SilNM'ianM  viNiting  tho  tcMniK<rato  cliinoH  of  WoMtoni  Kurojw  Npring  mi'Mim  to  Ut 
unknown  lu'vond  thoir  landn.  Hut  thow)  HrHt  dayn  of  now  lifo  aro  foUowwl  hy  a 
chill,  K"^^V>  <ii>d  changoful  intorval,  arining  from  tho  utnioHphoric  dixturlmnooH 
cauHod  hy  th(<  thawing  of  tho  vaMt  Hnowy  waHtoH.  A  rolapHO  in  then  cxiicrioncod 
nnalogouH  to  that  too  often  produced  in  Knglund  by  lute  eaHt  windH.  Tho  upplo 
bloHHonx  in  now  nipped  by  the  night  froHta  falling  in  tho  latter  |mrt  of  May.  Honee 
no  apploH  can  l>o  had  in  KuHt  Siberia,  although  the  summer  hoatn  uro  othorwiHo 
amply  Hutticiont  for  the  riiMjrung  of  fruitH.  After  tho  fleeting  Rummor  winter 
weather  again  soon  HctH  in.  It  will  often  freezo  at  night  in  the  middle  of  July  ; 
after  tho  10th  of  AuguHt  the  Hear  leaf  begins  to  fall,  and  in  a  few  days  all  are 
gone,  except  i)erhap8  the  foliage  of  the  larch.  The  anew  will  even  sometimos  settle 
early  in  August  on  tho  still  leafy  branches,  bending  and  breaking  them  with  its 
weight. 

Delow  tho  surface  of  the  ground  winter  reigns  uninterrupted  even  by  the 
hottest  summers.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century  Omelin  revealed  to  science 
the  astonishing  fact  that  from  about  6  or  7  feet  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of 
over  30  yards  tho  ground  remains  permanently  frozen.  But  this  phenomenon  was 
in  seeming  opposition  to  the  normal  increase  of  teriestrial  temperature  downwards, 
and  it  was  asked  how  the  frozen  soil  of  Yakutsk  could  grow  plants  and  ripen 
cereals.  Hence  Gmelin's  statement  was  at  first  rejected ;  but  it  has  since  been 
fully  confirmed  by  the  observntions  of  Erman  and  Middendorff.  A  boring  of 
385  feet  deep  through  the  sandstone  of  Yakutsk  failed  to  penetrate  beyond  the 
congealed  strata,  and  had  to  be  abandoned  before  water  could  be  reached.  But 
the  assertion  that  the  ground  in  North  Siberia  is  uniformly  frozen  to  depths  of 
from  450  to  500  feet  cannot  be  accepted  without  more  exhaustive  observations.  In 
some  places,  possibly  from  the  presence  of  springs  and  other  local  causes,  the 
uncongealed  soil  has  been  reached  at  depths  of  even  3  to  4  feet. 

In  winter  the  atmosphere  is  usually  still  in  the  zone  of  intensest  cold ;  but 
not  so  in  the  surrounding  regions.  From  the  Urals  to  the  Yenisei,  and  from  the 
Sayan  highlands  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  south  and  especially  the  south-west 
winds  prevail  in  winter,  while  farther  south  the  Kirghiz  and  Astrakhan  steppes  are 
swept  by  polar  winds.  East  and  west  of  the  Urals  the  atmospheric  currents  from 
the  tropics  and  Arctic  zone  meet  midway ;  but  east  of  the  Yenisei,  and  especially 
in  the  Lena  basin,  the  direction  is  in  winter  generally  from  the  north-west 
towards  the  Pacific.  The  Sea  of  Okhotsk  is  then  lashed  by  fierce  storms  for  months 
together.  At  Udskoi,  near  the  coast,  these  furious  monsoons  blow  steadily  from  the 
north-west  from  September  to  April,  preventing  all  access  to  the  Stanovoi  high- 
lands, and  at  sea  deflecting  the  Euro-sivo  current  and  causing  vessels  to  alter 
their  course  between  the  two  continents.  The  same  glacial  north-wes^  wind  pre- 
vails also  in  the  Amur  basin  and  on  the  Mongolian  plateaux,  compelling  travellers 


i>lii>liiiiiin»i>iiii 


III liiiiV  ''iii'tiliiirtiiMMiiatiii'liiiiB.iil iUiilil|iiriiilliilii»iti— n 


CLIMATE. 


ROO 


I  by  ■urprinr 
fraffruiu'o  of 
limit  hriKht- 
OUH  (^ludncHH. 
;  MHMIIH   to  Ih) 

oUowwl  by  u 
(liKturbunooH 
I  exi)cri«nctHl 
,  Tho  apple 
Muy.  Ilonce 
uro  othorwiMo 
iminor  winter 
idle  of  July; 
'  days  all  are 
motiinos  aottlo 
them  with  its 

even  by  tho 
lied  to  science 
to  a  depth  of 
enomonon  wa* 
re  downwords, 
ints  and  ripen 
las  since  boon 

A  boring  of 
te  beyond  the 
reached.  Btit 
to  depths  of 
ervations.  In 
ml  causes,  the 


and  oondurtorn  of  rarnvann  ^oiu)^  wontwiird  to  prot«'ct  their  fiic(>i«  with  felt  tnuMkft 
from  itH  fury.  During  tho  winter  of  1H7H.|>  NonlfiiMkjold  and  his  aMHociiitoM 
found  thut  it  blow  uhnoHt  unintorruptodly  along  tho  Nhoron  of  tho  Arotio  Ocoan, 
though  not  HO  violently  nn cIiM<whoro.  In  Numnicr  aim)  tho  pohir  wiiuU  ar«>  attraotod 
to  the  MilM'rian  noalMmrd  by  tho  rarofaotion  of  tho  atnioNphoro  on  tho  hoat<<d 
tundruN.  Hut  in  tho  ouHt  tho  eontinont  in  during  thin  NoaNou  viNitod  hy  eant 
and  wtuth-oaMt  breezoH  from  tho  l*u<'iH<',  which  are  often  felt  an  far  inland  an  the 
Baikal  luisin,  where  they  bring  an  abundant  nupply  of  nioiNture.  Tho  rthoroH  of 
tho  Sea  of  Okhotsk  are  then  conNtuntly  overtaMt,  and  tho  Kurilo  waterH  onvelopi'd 
for  weeks  together  in  denHO  fogn.  Hero  tho  mean  annual  rainfall  oxcioedH  40  inohos, 
while  in  many  places  in  the  interior  it  scarcely  amounts  to  10  inches.  In 
certain  parts  of  8outh  Siberia,  and  especially  in  tho  Transbaikalia,  whole  winters 
pass  without  any  snowfall.     Elsewhere,  as  in  the  Krasnoyarsk  district,  tho  plains 

Fig.  17^. — NoHTHiHN  Limit  hit  Fohmt  Vboitation. 
B«al«  1  s  80,000,000. 


,  flOOlUlM. 


jest  cold;  but 

and  from  the 

he  south-west 

lon  steppes  are 

currents  from 

and  especially 

le  north-west 

•ms  for  months 

adily  from  the 

itanovoi  high- 

essels  to  alter 

ves*-  wind  pre- 

ling  traveUers 


are  swept  of  their  snows  by  the  storms,  and  the  autumn-sown  com  dispersed  by  the 
winds.* 

Under  the  action  of  the  regular  monsoons  the  snow  is  often  disposed  in  parallel 
dunes  succeeding  each  other  like  the  ocean  waves.  During  the  long  winter 
nights  the  Ghukchis  are  able  to  guide  themselves  as  with  a  compass  by  the  direc- 
tion of  these  zastrugi,  which,  however,  have  to  be  yearly  renewed  after  their 
dispersion  by  the  storms.  The  most  dreaded  of  these  storms  are  the  buram,  which 
rage  in  the  midst  of  the  plains  like  tropical  hiirricanes,  sweeping  with  them  snow, 
ice,  gravel,  branches,  debris  of  every  sort,  and  often  man  himself. 


*  Annual  rainfall  in  Siberia  : — 

Aryan  (Sea  of  Okhotsk)    . 

Yakutsk 

EiakhU 


InehM. 


BemaOl 

Nerohinskiy-cuvod 
Tobolsk    . 


-.■■of-^W'' 


810 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


,      ^    .     :' : ,  Flora. 

With  its  vast  extent  and  varied  climate  Siberia  naturally  embraces  several 
vegetable  zones,  differing  more  from  each  other  even  than  those  of  Europe.  The 
southern  steppes  have  a  characteristic  and  well-marked  flora,  forming  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  the  Aral,  Caspian,  and  Volga  plains.  The  treeless  northern  tundras 
also  constitute  a  vegetable  domain  as  sharply  defined  as  the  desert  itself,  while 
between  these  two  zones  of  steppe  and  tundra  the  forest  region  of  Europe  stretches. 


Fig.  173.— Tkailino  Larch  160  Tbaks  old:  Quartbh  or  the  natvrai.  Sizb. 


i  ' 


with  many  subdivisions,  west  and  east  right  across  the  continent.     Of  these  sub- 
divisions the  chief  are  those  of  the  Ob,  Yenisei,  Lena,  and  Amur  basins. 

The  northern  limit  of  forest  vegetation  is  generally  drawn  at  too  great  a 
distance  from  the  Frozen  Ocean.  In  Siberia  the  tree  line,  everywhere  formed 
by  the  larch  (^Larix  Daurica  Sibirica),  so  far  from  running  east  and  west  along  the 
same  parallel  of  latitude,  is  deflected  northwards  mainly  with  the  coast-line.  Thus 
it  coincides  in  the  Ob  basin  nearly  with  the  Arctic  Circle,  crosses  the  Yenisei  about 
70°  N.  lat.,  and  in  the  Taimir  peninsula  inclines  along  the  banks  of  the  Ehatanga 
170  miles  still  farther  north.  East  of  this  point  it  gradually  falls  again  towards 
the  Polar  Circle,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  Bering  peninsula  is  excluded  from  the 
forest  zone.  But  long  before  reaching  its  extreme  limits  forest  vegetation  every- 
where becomes  dwarfed.  Beyond  the  60th  parallel  no  trees  occur  with  stems  more 
than  4  feet  thick,  and  beyond  the  61st  they  scarcely  average  12  or  14  inches,  and 
near  the  tundra  shrink  to  half  a  foot.  From  a  distance  the  forests  two  or  three 
hundred  years  old,  consisting  of  such  slender  trees,  look  like  fresh  plantations. 


mmmittmm  i  mjmvmm 


FLORA. 


811 


►races  several 
Europe.  The 
ig  a  continua- 
thern  tundras 
t  itself,  while 
rope  stretches, 

SiZB. 


Of  these  sub- 
lins. 

it  too  great  a 
jTwhere  formed 
west  along  the 
ist-line.     Thus 
Yenisei  about 
the  Ehatanga 
again  towards 
uded  from  the 
getation  every- 
ith  stems  more 
14  inches,  and 
B  two  or  three 
\ab  plantations. 


The  ground  being  frozen  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  surface,  prevents  the 
roots  from  penetrating  vertically  in  search  of  moisture,  while  for  a  great  part  of 
the  year  the  superincumbent  snows  deprive  the  branches  of  all  communication 
with  the  atmosphere.  In  winter  trunk  and  roots  alike  remain  completely  frozen, 
hibernating,  so  to  say,  like  the  wild  beasts,  till  the  first  warm  days  of  spring.  Its 
slow  growth  imparts  to  the  fibre  an  extraordinary  hardness,  but  the  timber  thus 
becomes  leas  elastic  and  more  brittle.  The  last  struggling  larches  are  unable  to 
put  forth  true  branches,  throwing  off  nothing  but  a  few  hard,  almost  thorny,  limbs 
and  shoots.  In  this  incessant  struggle  between  life  and  death  most  of  the  few 
trees  that  approach  the  timdra  soon  lose  all  their  sap.  Moss-covered  and  branch- 
less, they  look  like  aged  and  dead  trunks.  Yet  beyond  these  larches,  which  still 
stand  erect,  there  come  others  which  trail  along  the  groimd  half  hidden  by  their 
mossy  mantles.  Within  60  miles  of  the  forest  line  these  rampant  species  are  met, 
which  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  have  scarcely  grown  4  feet,  and  which  look 
more  like  exposed  roots  than  veritable  trees. 

Throughout  North  Siberia,  as  well  as  on  the  slopes  of  the  southern  highlands, 
abundant  traces  occur  of  a  former  forest  zone  reaching  far  beyond  the  present 
limits  of  timber.  In  some  parts  of  the  north  the  tteee  have  retreated  from  12 
to  15  miles,  a  fact  attributed  rather  to  frequent  summer  frosts  than  to  an  increased 
intensity  of  cold  in  winter.  Hence  trees  thrive  perfectly  well  in  the  Lena 
basin,  where  the  winter  is  most  severe,  but  the  summer  less  exposed  to  frosts. 
Still  the  climate  of  North  Siberia,  like  that  of  other  Arctic  regions,  has  certainly 
increased  in  severity  during  the  last  few  hundred  years. 

Beyond  the  forest  zone  stretch  the  timdras,  where  the  only  vegetation  is 
herbage,  mosses,  and  lichens.  The  tundra  is  not  composed  exclusively  of  low 
plains,  but  also  comprises  hilly  districts,  and  on  the  whole  is  rather  a  rolling 
land,  in  which  eminences  rising  300  feet  above  the  plains  follow  each  other 
beyond  the  horizon  like  the  ocean  waves.  Although  of  different  origin,  the 
tundra  in  many  respects  resembles  the  steppe.  The  latter  is  produced  by  lack 
of  moisture,  the  former  by  lack  of  heat.  But  both  alike  have  the  same  cheerless 
aspect,  and  pi^duce  the  same  mournful  impression  on  the  mind.  The  species  of 
plants  growing  along  the  Arctic  seaboard  are  found  also  on  the  shores  of  the 
Ural  Sea,  30°  farther  south.  In  the  peninsula  of  Taimir  alone  there  are  no 
less  than  ten  genera  and  twenty-one  species  of  phanerogamous  plants.  Still 
the  mosses  prevail,  and  for  vast  spaces  seem  to  occupy  the  field  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  other  types.  Where  the  polytrichum  predominates  the  tundras  are  of 
a  dirty  yellow ;  where  the  reindeer  moss  forms  tlie  chief  element  they  assume  a 
faded  white  hue.  The  monotony  of  these  dull  white  or  yellow  expanses  is  broken 
only  here  and  there  by  a  patdh  of  green  herbage,  marking  the  site  of  some 
abandoned  Samoyede  camp,  or  the  lair  of  an  Arctic  fox.  A  few  "  trembling " 
pasture  lands  also  occur,  but  as  a  rule  only  near  running  waters. 

Between  the  northern  timdras  and  southern  steppes  by  far  the  greatest  space 
is  occupied  by  the  forest  zone.  From  the  Urals  to  Kamchatka  the  dense  taiga,  or 
woodlands,  are  interrupted  only  by  the  streams,  a  few  natural  glades,  and  some 


mm 


■ '^^.T,', 


FLORA. 


&1« 


%h 


% 


,m 


11 


fs 


rS 


hf- 


K>^:^«'' 


)r  all  lands 
e  moist  and 
he  mart,  or 


peat  bogs,  and  marshes  alternate  with  the  padi,  or  narrow  ravines.  The  miners 
call  by  this  name  the  wooded  mountains  where  ihey  go  in  search  of  auriferous 
sands.  But  everywhere  the  taiga  is  the  same  dreary  forest,  without  grass,  birds, 
or  insects,  gloomy  and  lifeless,  and  noiseless  but  for  the  soughing  of  the  wind  and 
crackling  of  the  branches. 

The  conifers  are  the  prevailing  trees,  and  these  comprise  all  the  species  common 
to  Europe,  besides  the  Pimts  picfita,  peculiar  to  East  Siberia.  This  species  is  very 
tall  and  slender,  about  90  feet  high,  and  seldom  over  10  inches  in  diameter,  with 

Fig.  176. — Banob  or  Animal  Svecies  in  Nouiii  Asia. 
Aooordfii(r  ^o  Severtiov.    Scale  1 :  4VS0,000. 


50 


40 


•^ 


cofg 701 


50 


40 


ISO* 


IT. 


rn.     Tin. 


'a     ■■lllllIII'     MMM     MmM    ^m 

I.  Akcnc  Zovi.— NoRTmBit  Zomk.  Rtgiotit:  n.  North-Enropean ;  Iir.  Uralo-Siberi>in ;  IV.  East  Siberian ;  V.  Iiiter- 
madiate.— Middle  Zone.  Begintu  :  VI.  Uralo-Barabian  ;  VII.  Daikrian  ;  vm.  Intennediate.  —  Uidkbt  Zoini. 
StgUnu!  IX.  Weat  Aaiatic;  X.  Central  Aaiatio;  XI.  Intennediate.— Skrio  Zorb.  Hffioiu:  XII.  North  China; 
Xul.  Japan. 

—.iii.— __^^_  600  Miles. 

smooth  bark,  and  in  the  large  central  forests  noted  for  its  bluish-green  foliage. 
Though  a  noble  plant,  it  is  of  but  slight  economic  value,  being  too  fragile  for 
building  purposes,  and  not  very  useful  even  as  fuel.  The  so-called  "  Siberian  Cedar  " 
(Pmas  cembra^  is  in  every  respect  the  best  and  most  used  for  furniture,  wearing 
well,  and  never  rotting  unless  exposed  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 

The  most  common  tree  in  the  taiga  is  the  larch,  which  best  resists  the  winter 
frost  and  summer  chills.     The  various  species  range  from  the  extreme  limits  of 
forest  vegetation  to  the  Tipper  Tlssuri  basin,  in  South  Siberia.     But  the  Siberian 
21 


n 


814 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


woodlands  also  include  most  of  the  trees  common  to  temperate  Europe — the  linden, 
alder,  juniper,  service,  willow,  aspen,  poplar,  birch,  cherry,  apricot — whose  areas  are 
regulated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  elevation  or  aspect  of  the  land. 
Towards  the  south-east,  on  the  Chinese  frontier,  the  birch  is  encroaching  on  the 
indigenous  species,  and  the  natives  regard  this  as  a  sure  prognostic  of  the  approach- 
ing rule  of  the  "  white  Czar." 

Conflagrations  are  very  frequent  in  the  Siberian  forests,  caused  either  by  light- 
ning, the  woodmen,  or  hunters,  and  sometimes  spreading  over  vast  spaces  till 
arrested  by  rivers,  lakes,  or  morasses.  One  of  the  pleasures  of  Siberian  travelling 
is  the  faint  odour  of  the  woods  burning  in  the  distance. 

The  native  flora  is  extremely  rich  in  berries  of  every  kind,  supplying  food  for 
men  and  animals.  Collected  in  vast  quantities  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  towns, 
they  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  preserves  and  liqueiirs,  which  partly  replace 
fruits  in  the  native  diet.  Poisonous  plants  are  rare,  and  disappear  altogether  in 
the  north.  Some  cultivated  species  have  been  introduced  even  into  the  tundra 
and  all  the  camping  grounds  along  the  Arctic  seaboard.  The  soil  of  this  region 
spontaneously  produces  various  anti-scorbutics,  and  the  so-called  "  water  plums," 
an  edible  gelatinous  substance,  may  be  collected  in  abimdance  in  all  fresh-water 
basins.  Thus,  as  Yon  Baer  remarks,  in  the  tropics  man  gathers  his  food  from  the 
trees,  in  the  temperate  zone  from  the  soil,  in  the  polar  regions  from  the  water. 

Fauna. 

The  natural  limits  of  the  land  faima  coincide  with  those  of  forest  vegetation  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Still  the  mouse  and  other  rodents,  preyed 
on  by  the  white  bear  in  summer,  reach  beyond  the  tree  line  into  the  tundra.  South 
of  this  line  stretches  the  zone  of  the  European  species,  gradually  modified  as  they 
proceed  eastwards.  The  steppes  and  the  Da(irian  highlands  occupy  the  southern 
region,  while  towards  the  south-east  a  portion  of  the  Amur  basin  and  all  Russian 
Manchuria  belong  already  to  the  Chinese  domain. 

Within  a  recent  geological  epoch  Siberia  was  still  inhabited  by  a  large  species 
of  rhinoceros,  and  by  the  mammoth,  an  elephant  larger  and  stronger  than  any  now 
existing.  These  monsters  also  roamed  over  the  plains  and  forests  of  Europe,  where, 
as  in  Siberia,  they  were  the  contemporaries  of  man.  But  in  Europe  they  are 
now  represented  only  by  fragments  of  their  skeletons,  whereas  in  North  Asia  their 
very  carcasses  have  been  found  still  covered  with  the  flesh  and  hides.  In  1771 
Pallas  assisted  at  the  removal  of  a  rhinoceros  from  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Yilin, 
west  of  Yakutsk.  Portions  of  the  head  and  feet  are  still  preserved  in  St.  Petersburg, 
together  with  similar  remains  found  in  1877  on  the  Bitantai,  near  the  Yana.  In 
1799  a  frozen  mass  floating  down  the  Lena  groimded  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
where  it  released  the  body  of  a  mammoth  as  it  gradually  melted  from  summer  to 
summer.  When  found  by  the  naturalist  Adams  the  native  Tunguses  had  already 
carried  off  the  tusks,  but  the  eyes,  brain,  and  much  of  the  flesh  still  remained,  and 
the  skeleton  is  now  in  the  St.  PetersVjrg  Museum.     A  second  mammoth,  now  in 


^wi--,.-..--,.-A..-. 


mmm 


FAUNA. 


316 


•e — the  linden, 
vhose  areas  are 
;t  of  the  land. 
)aching  on  the 
the  approach- 

ither  by  light- 
ast  spaces  till 
irian  travelling 

plying  food  for 
i  of  the  towns, 
partly  replace 
r  altogether  in 
ito  the  tundra 
of  this  region 
'  water  plums," 
all  fresh-water 
9  food  from  the 
the  water. 


it  vegetation  in 
rodents,  preyed 
tundra.  South 
lodifiedas  they 
)y  the  southern 
mdall  Russian 

a  large  species 
r  than  any  now 
Europe,  where, 
urope  they  are 
orth  Asia  their 
des.  In  1771 
e  Lower  Vilin, 
St.  Petersburg, 
the  Yana.  In 
th  of  the  river 
rom  summer  to 
aes  had  already 
1  remained,  and 
immoth,  now  in 


the  Moscow  Museum,  was  discovered  in  1839,  and  a  third  was  brought  to  light  in 
1866  by  Schmidt  near  the  estuary  of  the  Taz.  The  "  ivory  hunters  "  have  long 
been  in  t  ■  habit  of  visiting  the  Arctic  seaboard  and  the  archipelago  of  New  Siberia 
in  search  of  mammoths,  and  such  was  formerly  the  abundance  of  these  animals  that 
the  annual  yield  of  fossil  ivory  amounted  to  40,000  lbs.  In  1840  Middendoi-fiE 
calculated  that  up  to  that  time  the  remains  of  about  20,000  mammoths  had  been 
discovered  about  the  Siberian  river  banks. 

Whether  the  climate  of  the  country  was  warmer  when  these  animals  flourished 
than  at  present  is  a  moot  question  with  geologists.  Being  covered  with  long  hair, 
the  mammoth  could  certainly  endure  the  rigours  of  a  Siberian  winter.  But  in  the 
tundras  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  now  strewn  with  his  tusks,  he 
coidd  not  have  found  the  foliage  necessary  for  his  sustenance.  Are  we  then  to 
conclude  that  the  country  was  at  that  time  wooded,  or  rather  that  the  real  home  of 
the  mammoth  was  South  Siberia,  whence  his  remains  drifted  with  the  streams 
northwards  P  Various  traditions  associated  with  these  animals  have  been  diffused 
throughout  Siberia  and  China.  In  the  Chinese  annals  mention  is  made  of  the 
mamentoca,  a  rat  as  large  as  an  elephant,  burrowing  tmderground,  and  suddenly 
killed  by  contact  with  the  air.  The  Samoyedes  say  that  the  mammoth  still  exists, 
haunting  the  streams  and  coast,  and  living  on  the  dead  bodies  cast  up  by  the 
waves.  They  speak  of  the  rhinoceros  as  a  gigantic  bird,  whose  talons  were  the 
tusks  purchased  by  the  ivory  hunters.  Their  legends  also  describe  the  terrific 
combats  that  formerly  took  place  between  their  forefathers  and  these  birds.  A 
microscopic  examination  of  the  vegetable  remains  adhering  to  the  molars  of  the 
rhinoceros  in  the  Irkutsk  Museum  has  revealed  the  fibres  of  the  larch,  birch, 
willow,  closely  allied  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the  species  still  growing  in  northern 
latitudes.  The  opinion  is  thus  confirmed  that  these  pachydermata  lived  in  the 
middle  zone,  south  of  fhe  extreme  limits  of  the  northern  regions  where  their 
remains  are  now  found. 

These  remains  are  often  found  associated  with  those  of  the  horse,  ox,  and 
sheep ;  but  the  same  gradual  evolution  has  taken  place  in  Siberia  as  in  Europe, 
and  all  these  species  have  been  similarly  modified.  The  extreme  eastern  regions  of 
the  Amur  basin  and  Russian  Manchuria,  being  warmer,  more  humid  and  fertile, 
also  abound  more  in  animal  life  than  the  other  parts  of  Asiatic  Russia.  On  the 
o!;her  hand,  the  Siberian  bear,  deer,  roebuck,  hare,  squirrel,  marmot,  and  mole  are 
about  one-third  larger,  and  often  half  as  heavy  again  as  their  European  congeners. 
This  is  doubtless  due  partly  to  the  greater  abundance  of  nourishment  along  the 
rivers  and  shores  of  Siberia,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  for  ages  the  western 
species  have  been  more  preyed  upon  by  man,  living  in  a  constant  state  of  fear, 
and  mostly  perishing  before  attaining  their  full  development. 

The  Arctic  Seas  abound  probably  as  much  as  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  marine 
animals.  Nordenskjold  found  the  Siberian  waters  very  rich  in  molluscs  and  other 
lower  org^anisms,  implying  a  corresponding  abundance  of  larger  animals.  Hence 
fishing,  perhaps  more  than  navigation,  will  be  the  future  industry  of  the  Siberian 
coast  populations.   Cetacea,  fishes,  molluscs,  and  other  marine  organisms  are  cast  up 


T 


»# 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


in  such  quantities  along  both  sides  of  Bering  Strait  that  the  bears  and  other 
omnivorous  creatures  have  here  become  very  choice  as  to  their  food.  But  on  some 
parts  of  the  coast  in  the  Chukchi  country  whales  are  never  stranded,  and  since  the 
arrival  of  the  Russians  certain  species  threaten  to  disappear  altogether.  The 
Rhytina  stelleri,  a  species  of  walrus  formerly  frequenting  Bering  Strait  in  millions, 
was  completely  exterminated  between  the  years  1741 — 68.  Many  of  the  fur- 
bearing  animals,  which  attracted  the  Cossacks  from  the  Urals  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
and  which  were  the  true  cause  of  the  conquest  of  Siberia,  have  become  extremely 
rare.  Their  skins  are  distinguished,  above  all  others,  for  their  great  softness, 
warmth,  lightness,  and  bright  coloxirs.  The  more  Alpine  or  continental  the  climate, 
the  more  beautiful  and  highly  prized  become  the  furs,  which  diminish  in  gloss 
towards  the  coast  and  in  West  Siberia,  where  the  south-west  winds  prevail.  The 
sables  of  the  North  Urals  are  of  small  value,  while  those  of  the  Upper  Lena,  15° 
farther  south,  are  worth  a  king's  ransom.  Many  species  assume  a  white  coat  in 
winter,  whereby  they  are  difficult  to  be  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  snows. 
Amongst  these  are  the  polar  hare  and  fox,  the  ermine,  the  campagnol,  often  even 
the  wolf  and  reindeer,  besides  the  owl,  yellow-hammer,  and  some  other  birds. 
Those  which  retain  their  brown  or  black  colour  are  mostly  such  as  do  not  show 
themselves  in  winter.  The  fur  of  the  squirrels  also  varies  with  the  surroimding 
foliage,  those  of  the  pine  forests  being  ruddy,  those  of  the  cedar,  taiga,  and  firs 
inclining  to  brown,  and  all  varying  in  intensity  of  colour  with  that  of  the 


vegetation. 


Other  species  besides  the  peltry-bearing  animals  have  diminished  in  numbers 
since  the  arrival  of  the  Russian  hunters.  The  reindeer,  which  frequented  the  South 
,  Siberian  highlands,  and  whose  domain  encroached  on  that  of  the  camel,  is  now 
found  only  in  the  domestic  state  amongst  the  Soyotes  of  the  Upper  Yenisei,  and  is 
met  with  in  the  wild  state  only  in  the  dwarf  forests  and  tundras  of  the  far  north. 
The  argali  has  withdrawn  to  Mongolia  from  the  Siberian  mountains  and  plains, 
where  he  was  still  very  common  at  the  end  of  the  last  century.  On  the  other  hand, 
cold  and  want  of  food  yearly  drive  great  numbers  of  antelopes  and  wild  horses 
from  the  Gobi  steppes  towards  the  Siberian  lowlands,  tigers,  wolves,  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  following  in  their  track,  and  returning  with  them  in  the  early 
spring.  Brute  creation  seems  well  acquainted  with  the  political  frontiers  of  the 
two  regions,  and  many  birds,  which  in  Siberia  start  at  the  least  soimd,  allow  them- 
selves to  be  approached  without  betraying  any  sjrmptoms  of  fear  in  Mongolia. 
This  is  specially  the  case  with  water-fowl,  which  the  Mongolian  nomads  never  dare 
to  attack  in  the  "  sacred  element."  For  the  universal  belief  prevails  that  "  should 
the  blood  of  a  bird  mingle  with  the  pure  stream,  it  becomes  fatal  to  all  the  flock 
drinking  of  it." 

Hitherto  the  hand  of  man  seems  to  have  made  no  impression  on  certain  sociable 
animals  nimierous  in  various  parts  of  South  Siberia.  The  Irtish,  Yenisei,  and 
Transbaikal  steppes  are  honey-combed  with  galleries  expanding  to  underground 
cities,  wherever  the  soil  is  at  once  sandy  and  consistent  enough  to  resist  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.    Such  districts  are  peopled  by  the  burrowing  tribes,  and 


tt. 


':-^sbmmitmjm*tiisiat:im 


■^' 


INHABITANT8-THE  OHUDES. 


817 


irs  and  other 
But  on  some 
and  since  the 
gether.  The 
it  in  millions, 
y  of  the  fur- 
}aof  Okhotsk, 
ime  extremely 
;reat  softness, 
il  the  climate, 
inish  in  gloss 
prevail.  The 
iper  Lena,  15° 
white  coat  in 
iinding  snows, 
lol,  often  even 
)  other  birds, 
do  not  show 
e  surrounding 
taiga,  and  firs 
I  that  of  the 


the  surface  is  often  covered  for  miles  with  regular  mounds  thrown  up  by  millions 
of  troglodytes  from  their  endless  subterranean  labyrinths.  Here  it  is  the  Tarbagan 
marmot  (^Arctomt/a  bohac),  there  the  whistling  hare  {^Lagomys  agostonans),  elsewhere 
the  mole  or  other  creatures  with  similar  habits.  In  the  cool  of  the  evening  every 
hillock  is  occupied  by  some  little  rodent  erect  on  its  hind  legs,  surveying  the 
surrounding  landscape,  suddenly  disappearing  at  the  least  noise,  and  as  suddenly 
reappearing  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  its  fright.  The  lines  of  tarbagans  mounting 
guard  at  their  palace  gates  sometimes  stretch  beyond  the  horizon,  like  the  sentinels 
of  a  countless  army.  Colonies  of  these  marmots  also  people  some  of  the  treeless 
Kamchatka,  Baikal,  and  Yitim  highlands  beyond  the  forest  zone,  having  probably 
crossed  the  intervening  wooded  tracts  before  they  were  covered  with  timber. 

Several  new  species  of  animals  have  been  introduced  by  man,  and  modified  by 
crossings  in  the  domestic  state.  In  the  north  the  Samoyedes,  Chukchis,  and  Eam- 
chadales  have  the  reindeer  and  dog,  while  the  horse  and  ox  are  everywhere  the 
companions  of  man  in  the  peopled  regions  of  Siberia.  The  yak  has  been  tamed  by 
the  Soyotes  of  the  Upper  Yenisei,  and  the  camel,  typical  of  a  distinctly  Eastern 
civilisation,  follows  the  nomads  of  the  Kirghiz  and  Mongolian  steppes.  All  these 
domesticated  animals  seem  to  have  acquired  special  qualities  and  habits  from  the 
various  indigenous  or  Russian  peoples  of  Siberia.  The  Samoyede  dog  differs  as 
much  from  the  Cossack  as  the  latter  does  from  the  Manchu  species. 


id  in  numbers 
ted  the  South 

camel,  is  now 
enisei,  and  is 
the  far  north. 
13  and  plains, 
le  other  hand, 
d  wild  horses 
es,  and  otlier 

in  the  early 
ontiers  of  the 
1,  allow  them- 

in  Mongolia, 
ads  never  dare 

that  "  should 
all  the  flock 

ertain  sociable 

,  Yenisei,  and 

underground 

resist  sudden 

ag  tribes,  and 


Inhabitants — The  ChCdes. 

All  the  local  traditions,  confirmed  by  many  objects  found  in  the  old  biirial- 
places,  speak  of  civilised  peoples  formerly  occupying  Siberia,  and  collectively 
known  as  ChMes,  whether  of  Aryan,  T(^rki,  Finnish,  or  Mongol  stock.  Their 
kurgans,  or  barrows,  abound  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals,  in  the  Altai  valleys, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Yenisei,  and  especially  in  the  Minusinsk  district.  In  the 
mineral  regions  abandoned  excavations  are  usually  known  as  "  ChMe  mines."  On 
the  western  spurs  of  the  Altai  certain  stone  landmarks  about  5  or  6  feet  high, 
and  inscribed  with  still  undeciphered  characters,  are  regarded  by  the  present 
inhabitants  as  the  "  limits "  of  the  ChMes ;  and  on  the  banks  of  a  sacred  lake 
in  the  Altai  highlands  are  to  be  ■  seen  two  rudely  carved  g^ranite  horsemen, 
supposed  to  be  the  "gods"  of  the  same  mysterious  people.  Yarious  objects, 
and  «8pecially  arms  and  copper  armour,  found  under  the  peat  and  along  the  rivers 
where  gold  was  formerly  washed,  show  that  they  were  possessed  both  of  taste  and 
great  skill  in  metal-working.  The  remains  of  canals  several  miles  long,  the 
foundations  of  sluices  and  windmills,  bespeak  a  really  advanced  state  of  civilisation, 
which  cultivated  fruit  trees  that  have  since  perished,  and  which  reared  an  excellent 
breed  of  swine  still  bearing  the  name  of  "  Ch(lde,"  emd  traditionally  attributed  to 
these  ancient  possessors  of  the  land.  The  chief  centre  of  their  civilisation  seems  to 
have  been  in  the  highlands  about  the  Yenisei,  where  the  richest  and  most  artistic 
objects  have  been  found.  The  implements  and  arms  occurring  in  the  kurgans  of 
the  Western  Altai  and  Irtish  valley  are  of  a  rude  type  and  less  original  in  design. 


mMBB 


818 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


On  the  other  hand,  the  "  Chfide  "  antiquities  of  the  Altai  betray  a  great  resem- 
blance to  many  "  Scythian  "  objects  from  the  Dnieper  and  £uxine  districts.  The 
civilised  Ch fides,  who  are  generally  believed  to  have  been  of  Finnish  stock,  were 
in  all  probability  exterminated  during  the  long  wars  which  preceded  the  barbaric 
migrations.  The  Mongols,  uy  whom  they  have  been  replaced,  recognise  their 
own  foreign  origin — when  asked  whence  they  came,  pointing  invariably  to  the 
south-east. 

But  althdugh  the  Chftdes  as  a  nation  have  vanished,  they  still  doubtless  survive, 
intermingled  with  the  indigenous  semi-barbarous  populations,  themselves  destined 
either  to  merge  with  or  disappear  before  the  Russians.  Although  their  dialects 
enable  us  still  to  group  the  various  Siberian  peoples,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
there  has  been  a  great  mixture  of  races  in  this  region.  From  the  Urals  to  the 
Corean  frontier  a  gradual  transition  of  types  may  be  traced,  while  isolated  groups 
everywhere  occur,  which  may  be  regarded  as  representing  Mongol  or  Tilrki  tribes 
dwelling  'thousands  of  miles  off.  The  Mongol  type  is  most  pronounced  in  the 
women.  Even  in  North-west  Siberia  we  frequently  see  young  girls  with  almost 
Chinese  features.  Intermixture  has  been  much  promoted  by  the  usages  of  the 
Siberian  nomads.  Enforced  displacements  of  whole  tribes  often  remove  them  from 
the  parent  stock,  and  bring  Ihem  into  contact  with  other  races.  In  their  long 
journeys  across  large  tracts  of  the  continent  the  Yakut  or  Buriat  traders  purchase 
their  wives,  now  in  one,  now  in  another  tribe,  and  not  unfrequently  maintain 
separate  "  establishments  "  in  the  various  countries  visited  by  them.  The  wives 
are  also  let  out  on  hire,  the  children  sold  to  strangers,  orphans  adopted  by  strange 
tribes  or  by  the  Russian  settlers  and  traders.  Although  the  Slav  type,  especially 
amongst  the  Little  Russians  and  Raskolniks,  has  been  perfectly  preserved  in  some 
settlements,  a  general  fusion  of  all  the  Siberian  peoples  is  gradually  taking  place. 
While  the  Russian  emigrants  become  assimilated  to  the  Yakuts,  many  Tunguses 
are  being  slowly  Russified.  According  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  elements 
in  contact,  the  features  and  habits  of  one  or  other  approach  the  prevailing  type. 
Thus  the  Finns  and  Turks  of  the  west  have  acquired  a  European  appearance,  while 
in  the  east  preserving  their  Asiatic  features. 

Throughout  Siberia  proper,  from  the  Urals  to  the  Pacific,  the  Russians,  either 
pure  or  sprung  of  Cossack  alliances  with  the  native  women,  have  already  become  the 
most  important  element  both  numerically  and  socially.  The  Siberian  Slavs  niunber 
over  3,000,000,  and  those  of  the  Ural  districts  over  4,000,000,  while  the  scattered 
native  tribes  cannot  be  estimated  at  much  more  than  700,000,  exclusive  of  the 
Kirghiz,  whose  steppes  are  now  administratively  included  in  "  Central  Asia."  Some 
groups  occupying  a  domain  larger  than  France  consist  only  of  a  few  nomad  families 
receding  before  the  foreign  settlers.  The  Russians  hold  in  compact  masses  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  the  Tobol,  Irtish,  and  Upper  Ob  basins.  They  are 
also  predominant  in  the  Yenisei  and  Angarb  valleys  and  in  Transbaikalia,  and 
have  occupied  all  the  arable  tracts  along  the  river  banks.  Since  1865  they  have  been 
spreading  over  the  fertile  Altai  valleys,  which  were  in  that  year  thrown  open  to 
free  immigration. 


wmmimKt 


■hH 


a  great  rosem- 
(listricts.  The 
ish  stock,  were 
ed  the  barbaric 
recognise  their 
variably  to  the 

ubtlees  survive, 
Lselves  destined 
li  their  dialects 

no  doubt  that 
le  Urals  to  the 
isolated  groups 
or  Tdrki  tribes 
[lounced  in  the 
rls  with  almost 

usages  of  the 
aove  them  from 

In  their  long 
raders  purchase 
lently  maintain 
m.  The  wives 
pted  by  strange 
type,  especially 
^served  in  some 
y  taking  place, 
nany  Tunguses 
oi  the  elements 
prevailing  type, 
tpearance,  while 


Russians,  either 
eady  become  the 
n  Slavs  number 
ile  the  scattered 
ixclusive  of  the 
al  Asia."  Some 
nomad  families 
pact  masses  the 
sins.  They  are 
msbaikalia,  and 
)  they  have  been 
thrown  open  to 


■•immmmmmtaasjiaMimmmtiilmmmmmmtii 


THE  ALTAI  HIQULANDS. 


818 


II.—THE  ALTAI  HIGHLANDS. 

The  "  Gold  Mountainn,"  on  tho  nome  probably  means,  from  the  3Iongol  Ai-tin, 
Bynonymous  with  the  Chinese  Gin-shan,  comprise  tho  whole  system  of  higlilunds 
rising  north  of  the  Zungarian  depressions,  and  forming  an  oastwani  continuation  of 
tho  Tian-shan  and  Pamir.  Although  far  less  extensive  and  olovutcd  than  the 
Tian-shan,  the  Altai  still  bears  comparison  with  the  European  Alps,  if  not  in  the 
height  of  its  peaks,  diversity  of  its  forms,  abundance  of  its  snow  or  rich  vegetation, 
at  least  in  the  development  of  its  ranges  and  length  of  its  valleys.  The  Alta'i 
proper  doubtless  comprises,  on  Russian  territory,  the  snowy  region  alone,  which  is 
limited  on  the  west  by  tho  valley  of  the  Black  Irtish,  and  eastwards  by  tho  8(^ok 
Pass.  But  this  much-frequented  pass,  on  the  Russo-Chinose  frontier,  is  a  purely 
conventional  limit,  for  the  system  still  strotchcs  eastward,  under  tho  name  of  the 
Sayan  range,  as  far  as  the  Yenisei,  and  beyond  it  to  tho  Baikal  uplands.  In  the 
direction  of  China  tho  Alta'i  is  continued  in  a  system  of  little-known  chains  and 
spurs  far  south  of  the  sources  of  the  Yenisei  and  to  a  considerable  distance  into  the 
Mongolian  plateaux.  At  the  same  time  the  term  is  employed  somewhat  vaguely  in 
Siberia,  being  often  applied  not  only  to  the  hills,  but  also  to  the  plains  at  their  feet, 
and  in  fact  to  the  whole  region  depending  administratively  on  Bamai^l,  Biisk,  and 
£uznetzk. 

When  the  Alta'i  is  approached  by  the  great  South  Siberian  route  from  the  Urals, 
nothing  is  visible  except  irregular  hills,  baro  and  forbidding  as  the  steppe  itself. 
Beyond  the  scattered  forests  and  lakes  of  the  plains  little  is  met  but  groy  and 
arid  tracts,  the  horizon  being  limited  south  and  oast  by  a  sky-line  of  low  and 
formless  mountains,  concealing  from  view  the  more  elevated  summits  on  the 
Chinese  frontier.  Tho  prevailing  nakedness  of  the  rocks  is  relieved  by  a  few 
verdant  crests,  but  in  the  Western  Alta'i  regions  the  landscape  is  mostly  of  an 
extremely  desolate  character.  The  south-west  winds,  bearing  moisture  across 
Europe  to  the  Urals  and  western  slopes  of  the  Tian-shan,  are  completely  exhausted 
before  reaching  the  Alta'i.  Their  humidity  comes  altogether  with  the  cold  horth- 
ea«t  winds,  which  in  many  places  clothe  them  with  rich  pastures.  In  the  Urgudei 
valley,  north  of  the  Sayan,  few  days- pass  without  rain  or  snow  falling  according  to 
the  season. 

In  these  moist  regions  the  running  streams  and  woodlands  impart  to  the 
mountain  scenery  quite  a  different  character  from  that  of  the  bleak  western 
highlands.  Wherever  the  crags  and  rugged  heights  assume  large  proportions, 
the  landscape  recalls  that  of  the  European  Alps.  A  gorge  of  the  Upper  Chuya, 
leading  towarda  the  S(iok  Pass  between  Biisk  and  Mongolia,  is  a  sort  of  "  Via  Mala  " 
in  the  contrast  of  the  upper  vegetation  with  the  gloomy  abyss  at  the  bottom  of 
which  rushes  the  foaming  torrent.  But  in  the  heart  of  the  highlands  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Chuya  is  a  bare  steppe  seldom  watered  by  the  rains,  and  where  the 
light  winter  snows  are  soon  brushed  aside  by  the  winds.  In  several  districts  the 
Alpine  region  is  sharply  defined  by  the  crest  forming  the  dividing  line  between 


820 


ASIATIC  UU8SIA. 


Russia  and  China.  On  either  side  of  this  line  the  contrast  is  complete,  the  northern 
slopes  being  clothed  with  forests  of  conifers,  whUe  southwards  the  rocky  wilderness 
stretches  beyond  the  horizon.   The  waters  escape  on  both  sides  in  opposite  directions, 


MM* 


HM 


TOE  AI/fAl  IIIOULANDS. 


821 


und  thr   inhnhitimtH  Im'Ioii^  to  diNtinrt  othnirul  j^roupn — Monj^oU  on  tho  Cbinoae, 
Tnlmif^utn  or  KiilmukH  on  tho  IluNNiim  MlopcH. 

Tho  Altiii  «y«tom  con«iHtH  of  niiinorouH  nhninn  running?  mainly  woRt-north-wrst 
and  eoNt-Houth-oaAt  parallel  with  tho  Tarbagatui  and  many  othor  Central  Aniatic 


I'lg.  177.— Lak*  Tilntzkoyr. 

Seal*  1  :  iOO.aoO. 


w, 


SlfUea. 


I,  the  northern 
ky  wilderness 
site  directions, 


ridges.  Tkese  Byelki,  or  "  Alps,"  are  connected  by  irregular  transverise  ridges  and 
plateaux,  forming  collectively  a  winding  north-easterly  watershed  between  the  Ob 
basin  «ad  the  Gobi  desert.  The  Altai,  however,  does  not  form  a  complete  water- 
parting,  for  the  Ulungur,  a  head-stream  of  the  Irtish,  rises  in  the  Gobi,  making  its 


822 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


way  thence  north-nards  round  the  western  highlands.  The  whole  system,  including 
the  intermediate  valleys  and  southern  plateaux,  has  a  mean  elevation  of  scarcely 
more  than  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet,  though  the  chief  crests  rise  to  from  6,000  to 
9,000  feet.  The  Ulan-dnbas,  forming  the  central  nucleus,  whence  flow  northwards 
several  affluents  of  the  Eatun,  westwards  the  Bukhtarma,  southwards  the  Oigur, 
a  tributary  of  the  Ike-eral,  is  intersected  by  a  pass  which,  according  to  Miroshni- 
chenko,  is  no  less  than  9,400  feet  high..  North-west  of  this  formidable  pass  the 
Altai  system  cidminates  with  the  Bielukha,  or  "  White  **  Mountain,  whose  two  peaks 
are  each  about  11,100  feet  high.  The  highland  mass  commanded  by  this  mountain 
is  completely  severed  from  the  rest  of  the  Altai  on  the  south,  west,  and  north  by 
the  Eatun,  or  Eatuniya,  which  is  the  true  Upper  Ob.  It  receives  numerous  head- 
streams,  one  of  whichj  the  Eok-su,  flows  eastwards  through  the  narrow  fissure  of 
the  Eorgon  plateau,  about  6,500  feet  high.  The  Bielukha  or  Eatun  Mountains 
have  the  best  claim  to  the  title  of  the  "  Great  Altai,"  usually  given  to  the  still 
little-known  region  of  the  Mongolian  Altai.  The  "Great  ^Jtai"  of  most 
geographers  is  called  the  "  Little  Altai "  by  Venyukov.  It  forms  the  western 
frontier  chain  of  the  Eobdo  plateau,  whose  escarpments  slope  south-westwards  to 
the  Ulungur  and  Black  Irtish  valleys.  Several  of  its  summits  rise  above  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow. 

East  of  the  Russian  Altai,  whose  various  sections  are  usually  named  from  their 
chief  rivers  or  nearest  villages,  the  Tannu-ola  range  runs  in  Mongolia  between  the 
Yenisei  head-streams  and  the  waters  flowing  towards  the  Ubsa-nor.  Farther  north 
the  wooded  Sayan  Mountains  sweep  in  a  bold  curve  towards  the  Yenisei,  above 
which  they  terminate  with  the  Shabin-dabag.  The  lower  Euznetzkiy  Ala-tau 
ridges,  forming  the  water-parting  between  the  Ob  and  the  Yenisei  basins,  still 
maintain  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  5,000  feet.  Several  small  lakes  are  dotted 
over  the  highland  region  where  the  Altai  and  Sayan  converge.  But  the  largest 
and  finest  lacustrine  basin  in  the  Altai  regions  is  Lake  Teletzkoye,  fed  by  the 
Chulishman,  and  draining  through  the  Biya  westwards  to  the  Ob.  In  the  beauty 
of  its  scenery  this  basin  rebembles  Lake  Geneva,  and,  like  it,  consists  of  two  divisions, 
but  more  abruptly  disposed.  It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  1,600  feet,  and  has  an 
area  of  110  square  miles,  with  a  depth  of  about  140  fathoms.  At  its  southern 
extremity  rises  the  snowy  Altin-tau,  or  "  Gold  Mountain,"  a  sacred  spot  in  the  eyes 
of  the  Ealmuks,  who  call  it  the  "  Father  of  the  Mountains  and  Lake,"  and  pretend 
that  it  has  always  punished  with  death  the  profane  adventurers  who  have  dared  to 
scale  its  heights.  . 

The  Bielukha  also,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  rises  above  the  snow-line,  and  even 
develops  a  glacier  about  2,800  yards  long,  whence  flow  the  first  head-streams  of 
the  Eatun.  A  few  limited  snow-fields  descend  from  the  neighbouring  mountains, 
remnants  of  the  extensive  glaciers  that  formerly  covered  these  highlands.  The 
snow-line  on  the  slopes  of  the  Altin-tau,  recently  fixed  at  about  7,500  feet,  has 
now  been  raised  to  8,600  feet ;  yet  it  still  remains  at  a  lower  elevation  than  the 
corresponding  line  on  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

The  heights  below  the  snow-line  are  partly  covered  with  marshy  tracts  strewn 


mmm 


FLOEA  AND  FAUNA  OF  THE  ALTAI. 


em,  including 
n  of  scarcely 
from  6,000  to 
)w  northwards 
rds  the  Oigur, 
to  Miroshni- 
lable  pass  the 
hose  two  peaks 
this  mountain 
and  north  by 
umerous  head- 
rrow  fissure  of 
tun  Mountains 
yen  to  the  still 
Itm"   of  most 
as  the  western 
li-westwards  to 
above  the  line 

med  from  their 
[ia  between  the 

Farther  north 
I  Yenisei,  above 
letzkiy  Ala-tau, 
sei  basins,  still 
akes  are  dotted 
But  the  largest 
Dye,  fed  by  the 

In  the  beauty 
>f  two  divisions, 
set,  and  has  an 
At  its  southern 
spot  in  the  eyes 
:e,"  and  pretend 
lO  have  dared  to 

(v-line,  and  even 
head-streams  of 
ring  mountains, 
lighlands.  The 
;  7,500  feet,  has 
oration  than  the 

hy  tracts  strewn 


with  granite  boulders.  These  heights,  flattened  on  top,  but  with  very  steep  sides, 
are  separated  by  deep  valleys,  which  seem  to  have  been  hollowed  out  by  erosion  in 
the  softer  schistose  rocks  embedded  in  the  granite  masses,  of  which  the  Altai 
system  is  mainly  composed.  Some  porphyries  and  serpentines  have  here  and  there 
intruded  in  the  crystalline  and  schist  formations ;  but  there  are  nowhere  any 
evidences  of  volcanic  action.  The  Altai  is  evidently  a  very  ancient  system,  without 
any  of  the  dyassic,  triassic,  Jurassic,  chalk,  or  tertiary  strata.  Since  the  formation 
of  the  palsDOizoio  rocks,  its  crests  have  always  been  raised  above  the  seas  and  lower 
steppes.  The  coal-fields  discovered  in  the  Euznetzk  Moimtains,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tom,  and  the  rich  metalliferous  veins,  which  have  given  such  economic  importance 
to  thd  Altai  region,  date  from  these  geological  epochs. 

Flora  and  Fauna  of  the  Altai'. 

Compared  with  that  of  the  surrounding  steppes,  the  flora  of  the  Altai  is 
extremely  rich,  though  still  inferior  to  that  of  Central  Europe  in  the  number  of  its 
species.  Ledebour,  who  has  collected  about  1,600  flowering  plants  in  this  region, 
estimates  at  about  four-sevenths  of  the  species  indigenous  in  Germany  those 
composing  the  wild  flora  of  the  Altai,  which  lies  imder  the  same  latitude  as  the 
Bohemian  highlands,  and  is  exposed  to  the  same  alternating  south-west  and  north- 
east winds.  All  the  families,  except  those  growing  on  the  shores  of  salt  lakes,  are 
represented  in  the  Altai  by  fewer  species  than  in  Central  Europe.  The  maple  is 
wanting  altogether,  the  lime-tree  occurs  only  in  isolated  clusters,  and  the  alder  is 
very  rare.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  peculiar  species,  such  as  the  hedge 
cherry  {^Lonicem  Tatarica)  and  the  pea-tree  {^Caragana  arborcacena),  whose  whitish 
and  acacia-like  foliage  is  seen  on  most  of  the  less  productive  slopes. 

The  steppe  flora  encroaches  on  the  Altai  flora  proper  to  a  height  of  about 
1,000  feet  along  the  advancing  spurs.  It  is  very  poor,  especially  in  the  saline 
tracts,  and  imparts  a  grey  or  yellowish  tone  to  the  landscape,  here  and  there 
relieved  by  pale  green  tints.  Grassy  lands  occur  only  oh  the  well-watered  low- 
lying  flats,  and  this  tall  herbage,  heaving  like  the  waves  under  the  action  of  the 
winds,  ia  said  to  produce  something  like  the  effect  of  sea-sickness  on  the  natives 
accustomed  to  the  sombre  motionlcjiM  aspect  of  the  bare  steppe.  Along  the  river 
banks  the  steppe  flora  is  interrupted  by  arborescent  vegetation,  including  the  bihsh 
and  other  rapidly  g^rowing  species,  and  occasionally  the  pine,  where  it  has  not 
escaped  the  conflagrations  it  is  exposed  to  in  the  neighbourhood  of  human 
habitations.  Of  the  poplars  and  willows,  abounding  most  in  the  rivers  rising 
in  the  Altai,  some  species  seem  to  have  originated  in  the  Upper  Ob  basin. 

The  black  birch  and  medlar  reach  an  altitude  of  6,800  feet,  whereas  the  forest 
zone  proper  is  comprised  between  4,300  and  6,600  feet.  But  in  all  the  inhabited 
districts  it  has  been  considerably  encroached  upon  by  the  woodman's  axe,  and  in 
some  places  nothing  but  saplings  are  met  for  hundreds  of  square  miles.  In  the 
valleys  sheltered  from  the  dry  south-west  winds,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  mining 
districts,  the  pine  "  taig^  "  are  still  met,  and  higher  up  forests  of  firs  and  other 


Kommemm 


HVMMI 


ii:*! 


824 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


coniferu  finer  than  those  of  Europe,  owing  to  the  richness  and  variety  of  the 
undergrowth.  The  Alpine  plants,  reaching  from  the  forest  zone  to  the  snow-line, 
are  noted  for  their  hright  colours  and  pungent  odour.  They  are  intermingled  first 
with  the  last  stunted  growth  of  dwarf  trees,  and  then  with  the  mosses  and  lichens, 
which  finally  disappear  under  the  snows. 

The  mountain  fauna,  like  the  flora,  is  relatively  very  rich,  and  the  Ealmuk 
sings,  "  The  White  Altai,  with  its  four  valleys  and  six,  of  sixty  birds  is  the  home, 
and  of  countless  deer."  In  the  section  explored  by  him,  Ledebour  collected 
twenty-one  species  of  mammals,  sixty-four  of  birds,  twenty-eight  of  amphibia,  but 
seven  only  of  fish.  On  the  Chinese  frontier  there  are  some  animals  belonging  to  the 
Central  Asiatic  fauna ;  but  on  the  whole  the  species  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Tian-shan  and  Siberia.  The  stu£Fed  tigers  in  the  BamaM  Museum  were  intruders 
from  a  foreign  domain,  and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  here  indigenous.  Some 
animals,  formerly  very  common,  have  either  disappeared  or  become  very  scarce. 
Such  are  the  beaver,  now  found  only  on  the  Black  Irtish,  and  the  elk,  so  numerous 
in  the  time  of  Pallas  that  the  tribute  was  often  paid  with  its  skins,  valued  at  about 
half  a  rouble  each.  But  while  some  havr  been  exterminated  by  the  hunter,  others 
have  been  introduced  by  the  Russian  and  Tatar  peasants.  The  Hussians  of  the 
Bukhtarma  valley  have  succeeded  in  taming,  and  thus  preserving,  the  marali,  which 
has  elsewhere  been  nearly  extirpated  by  the  leas  provident  settlers.  This  ruminant 
is  more  valued  than  the  horse,  because  of  its  greater  docility,  and  because  it 
consumes  less  hay,  if  supplied  with  plenty  of  salt.  The  horns  of  the  male  are  sawn 
in  spring,  yielding  on  an  average  about  £8  worth  of  the  gelatinous  substance 
so  highly  prized  by  the  Chinese.  The  skin  and  flesh  have  also  a  g^reat  economic 
value. 

'  The  bee,  said  by  Ledebour  to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Russians  towards  the 
close  of  last  century,  seems  to  be  indigenous,  at  least  in  the  region  of  Lake 
Teletzkoye,  where  it  is  found  in  the  wild  state,  and  has  a  native  name.  In  any 
case  agriculture  has  become  one  of  the  g^reat  industries  of  the  Altai,  and  as  many 
as  2,000  hives  are  grouped  aroimd  some  farmsteads.  In  several  villages  the 
annual  yield  amounts  to  125,000  lbs.  of  honey,  and  500,000  lbs.  of  honey  and 
825,000  lbs.  of  wax  are  yearly  exported  from  the  Bukhtarma  valley.  This  highly 
perfumed  honey  is  largely  constmied  in  the  Altai  regions,  where,  as  in  Russia,  it  is 
eaten  with  candied  fruits  and  cucumbers. 


Inhabitants — The  Kalmuks,  Tatars,  and  Russians. 

The  prehistoric  races  of  the  Altai  have  left  traces  of  their  civilisation,  and  the 
local  mines  had  from  the  remotest  times  been  worked  by  one  of  those  mysterious 
races  known  as  "  ChCkdes."  The  hills  and  plains  are  strewn  with  their  barrows, 
generally  surrounded  with  stones  and  gooseberry  thickets.  When  the  Russians 
discovered  the  rich  mineral  treasures  of  the  Altai,  they  found  that  mines  had 
everywhere  been  opened,  and  Pallas  tells  us  that  in  one  of  them  the  skeleton  was 
found  of  one  of  those  prehistoric  miners,  with  a  leather  sack  full  of  ores  by  hia  side. 


MOW 


MHH 


SasssKssmimBtM 


-w^ 


INHABITANTS— THE  KALMUKS,  TATABS,  AND  RUSSIA  VS. 


825 


iety  of  the 
e  snow-line, 
lingled  first 
and  lichens, 

he  Ealmuk 
is  the  home, 
iir  collected 
nphibia,  but 
nging  to  the 
those  of  the 
ire  intruders 
nous.     Some 
very  scarce, 
so  numerous 
ued  at  about 
unter,  others 
Bsians  of  the 
narali,  which 
his  ruminant 
d  because  it 
lale  are  sawn 
)us  substance 
■eat  economic 

B  towards  the 
;ion  of  Lake 
ime.  In  any 
ind  as  many 

villages  the 
)f  honey  and 

This  highly 
1  Russia,  it  is 


tion,  and  the 
36  mysterious 
leir  barrows, 
the  Russians 
at  mines  had 
skeleton  was 
}  by  bis  side. 


In  many  places  the  honey-combed  ground  has  given  way,  forming  large  basins,  now 
partly  filled  with  water.  In  the  agricultural  districts  also  human  skeletons  have 
been  found  beneath  the  "  black  earth,"  assjciated  with  the  remains  of  horses,  and 
delicately  wrought  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron  objects.  These  ancient  miners  of 
the  Altai  and  Yenisei,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Urals,  were  amongst  the  ancestors  of 
the  debased  populations  occupying  the  Altai  valleys  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the 
Russians,  and  who  belonged  to  the  Ural-Altaic  stock.  Owing  to  the  common 
tendency  to  seek  the  cradle  of  races  in  highland  regions,  the  terms  Ural  and  Altai, 
like  that  of  the  Caucasus,  have  been  employed  to  designate  the  various  Tatar, 
Finnish,  and  even  Mongolian  nations  of  North  Asia. 

The  Mongols  occupy  all  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Altai  and  surrounding 
plateaux.  But  they  have  also  crossed  the  frontier,  and  dwell  in  the  midst  of  the 
Russians  and  Tatars  of  the  northern  valleys,  though  they  are  here  chiefly  repre- 
sented by  the  Ealmuks,  variously  estimated  at  from  12,000  to  20,000.  These 
communities,  who  call  themselves  Telingit,  or  Telengut,  and  some  of  whom  are 
even  ignorant  of  the  name  of  Ealmuk,  are  described  as  "  the  most  honest  of  Asiatic 
peoples."  The  Teletzes  of  the  Chulishman  valley,  from  whom  Lake  Teletzkoye  takes 
its  name,  form  a  "family  of  brothers,"  far  superior  to  their  more  "civilised" 
conquerors  in  simplicity,  uprightness,  and  hospitality.  Till  recently  they  were 
subjects  both  of  China  and  Russia,  knowing  no  political  frontier,  and  paying 
tribute  to  two  masters.  But  since  1869  their  allegiance  has  been  confined  to  the 
White  Czar.  They  formerly  occupied  a  far  niore  extensive  territory,  stretching 
even  beyond  the  Irtish ;  but  they  are  now  limited  to  the  Biisk  and  Euznetzk 
districts  of  the  Eastern  Altai.  Although  of  Mongol  stock,  they  now  speak  a  T{krki 
dialect,  abounding  in  Mongolian  terms. 

The  Altai  Ealmuks  are  pure  Shamanists,  freely  practising  their  rites,  and  on 
grand  occasions  sacrificing  animals.  Their  idols  or  symbolic  images  consist  of 
blocks  of  wood  or  bark  representing  men  with  outstretched  arms,  not  unlike  the 
votive  offerings  often  lining  the  walls  of  churches  in  the  south  of  Europe.  These 
many-coloured  images  represent  the  good  and  bad  spirits,  who  dwell  between 
heaven  and  earth,  in  the  moimtains  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  lakes.  Hare-skins, 
regarded  by  the  Orthodox  Russians  as  impure,  are  sacred  objects  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Ealmuks,  who  spread  them  o^or  wooden  crosses,  also  revered  as  holy  symbols. 
The  ghosts  of  their  forefathers  are  represented  by  party-coloured  ribbons  attached 
to  the  branches  or  streaming  from  poles,  and  every  Ealmuk  knows  his  ribbon  by 
the  name  of  one  of  his  ancestors.  He  understands  the  lang^uage  of  the  wind, 
listens  to  its  advice,  but  never  reveals  to  strangers  what  the  voice  from  beyond  the 
grave  has  told  him.  Nevertheless  thousands  of  these  Shamanist  Ealmuks  are 
officially  classed  as  Christians.  The  harsh  treatment  of  their  wives  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  conversions  amongst  the  frontier  populations.  To 
escape  from  the  blows  of  their  husbands  these  women  take  refugpe  with  the 
missionary,  and  allow  themselves  to  be  baptized.  Then  the  husbands  come  forward 
and  cause  themselves  also  to  be  baptized,  in  order  to  recover  possession  of  their 
spouses,  and  thus  two  souls  are  gained  to  the  "  true  faith."     Most  of  the  Tatars  in 


826 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


the  Russian  valleys  are  also  baptized  and  officially  regarded  as  Christians,  although 
they  are  really  Shamanists,  and  have  often  forgotten  their  Christian  names,  still 
calling  themselves  "Dog,"  "Wolf,"  "Raven,"  "Vulture,"  after  the  national 
fashion.  The  chief  missionary  station  in  the  Altai  regions  is  Ulula,  a  village  in  the 
Upper  Katun  valley,  some  60  miles  above  Biisk.  Here  is  a  curious  collection  of 
native  documents,  religious  works  published  in  Tatar,  and  popular  songs  collected 
by  Radlov  and  Chivalkov. 

Of  all  the  non-Slav  races  the  Tatars  are,  on  the  whole,  those  who  offer  the  g^reatest 
inert  resistance  to  the  progress  of  Russian  civilising  influences.  Yet  of  many 
Tatar  tribes  little  now  survives  beyond  their  names.  The  Kirghiz  of  the  Upper 
Katun  valley,  completely  isolated  from  their  kinsmen  of  the  western  steppes,  have 
become  Russians  in  their  agricultural  habits,  though  still  speaking  TCkrki  or  the 
Mongolian  dialect  of  their  Kalmuk  neighbours.  The  Teleuts  of  the  Biya  valley, 
and  the  Kumandes,  besides  varioiis  groups  of  "  Black "  Tatars,  are  also  being 
gradually  Russified.  Helmersen  and  Radlov  think  the  Teleuts  are  of  Finnish  race, 
although  now  speaking  a  T(irki  dialect  resembling  that  of  the  Telenguts. 

Over  nine-tenths  of  the  population  in  the  Altai  regions  are  Russians,  descended 
from  traders,  ofiicials,  Cossacks,  miners,  soldiers,  and  exiles.  Till  1865  the 
Russian  peasantry  were  not  permitted  to  colonise  these  highlands,  which  were  the 
special  domain  of  the  Czar,  reserved  for  the  mining  industry.  Still  the  valleys 
are  so  fertile,  and  the  demand  for  agricultural  produce  so  urgent,  that  thousands 
settled  here  even  before  that  year.  The  Raskolniks  especially  possess  several  large 
villages,  surrounded  by  flourishing  farms,  and  they  already  form  about  one-fifteenth 
part  of  the  entire  population.  At  present  colonisation  is  making  rapid  strides, 
and  numerous  new  communes  have  been  founded  in  the  Biisk  district,  and  even  in 
the  Kalmuk  territory.  Some  of  the  better  class  of  villages  belong  to  the  descend- 
ants of  fugitives  said  to  have  been  criminals,  but  who  must  have  mostly  been 
Bezpopovtzi  Raskolniks,  all  the  inhabitants  now  belonging  to  that  sect  of  Old 
Believers.  They  retreated  before  the  advance  of  the  miners,  and  formerly  lived 
Jike  savages  in  the  more  inaccessible  valleys,  some  penetrating  even  into  the 
Mongolian  steppes,  where  they  are  believed  still  to  survive.  These  were  the  so-called 
Kamenshiki,  or  "  Rock  People,"  most  of  whom  accepted  the  Czar's  authority  in 
1791,  and  built  regular  villages,  where  their  descendants  now  lead  honest,  sober,  and 
industrious  lives.  But  in  1862  about  fifty  of  them  quitted  the  country  in  search 
of  the  mysterious  "  White  Water,"  probably  the  Lob-nor,  where  Prjevalsky  heard 
of  an  independent  Russian  community  during  his  recent  travels. 

Formerly  the  only  advantage  derived  by  the  Russians  from  the  Altai  regions 
was  due  to  the  mines,  all  of  which  were  discovered  on  the  site  of  old  "  ChMe  " 
works.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  Russians  have  sought 
for  gold  in  the  auriferous  sands  of  the  Altai  rivers ;  in  1725  the  first  foundry  was 
opened,  and  in  1736  the  argentiferous  lead  mines  were  discovered,  which  proved  to 
be  the  most  productive  in  the  world  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  German  miners,  invited  about  1750  to  these  regions  in  order  to  instruct  the 
Crown  serfs  in  the  various  branches  of  the  industry,  have  become  completely 


otssass 


TOPOGBAPHT. 


327 


18,  although 
names,  still 
he  national 
Ulage  in  the 
collection  of 
ga  collected 

the  g^reatest 
at  of  many 
f  the  Upper 
teppes,  have 
rdrki  or  the 
Biya  valley, 
)  also  heing 
i'innish  race, 
ts. 

Ls,  descended 
1  1865  the 
ich  were  the 
[  the  valleys 
Ett  thousands 
several  large 
one-fifteenth 
apid  strides, 

and  even  in 
the  descend* 
mostly  been 

sect  of  Old 
rmerly  lived 

en  into  the 
the  so-called 

authority  in 
st,  sober,  and 
ry  in  search 

ralsky  heard 

lltai  regions 
ld"ChMe" 
have  sought 
'oundry  was 
ch  proved  to 
mth  century, 
instruct  the 
completely 


absorbed  in  the  Slav  population,  and  are  now  recognised  only  by  a  few  German 
technical  expressions  current  in  the  local  dialect. 

The  Chinese  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  not  worked,  nor  are  there  any  mines 
in  the  Eastern  Altai  districts,  where  crystalline  rocks  are  of  less  frequent  occurrence. 
Most  of  the  ores  in  the  west  and  north  are  found  in  the  paloDOzoic  rocks,  associated 
with  granites,  porphyries,  diorites,  or  serpentines.  The  most  abundant  metals  are 
silver  and  copper,  besides  gold,  lead,  zinc,  iron,  and  in  one  place  tellurium.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  nickel,  and  iron  alone  are  at  present  extracted,  but  since  the  abolition 
of  serfdom  and  the  substitution  of  paid  labour  in  1861,  the  expenses,  formerly  less 
than  half  the  profits,  have  gone  on  increasing  at  such  a  rate  that  several  of  the 
deepei*  mines  have  already  had  to  be  abandoned.  The  importance  of  the  Altai  as  a 
mineral  region  will  probably  continue  to  decline,  at  least  until  the  coal-fields  of 
the  Upper  Tom  basin  are  opened  and  connected  by  rail  with  the  metal  works. 
Meanwhile,  agriculture  and  stock-breeding  must  be  regarded  as  the  chief  resources 
of  the  Altai.  In  1804  the  course  of.  the  Irtish  was  first  utilised  for  forwarding  the 
metals  to  Russia.  But  craft  of  32  tons,  which  reach  Ust-Kamenogorsk  from  the 
port  of  the  Yerkniy-pristen  mines  in  one  day,  take  three  days  and  often  a  week  to 
return,  so  that  during  the  open  season  a  boat  can  at  most  make  nine  or  ten  trips. 
Of  the  land  routes  between  the  Ob  basin  and  Mongolia,  the  most  important  is  that 
between  Biisk  and  Eobdo  through  the  Chuya  valley  and  Sdok  Fuss.  Yet  Ugodai, 
the  last  permanent  Russian  station  on  this  historic  route,  is  a  mere  hamlet  of 
twenty  huts,  some  130  miles  from  the  simimit  of  the  pass.  Even  the  Russian 
encampment  in  the  Upper  Chuya  valley  is  left  in  charge  of  the  Ealmuks  during 
winter. 

Topography. 

Although  the  Altai  region  is  very  sparsely  peopled  even  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  mines,  still  the  Russian  towns  and  villages  are  comparatively  large.  Barnaul, 
capital  of  all  the  Altai  colonies,  is  one  of  the  gayest  and  most  flourishing  towns  in 
Siberia.  Its  industries  are  second  in  importance  only  to  those  of  Irkutsk,  west  of 
the  Ural  provinces.  As  indicated  by  its  name,  it  was  a  mere  Kirghiz  a(kl  when 
Demidov  founded  his  mining  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ob,  and  in  1771  it 
became  the  capital  of  all  the  mineral  region  in  the  Altai.  The  great  imperial 
foundry  stands  on  an  embankment  damming  the  waters  of  the  BamaCklka,  above 
its  junction  with  the  Ob.  But  the  works  have  been  frequently  at  a  standstill  since  the 
produce  of  the  mines  has  fallen  off.  Here  are  also  some  free  industries,  such  as 
tanneries,  leather  dressing,  bullet  casting,  and  other  establishments.  The  town  also 
possesses  a  meteorological  and  magnetic  observatory,  and  a  public  museum  of  natural 
history  and  antiquities.  In  the  district  is  the  copper  foundry  of  Suzunskiy-zavod, 
on  a  small  affluent  of  the  Ob,  producing  about  540  tons  of  metal  yearly. 

Zme'inogorak,  or  "  Snake  Mount,"  formerly  the  rival  of  Bama(^l,  is  now  much 
reduced,  its  population  having  fallen  from  about  20,000  to  10,000.  Standing  on  a 
bare  hill  1,100  feet  above  the  Korbalikha  torrent,  which  flows  through  the  Alei  to 
the  Ob,  Zmeinogorsk  was  long  the  chief  centre  of  the  Altai  mining  industry.  About 


^fsmmmtm 


828 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


half  of  tho  silver  produced  in  this  region  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  came  from  the  neighbouring  mines,  most  of  which  are  now  half  full  of 
water.  These  mines  were  finally  abandoned  in  1869,  and  the  large  smelting  works 
are  now  supplied  with  ores  from  the  Upper  Altai  valleys  farther  south. 

At  present  the  most  active  mining  town  is  Ziri/ano'iak,  at  the  foot  of  the 
"  Eagle  Mountains,"  in  tho  heart  of  the  Altai,  in  the  unhealthy  valley  of  the 
Beryozovka,  a  tributary  of  tho  Bukhtarma.  Hitherto  Ziryanovsk  has  produced 
about  one-fourth  of  all  the  silver  extracted  from  the  Altai,*  and  with  the  village  of 
BukuUiiuiueik  it  in  mIbo  the  cUief  oentte  of  bee-farming  in  this  region.  Riddersk, 
so  named  from  Ridder,  who  first  surveyed  its  argentiferous  lead  deposits,  lies  mid- 
way between  Zmeinogorsk  and  Zirj'^anovsk,  about  the  sources  of  the  Ulba  and  Uba, 


Fig.  178.— ZmkInooorsk. 
Soala  1 :  70,000. 


8,380  Yard*. 


and  is  the  richest  lead-producing  district  of  the  Ural.  Near  it  is  the  famous  g^nite 
peak  of  Ivanovskiy-belok,  6,730  feet  high.  Loklevakiy,  at  the  chief  bend  of  the 
Alei,  west  of  Zmeinogorsk,  is  a  busy  place,  which  formerly  employed  1,200  free 
hands  and  over  27,000  serfs,  and  which  about  1860  annually  produced  on  an 
average  12,800  lbs.  of  silver  and  600,000  lbs.  of  lead. 

North-west  of  Barnaul,  between  the  Ob  and  the  Tom,  are  the  numerous 
argentiferous  mines  of  Salair,  whose  annual  yield  averages  about  £8,000.  The 
coal  and  iron  wealth  of  Kuznetsk,  on  the  Tom,  is  very  little  worked.  But,  besides 
its  metal  ores,  the  Altai  is  rich  in  valuable  rocks,  some  of  which  are  wor!  c^  up  in 

*  Yield  of  the  Ziryanovsk  mines  from  1796  to  1864  :— 

Silver 1,026,000  lbs.,  value  21,860,000  roubles. 

Lead    .        .        ...  86,000,000    „     „        2,162,100      „ 


».Wi«Jte^iiat..p 


'  ..f^j  v?;"!/!.'!  ^  *  ju-L*  w.  .ijmgrair — ".asw 


-•- 


OB  BASIN. 


829 


nineteenth 
tall  fuU  of 
[ting  works 

foot  of  the 
illey  of  the 
IS  produced 
le  village  of 
Rid'Jerak, 
ts,  lies  mid- 
ba  and  Uba, 


the  Government  works  of  Kolivan,  19  miles  north-west  of  Zmoinogorsk.  Ilero  are 
prepared  some  magnificent  blocks  of  brown  and  smoked  jaspar,  marble,  quartz, 
porphyry,  and  serpentine.  But,  as  in  most  of  the  Government  works,  the  expenses 
greatly  exceed  the  income. 

The  chief  trading-place  in  the  Eastern  Altai  and  Sayan  highlands  is  Bmk,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Birza,  near  its  jimction  with  the  Katun,  the  main  head-stream 
of  the  Ob.  It  is  thus  conveniently  situated  for  carrying  on  trading  relations  with 
BamaCil  and  the  steppe  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  with  the  Altai  valleys, 
and  through  the  SCkok  Pass  with  Mongolia.  Its  merchants  meet  the  Chinese 
dealers  every  year  in  a  camping  groimd  in  the  middle  of  the  swamps  of  the  Chuya 
steppe,  where  they  obtain  their  rrpplies  of  furs,  cattle,  and  horses.  But  the 
exchanges,  which  in  1865  amounted  to  200,000  roubles,  have  been  g^reatly  reduced 
since  Eashgaria  has  lost  its  independence. 

Kuznetzk,  or  the  "  Blacksmith's  Town,"  lying  in  the  Upper  Tom  basin,  opposite 
the  confluence  of  the  Eondora,  has  gradually  lost  its  former  importance.  But  sinco 
it  has  become  the  chief  town  of  a  district  its  locksmith  and  hardware  industries  and 
general  prosperity  have  somewhat  revived.  Its  coal-fields,  still  unworked,  have  an 
estimated  area  of  2,000  square  miles. 

Of  the  summer  retreats  and  towns  devoted  to  pleasure  the  most  important  is 
Altaiakaya  sianitza,  the  Eoton-karagai  of  the  Ealmuks,  founded  in  1871  in  the 
Upper  Bukhtarma  valley,  3,520  feet  above  the  sea.  Notwithstanding  its  great 
elevation,  wheat,  hemp,  and  flax  are  grown  in  the  surrounding  district,  while  oats 
and  barley  yield  returns  up  to  4,000  feet. 


III.— THE  OB  BASIN. 


imous  granite 

bend  of  the 

d  1,200  free 

duced  on  an 

;he  numerous 
8,000.  The 
But,  besides 
wor'c^  up  in 


GOTBBNMKNTS      OF     AXMOLINBX,      SbMIPALATINSK,     ToMBK,     TiiBOLBK — EaSTBBN      DlSTBICTt     OF     THB 

OOYBRMMINTS  OF  FbHM  AMD  OrBNBVUO. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Ob,  embracing  an  area  of  over  1,400,000  square  miles, 
comprises  all  West  Siberia,  half  of  th»  Eirghiz  domain,  and  even  stretches  south 
of  the  Altai  into  Chinese  territory.  But  the  northern  portion  of  this  immense 
region,  seven  times  larger  than  France,  is  still  little  more  than  a  frozen  solitude. 
The  population,  concentrated  chiefly  on  the  Asiatic  slope  of  the  Urals,  and  in  the 
central  zone  between  the  southern  steppes  and  northern  tundras,  is  so  sparse  that,  if 
evenly  distributed,  it  would  give  scarcely  two  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile. 

Few  of  the  streams  flowing  through  the  Ob  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  have  their 
sources  in  the  snowy  valleys  of  the  uplands.  In  the  east  the  watershed  between 
the  Ob  and  Yenisei  is  in  many  places  imperceptible,  the  timdra  discharging  its 
surface  waters  in  both  directions  without  any  distinct  parting-line.  The  inter- 
mediate zone  is  often  occupied  even  by  swamps  draining  either  way,  according  to 
the  direction  of  the  winds  on  the  local  rainfall.  Farther  south  the  watershed  between 
the  Aralo-Caspian  and  Ob  basins  is  irregularly  indicated  by  rolling  tracts  or  even 
hills.  But  this  water-parting  is  diversely  interrupted,  and  here  also  there  occur 
23 


880 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


marshy  tracts,  whose  drainage  has  taken  a  northern  or  a  southern  course  under  the 
slightest  oscillations  of  the  land.  The  hydrography  of  the  Ob  is,  in  fact,  clearly 
defined  only  towards  the  west  by  the  Ural  range,  and  south-eastwards  by  the  Altai 
highlands  and  plateaux.  It  is  in  these  uplands  on  the  Chinese  frontier  that  we  meet 
with  the  Belukha  glacier,  the  only  one  occurring  in  the  Ob  basin. 

The  Irtish  Basin. 

The  true  head-stream  of  the  main  river  is  not  the  Upper  Ob,  which  rises  in  the 
Russian  Altai,  but  the  Irtish,  fed  by  the  waters  of  the  Chinese  Altai.      The  Irtish 


Fig.  179.— Laki  ZAisAN. 
SmO*  1 :  i,aoo,ooo. 


MHOm. 


itself,  the  correct  Mongol  form  of  which  is  Erchis,  is  only  an  affluent  of  a  partly 
imderground  river,  which  rises  on  the  Eobdo  plateau,  and  sweeps  round  the  advanced 
spurs  of  the  Altai  north-westwards  towards  the  g^eat  Lake  Ultmgur,  one  of  the 
largest  in  Asia.  A  small  chain  of  hills  runs  between  the  east  side  of  this  lake  and 
the  Irtish ;  but  the  hills  gradually  disappear  northwards,  and  near  an  isthmus, 
where  the  stream  is  within  2  miles  of  the  lake,  there  is  seen  the  dry  bed  of  an 
outlet,  said  to  be  filled  every  spring  with  the  rising  of  the  Ulungur.  Beneath  this 
superficial  bed  a  hidden  stream  certainly  flows,  as  shown  by  the  comparative 
observations  made  on  the  discharge  of  the  Irtish  above  and  below  the  intermittent 
outlet.  Some  12  miles  higher  up  the  volume  of  the  Irtish  is  about  635  cubic  feet 
per  second,  whereas  farther  down  it  is  three  times  greater  without  having  received 


ummm 


-♦- 


THE  IETI8II  BASIN. 


881 


B  under  the 
'act,  clearly 
>y  the  Altai 
hat  we  meet 


risea  iu  the 
The  Irtish 


any  visible  fresh  affluent.  This  great  increase  must  evidently  be  duo  to  an  imder- 
ground  tributary,  which  forms  a  continuation  of  the  Upper  Uluugur  River  by 
flowing  from  the  lake  of  the  same  name. 

The  Irtish,  or  "  Black  Irtish,"  which  ought  to  bo  called  the  Ulungur,  is  already 
a  considerable  stream  before  entering  Russian  territory,  ond  oven  before  receiving 
the  overflow  of  the  Alpine  Lake  Marka  through  the  Ealjir.  Its  mean  depth  is 
nearly  10  feet,  with  a  breadth  of  from  300  to  560  feet,  and  a  iw  discharge  of 
about  13,000  cubic  foot  per  second.  After  its  junction  with  the  ii.aljir  it  enters 
Russian  territory,  here  forming  several  marshy  branches,  which  slowly  make  their 
way  to  Lake  Zaisan,  a  still  larger  sheet  of  water  ihan  the  Ulungur.  This  lake  is  about 
60  miles  long,  at  least  during  the  floods,  with  a  mean  area  of  730  square  miles.  But 
though  three  times  larger,  it  is  far  shallower  than  Luke  Geneva,  averaging  little 


ii'ig.  180.— Thi  Urt-Kahinooohsx  Divilr. 
Scale  1 :  DSO.OOa 


ISMilM. 


nt  of  a  partly 
I  tlie  advanced 
ur,  one  of  the 

this  lake  and 
r  an  isthmus, 
ry  bed  of  an 

Beneath  this 
e  comparative 
le  intermittent 
635  cubic  feet 
aving  received 


over  25  feet  deep.  The  Zaisan  is  not  an  Alpine,  but  rather  a  vast  steppe  lake, 
although  the  snowy  crests  of  the  Alt^i  and  SaClru  ranges  are  visible  through  the 
poplars,  willows,  and  aspens  fringing  its  shores.  It  teems  with  fish  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  hauls  of  the  Kirghiz  or  Cossack  fishermen  seem  like  "  miraculous 
draughts  "  to  the  stranger.  Besides  the  species  common  to  the  lacustrine  waters  of 
Europe,  it  contains  the  nyelnta,  an  excellent  salmon,  and  carps  much  finer  than 
those  of  the  West.  The  annual  yield  of  fish  amounts  altogether  to  about  1 ,625,000  lbs., 
and  its  present  name  of  Zaisan,  or  "  Noble,"  is  said  to  have  been  conferred  on 
this  lake  by  the  Ealmuks,  whom  the  superabundant  supply  of  fish  saved  from 
starvation  in  1650.  Water-fowl  also  frequent  it  in  midtitudes,  but  its  shores  are 
almost  destitute  of  inhabitants.  A  steamer  ascended  the  Irtish  in  1864,  to  explore 
its  waters  and  penetrate  up  the  Black  Irtish  to  the  station  of  Ak-tubeh,  on  the 
Chinese  frontier,  and  in  1880  the  project  was  discussed  of  establishing  a  regular 


an 


^^s^issm 


882 


ASIATIC  BU881A. 


Btcnm  Horvico  betwoon  Tumen,  the  Ziiiwin,  ond  Block  Irtish,  a  distance  by  water  of 
about  0(>0  tniloH. 

At  an  flovation  of  I.-'IJJO  foet  the  "  White"  Irtish  issues  from  the  north  side  ol' 
the  hike  in  u  shiw  i-urront,  but  after  its  junction  with  the  Kurehum,  the  Nurini, 
ond  Ihikhtunno  it  beiiomes  more  rapid,  and  soon  enters  one  of  the  wiUlest  and  most 
romantic  ^orjfes  in  the  world,  the  Ust-Kamenogorsk  defile,  beyond  which  it 
assumes  its  normal  north-westerly  course.  At  this  iwint,  which  formerly  morkwl 
the  southern  limit  of  the  Ob  basin,  it  is  about  1,100  feet  obovo  seo-level,  and  below 
Ust-Kamenogorsk  the  stream  ramiiioB  into  several  branches,  enclosing  grassy 
islands  from  10  to  40  square  miles  in  extent.  During  its  lower  course  from  the 
Altai  defile  to  its  confluence  with  the  Ob,  the  Irtish  receives  over  one  thousand 


i 


Fig.  181.— liAKM  Chakt  AMD  Sartlam  m  1870. 
BoOa  1  :  t,M)O,00O. 


XM. 


,  8,880  THd» 


affluents  of  all  sizes,  although  himdreds  of  streams  which  formerly  reached  its 
banks  are  now  lost  in  the  swamps  of  the  salt  and  arid  steppes. 

A  large  portion  of  the  level  tract  comprised  between  the  Ob  on  the  east,  the 
Irtish  and  Om  on  the  west  and  north,  is  known  as  the  Baraba  steppe,  although 
rarely  presenting  the  aspect  of  a  true  steppe.  Not  a  rock  is  anywhere  to  be  seen, 
and  the  surface  is  pleasantly  diversified  with  groves  and  clusters  of  pine  and  birch, 
disposed  as  if  by  the  hand  of  an  artist  in  picturesque  disorder.  This  natural  park 
presents  an  endless  variety  of  landscapes,  and  yet  the  only  elements  in  the  scene 
are  its  pines,  birches,  grass,  and  prairie  flowers.  In  some  places,  however,  this 
region  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  true  steppe,  with  salt  and  marshy  tracts, 
crossed  by  the  g^reat  Siberian  military  route  for  a  distance  of  400  miles,  from  Omsk 
to  Kolivan.  But  even  here  the  cultivated  lands  are  gradually  encroaching  on  the 
steppe,  and  numerous  colonists  from  Voronej,  Simbirsk,  and  Samara  have  .already 
settled  in  this  "  birch  steppe,"  whose  fertility  is  justly  extolled,  although  the  soil 


~m!msisi^mff^^3;mmm«i^i'*!Fnm'»i?^ms!S^^^msssmBmmmi 


THE  IRTISH  DA8IN. 


888 


by  water  of 

lorth  Mv  of 
the  Nuriiu, 
mt  uud  luoat 
1(1  which  it 
orly  marked 
I,  uud  below 
sing  grassy 
36  from  the 
•ne  thotuttud 


r  reached  its 

the  east,  the 
)pe,  although 
e  to  be  seen, 
ae  and  birch, 
natural  park 
I  in  the  scene 
lowever,  this 
arshy  tracts, 
3,  from  Omsk 
ching  on  the 
have  .already 
>ugh  the  soil 


consiHta  only  of  a  thin  layer  of  black  lonni,  rcHting  on  ii 
micaceous  schistH.     Since  the  niiddh)  of  tho  century  the  Baruliu 
moisture,  and  some  districts  arc  already  b(>ginning  to  suffer   (i< 
tho  depressions  arc  still  covered  with  extensive  sluiUow  lakes.     ' 


of  <f  *(rintcgri»l<Hl 

"^  lo»*   much  '  •'  its 

'liNnijjIil         Yet 

'  liese  the        gest 


is  Lake  Chany,  which  bus  un  area  of  1,200  Mptarc  miles,  but  is  nowhere  .  ver 
20  feet  deep,  and  though  teeming  with  fish  when  visitiHl  by  Pallas,  is  now  alinnst 
uninhabited.  Tho  deepest  is  Hartlam,  which  in  some  places  is  over  '{O  feet,  and  all 
present  forms  anulogtms  to  those  of  Sweden  and  Fiidand.  Thus  tho  (!hany  is 
dividcfl  into  stHJondury  basins  by  long  parallel  [)oninsulus  with  several  islands,  all 
disposed  in  tho  same  north-easterly  and  south-westerly  direction.  The  rivers 
flowing  to  Luke  Chony,  tho  marshes,  and  the  low  ridges  separating  tho  rivor  basins 
also  follow  tho  same  line.  This  remarkable  uniformity  may  possibly  ho  duo  to  a 
great  marine  current,  formerly  setting  towards  tho  Aral  Sea,  though  «)mo 
geologists  arc  inclined  to  attribute  it  to  tho  action  of  the  glaciers,  Avhich  may  at 
ono  time  have  reached  these  plains  from  tho  Urals  and  Altai,  here  producing  the 
same  effects  as  have  been  observed  in  Finland  and  tho  Russian  governments  of 
Olonetz  and  Archangelsk. 

Lake  Chany,  like  most  of  the  lacustrine  basins  in  tho  Baraba  steppe,  has  no 
visible  outflow  to  the  Irtish,  and,  us  the  evaporation  is  greater  than  tho  rainfall, 
some  saline  reservoirs  have  been  formed  here  and  thei-e.  Tlie  water  is  still  fresh 
in  the  south,  where  the  rivers  Kargat  and  Chulim  join  the  lake ;  but  in  the  centre 
it  has  become  brackish,  and  in  the  western  extremity  quite  salt.  Yet  there  must 
be  an  underground  outflow  to  the  Irtish,  either  from  the  Chany  or  from  some  other 
neighbouring  lakes,  for  near  the  village  of  Jelyezimskaya,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  there  are  copious  springs,  by  which  the  volume  of  the  Irtish  is  sensibly 
increased. 

After  its  junction  with  the  Om  the  Irtish  describes  a  long  curve  towards  the 
east,  and  then  resumes  its  north-west  course  to  its  confluence  with  the  lahim  and 
Tobol.  Of  these  great  tributaries  the  longest  is  the  Ishim,  the  Isel  of  the 
Kirghiz,  which  has  a  course  of  about  1,000  miles.  The  region  through  which  it 
flows  has  greatly  diminished  in  moisture,  as  is  evident  from  the  numerous  dried-up 
lakes  and  marshes,  much  reduced  in  size,  which  formerly  drained  to  the  Ishim. 
Although  inferior  to  the  Irtish  in  vohime,  the  Tobol  might  be  regarded  as  the  real 
main  stream  of  the  Ob  basin,  the  general  direction  of  its  valley  being  tho  same  as 
those  both  of  the  Irtish  and  the  Ob  itself,  below  its  confluence.  Throughout  its 
course  it  skirts  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  it  thus  receives  the  larger 
streams  flowing  eastwards  from  this  water-parting  between  the  Ob  and  Volga 
basins.  One  of  these  streams  is  the  Tura,  whose  course  was  followed  by  the  first 
invaders  of  Siberia,  and  which,  since  the  time  of  Yermak,  has  remained  the  chief 
historical  highway  between  European  and  Asiatic  Russia.  Formerly  the  Tobol 
joined  the  Irtish  opposite  the  high  cliff  on  which  stands  Tobolsk.  But  the  rock 
being  constantly  undermined  by  the  current,  this  city  was  threatened  sooner  or  later 
with  the  fate  of  the  old  town  of  Sibir,  which  also  stood  on  the  "  high  " — that  is,  the 
right — ^bank  of  the  Irtish.     To  avoid  this  danger  Governor  Gagarin,  in  1716, 


ii 


884 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


omploypd  the  Swwlidh  prinonerii  of  war  ponfinod  there  to  dig  a  conol  about  2  milen 
long,  which  removed  the  mouth  of  the  Tobol  farther  down,  and  thu«  onable<l  th(< 
engincem  HuccoMfully  to  protect  the  base  of  the  Tobolsk  escarpraentn  from  tho 
erosive  action  of  tho  stream. 

Course  op  twk  Ob. 

The  Upper  Ob,  which  rises  in  the  Altai,  joins  the  Irtish  300  miles  below 
Tobolsk.  Its  chief  head-stream,  tho  Katun,  or  "  Queen,"  flows  from  tho  glaciers  in  tho 
highest  part  of  the  range,  but  the  main  stream  docs  not  take  the  name  of  Ob  till 
the  confluence  of  tho  Kutun  and  Uiya,i}90  miles  below  the  Bielukha  glacier.    After 


Fig.  182.— DuiD-vp  Stmams  in  tub  Bauma^l  Dirtmiot. 
Seate  1 !  a,110filO. 


aoiOlM 


emerging  from  the  highlands,  and  at  its  junction  with  the  BamaOlka,  opposite 
Bamadl,  capital  of  the  Altai  regions,  it  is  little  over  300  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Here  the  steppe  is  already  so  level  that,  as  in  the  Irtish  valley,  many  streams 
expand  into  lakes  and  swamps  before  reaching  the  Ob.  But  it  ia  probable  that  in 
former  times,  and  under  a  more  humid  climate,  the  more  copious  rivers,  now  repre- 
sented only  by  chains  of  small  lakes,  possessed  more  regular  channels.  The  course  of 
many  of  them  towards  the  Ob  is,  so  to  say,  little  more  than  faintly  traced,  varying 
in  length  and  distinctness  with  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  moisture  from 
year  to  year. 

Owing  to  its  slight  incline,  the  Ob  itself  assumes  in  many  places  a  lacustrine 


kbnut  2  tnilcfl 
H  onoblwl  the 
ntfl  from  the 


COURSE  OP  THE  OB. 


886 


character,  ramifyinj?  into  numeroun  branchon,  und  widening  into  iwrmannnt  inland' 
Rtudded  expansoH.  It«  mcun  breadth  vuriea  from  'iiflOO  foot  to  nearly  2  miloH,  und 
in  the  spring  floods  from  20  to  25  miles,  now  ossuming  the  projwrtions  of  a  groat 
inland  sea,  iis  at  Kolivan,  whore  the  opposite  banks  are  invisible,  Below  the 
junction  of  the  Tom  and  Chulim  it  ramifies  into  a  groat  numl)er  of  branches, 
forming  a  continually  shifting  labyrinth  of  channels,  covering  the  whole  plain. 
During  the  five  or  six  winter  months  these  low-lying  watt^rs  are  dividoil  by  the  ice 
into  a  number  of  separate  basins,  which  cease  to  flow  and  Ijccome  stagnant  lakes 
unfit  for  huiniin  use,  and  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  each  other  like  the 
Burfaoe  taniH  oft*«n  loft  on  the  steppes  by  driod-up  rivers. 

The  Ket,  hich  joins  the  Ob  above  Narim,  though  not  one  of  its  groat 
tributaries,  is  nevertheless  navigable  for  nearly  000  miles,  thus  affording  the  best 
natural  highway  between  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  basins.  During  the  first  invosion  of 
Siberia  the  Cossacks  followed  this  rout«,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 

Fig.  183.— PHOjicritD  Caxal«  Birwnit  thb  Ob  and  Yinhki. 
Sokle  1 : 7,400,000. 


iiimovshei* 


aoHiiM. 


century  the  Russians  erected  two  forts,  one  at  its  mouth,  and  the  other  at  the  head 
of  its  navigation,  to  protect  their  peltry  stations  from  the  attacks  of  the  natives. 
Between  the  upper  station  and  the  Yenisei  below  Yeniseisk  there  is  only  a  portage 
62  miles  long,  and  this  is  the  only  break  in  the  vast  network  of  navigable  channels 
connecting  the  Ural  rivers  with  the  Baikal  basin  across  50°  of  the  meridian,  or 
nearly  one-sixth  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  The  project  of  bridging  over 
this  gap  is  now  being  entertained,  and  since  1872  the  scientific  exploration  has 
been  resumed  of  all  the  rivers  in  the  district  enclosed  by  the  Ob  and  Yenisei,  where 
their  courses  approach  nearest  to  each  other.  Careful  surveys  have  already  been 
made  of  the  Chulim,  which  is  navigable  for  steamboats  as  far  as  Achinsk,  north- 
west of  Erasnoyark,  on  the  Yenisei,  and  of  the  Tim  and  Yakh,  by  which  the  two 
afRuents  of  the  Yenisei,  the  Sim  and  Yelogui,  may  be  respectively  reached.  The 
Ket  still  seems  to  afford  the  greatest  facilities  for  effecting  a  junction  between  the 
two  main  streams.     But  instead  of  ascending  it  to  Makovskoye,  near  its  source,  it 


886 


ASIATIC  fiUSSIA. 


is  proposed  to  utilise  the  little  Yazeva  affluent,  passing  thence  by  a  canal  across  a 
level  marshy  tract  to  the  Kas,  u  tributary  of  the  Yenisei.  Here  the  portage  is  only 
4,220  yards  long,  between  two  lakes  standing  at  the  same  elevation  above  the  sea. 
A  junction  canal,  4  feet  deep  and  50  feet  wide,  would  give  access  to  boats  of  about 
30  tons  burden,  and  the  incline  either  way  is  so  slight  that  no  locks  would  be  needed. 
The  only  obstacles  to  the  navigation  would  be  the  so-called  lorn,  or  snags,  which 
form  dams  at  the  windings  of  the  stream,  but  which  might  easily  be  removed,  as 
all  of  them  rest  on  mud  beds.  When  this  canal  is  completed  there  will  be  a  great 
reduction  in  the  freights,  amounting  possibly  to  as  much  as  5  roubles  per  tea-chest. 
In  1825,  when  all  the  tea  brought  from  Kiatkha  to  Nijni-Novgorod  was  conveyed 


Fig.  181.— Nbtwobk  of  8tbkams  at  thb  Ob  and  Ket  Jvmctiok. 
SMde  1 : 2,000,000. 


.SOUilMk 


by  the  rivers  and  portages,  the  merchandise  passing  by  the  village  of  Makovskoye 
was  estimated  at  over  10,000,000  roubles. 

Below  the  Narim  the  Ob,  after  receiving  the  Tim,  Vakh,  and  others  scarcely 
less  important  than  the  Eet,  continues  its  sluggish  course  first  north-west  and  then 
west  to  the  Irtish,  which  it  joins  through  a  network  of  intricate  channels,  whose 
navigation  demands  the  most  skilful  piloting.  After  their  junction  the  two  rivers, 
each  about  equal  to  the  Danube  in  volume,  again  divide,  as  if  a  common  bed  were 
insufficient  to  cot  'ain  this  moving  sea.  The  two  streams,  now  respectively  called 
the  Great  and  Little  Ob,  continue  their  winding  course  to  the  estuary  at  distances, 
in  some  places,  of  from  20  to  25  miles,  but  everywhere  connected  by  countless  inter- 


"mmmm>' 


'SSSSiSSL 


BwBBraiEBBBff^^KjS^-^ 


C0UE8E  OF  THE  OB. 


887 


canal  across  a 
)ortage  is  only 
ibove  the  sea. 
boats  of  about 
uld  be  needed. 

snags,  which 
)e  removed,  as 
ivill  be  a  great 

per  tea-chest. 

was  conveyed 


of  Makdvskoye 

others  scarcely 
L-west  and  then 
shannels,  whose 
the  two  rivers, 
nmon  bed  were 
)ectively  called 
ry  at  distances, 
countless  inter- 


mediate channels.  The  Little  Ob,  which  is  the  left  stream,  is  the  narrowest  and 
shallowest,  but  owing  to  its  less  rapid  current  is  preferred  by  craft  ascending 
inland.  The  navigation  of  the  Great  Ob,  used  chiefly  by  boats  going  seawards,  is 
at  times  endangered  by  the  north  wind  raising  high  waves  against  the  down 
current.  The  confluence  of  the  Ob  and  Irtish  lies  beyond  the  zone  of  cereals ;  but 
the  Lower  Ob  remains  to  its  mouth  within  the  limits  of  foiest  vegetation,  its  banks 
being  fringed  throughout  with  pines,  firs,  the  larch,  birch,  and  willow.  Although 
less  brilliant  and  varied  in  colour  than  those  of  North  America,  the  autumnal  tints 
of  the  Ob  forests  are  still  brighter  than  the  foliage  on  the  European  seaboard. 

The  banks  of  the  Lower  Ob  everywhere  consist  of  clays  and  sands,  which  are 
being  constantly  undermined  by  the  current.  Those  of  the  Little  Ob  are  very 
low,  and  often  concealed  by  a  dense  growth  of  reeds,  carex,  and  other  aquatic  plants. 
But  those  of  the  Great  Ob  rise  in  some  places  200  feet  above  the  stream,  and  are 
'pierced  at  intervals  by  ravines  through  which  the  scrub  descends  to  the  water's 

Fig.  185. — LowiR  CovKRE  akd  Mouth  or  tub  Ob. 
Seale  1 :  1,160,000. 


■  aoaiiiM. 


edge.  Trunks  of  trees  strewn  along  the  foot  of  the  cliff  mark  the  limits  of  the 
last  floods,  while  heaps  of  stones,  granites,  syenites,  porphyries,  schists,  and 
conglomerates  are  yearly  deposited  by  the  ice,  to  be  again  swept  farther  on 
the  following  year  when  already  embedded  in  the  banks.. 

The  Ob  enters  its  vast  estuary  through  a  single  mouth  nearly  2  miles  wide, 
oQd  from  30  to  90  feet  deep.  The  section  of  the  gulf  running  west  and  east 
is  often  regarded  as  still  belonging  to  the  river  itself;  but  in  this  bay,  some 
30  miles  wide,  the  normal  current  has  entirely  ceased.  Other  minor  inlets 
are  formed  at  the  mouth  of  every  influent.  But  the  vast  fiord  of  the  Ob,  stretching 
for  over  480  miles  towards  the  pole,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Taz  joining  its  east 
side,  is  still  but  partially  explored,  although  formerly  visited  by  the  Eholmogori 
fishers  from  the  Petchora,  and  again  surveyed  in  recent  times.  In  1877  Dahl 
penetrated  from  the  Kara  Sea  round  the  Talmal  peninsula,  and  through  the 
gulf  into  the  rivdr.    The  commercial  route  to  the  Ob  basin  was  thus  thrown  open. 


,.aS5S8SBW*» 


888 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


and  its  cereals,  wool,  tallow,  hides,  and  furs  may  henceforth  be  shipped  direct  for 
the  ports  of  West  Europe.  The  river  itself  is  navigable  throughout  nearly  the 
whole  of  its  course,  which,  including  the  Ulungur  as  its  farthest  head-stream,  may 
be  estimated  at  about  3,400  miles  in  length.*  But  the  navigable  waterway  is  far 
more  extensive.  In  summer  all  the  large,  and  during  the  spring  floods  most  of  the 
secondary,  afiluents  give  access  to  flat-bottomed  craft  and  steamers,  affording  a 
navigable  highway  of  not  less  than  9,000  miles.  Since  1844,  when  the  first 
steamer  was  launched  on  the  Tura,  the  steam  fleet  has  gone  on  yearly  increasing, 
and  in  1877  numbered  34  vessels  of  2,655  horse-power.  On  the  other  hand,  none 
of  the  various  schemes  of  canalisation  between  the  Ob  and  Volga  basins,  and  between 
the  Ob  and  Kara  Sea,  have  proved  feasible.  But  Struve  thinks  the  Fetchora 
and  Ob  basins  might  be  connected  by  a  canal  50  miles  long  between  the  Kokpela 
and  Yo'ikai  tributaries  of  the  two  nuiin  streams  respectively.  It  would  be  still 
easier  to  connect  the  Taz  and  the  Yenisei  by  a  canal  running  along  ^he  66th 
parallel  from  the  hamlet  of  Tazovka  to  Turukhansk. 


Inhabitants  of  the  Ob  Basin — ^The  Voguls. 

About  half  of  the  population  of  Siberia  is  concentrated  in  the  southern  regions 
of  the  Ob  basin,  in  an  irregular  zone  stretching  along  both  sides  of  the  old  historic 
highway  and  its  modem  continuation  eastwards.  This  population  consists  exclu- 
sively of  Slav  elements,  forming  an  Asiatic  Russia  in  speech,  manners,  and  culture. 
Here  the  Russians'  have  completely  replaced  the  Tatars,  formerly  the  dominant 
race,  but  now  scattered  in  detached  groups  over  the  steppes  far  from  the  towns  and 
river  banks.  Some  of  these  more  or  less  Russified  Tatar  communities  are  still  met 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tobolsk,  west  of  the  Irtish,  near  the  seat  of  their  former 
empire.  On  the  Irtish  itself  there  also  dwell  certain  Russian  peasantry  traditionally 
said  to  be  of  Tatar  origin,  but  also  resembling  their  ancestors  only  in  the  traits  of 
their  features.  East  of  the  Ob  the  Chulim  valley  is  occupied  by  the  Eizil,  or 
"  Red  "  Tatars,  so  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Kara,  or  "  Black  "  Tatars 
of  Biisk.  Their  speech,  one  of  the  purest  of  TQrki  dialects  in  its  structure,  is 
largely  affected  by  Mongol  elements,  and  has  recently  adopted  many  Russian  terms. 
But,  like  the  Telengut  dialect,  it  is  distinguished  from  most  other  idioms  of  Ti^rki 
stock  by  a  complete  absence  of  Arabic  or  Persian  words.  Never  having  adopted 
the  faith  of  Islam,  these  Red  Tatar  Shamanists,  who  have  now  become  orthodox 
Christians,  have  never  had  any  relations  with  the  Mussulmans  of  the  south,  and 
have  thus  remained  free  from  all  Mohammedan  influences.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Eazaks  or  Kirghiz  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Ob  basin  and  about  the  sources 
of  the  Irtish  form  an  ethnical  g^up  with  the  Kirghiz  hordes  of  the  Aralo-Caspian 


Coune  of  the  Ulungur  .... 
Black  Trtish  to  Lake  Zwaan  . 
Irtish  from  Lake  Zaiun  to  the  Ob 
Ob  from  the  Irtish  junction  of  the  Gulf 

TotM 


HUes. 

300  (P) 

360  (P) 
2,000 

760 

3,410  mil^. 


tmmnss^m 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  OB  BASIN— THE  VOGULS. 


889 


ed  direct  for 
it  nearly  the 
-stream,  may 
terway  is  far 
8  most  of  the 
,  affording  a 
len  the  first 
y  increasing, 
ir  hand,  none 
,  and  between 
the  Petchora 
the  Kokpela 
rould  be  still 
Qg  ^he  66th 


hem  regions 

)  old  historic 

msists  exclu- 

.  and  culture. 

he  dominant 

le  towns  and 

are  still  met 

their  former 

traditionally 

the  traits  of 

the  Eizil,  or 

lack  "  Tatars 

structure,  is 

ussian  terms. 

>m8  of  T(^rki 

ring  adopted 

me  orthodox 

le  south,  and 

ler  hand,  the 

t  the  sources 

ralo-Caspian 


region.  Many  of  these  nomad  tribes  have  pastures  and  camping  grounds  in  both 
basins,  though  the  administrative  divisions  here  coincide  on  the  whole  with 
the  ethnical  limits.  Thus  the  territory  of  the  Kirghiz,  even  where  it  encroaches 
on  the  Irtish  valley,  is  assign*  i  to  the  general  government  of  Central  Asia, 
while  the  Bashkirs  of  the  Asiatic  Ural  districts  are  included,  with  their  kinsmen  of 
the  western  slopes,  in  the  European  governments  of  Orenburg  and  Perm. 

In  the  northern  division  of  the  Ob  basin  all  the  aborigines,  whether  Voguls, 
Ostiaks,  or  Samoyodes,  belong  not  to  the  T(irki,  but  to  the  Finnish  stock.  Since 
they  have  been  driven  east  by  the  Russians  the  Voguls  have  dwelt  chiefly  on  the 
Siberian  slopes  of  the  Urals  north  of  Yekaterinburg,  and  especially  in  the  valley  of 
the  Eonda,  a  tributary  of  the  Irtish.  A  few  families  reside  on  the  European  side  of 
the  moimtains,  but  most  of  those  who  are  here  met  are  hunters  in  pursuit  of  game  from 
the  east.  The  Voguls  are  of  the  same  branch  of  the  Finnish  race  as  the  Ostiaks, 
and  both  were  till  re<'«ntly  collectively  known  by  the  common  name  of  Manzi. 
The  former  still  retain  the  small  oblique  eyes  characteristic  of  the  race,  but  most 
of  them  have  become  Russified  in  dress,  habits,  and  pursuits.  Hence  the  difficulty 
of  ascertaining  their  real  nimiber,  which  is  officially  stated  to  be  4,500,  but  is  by 
different  observers  variously  estimated  at  18,000  to  30,000. 

The  Vogul  himters  have  best  preserved  the  customs  of  the  tribes  which  Yermak 
had  to  overcome  on  his  way  to  the  kingdom  of  Sibir.    With  their  thick  furs  and 
hoods  adorned  with  the  ears  of  animals,  they  look  at  a  distaL.<«^  like  wild  beasts  of 
the  forest.    But  they  are  really  a  harmless  and  even  timid  race,  whose  mild  expres- 
sion is  increased  by  their  shaven  faces,  which  would  else  in  winter  be  changed  by 
their  frozen  breath  to  one  mass  of  ice.    They  are  never  known  to  rebel  against  the 
orders  of  the  traders  by  whom  they  are  employed,  and  treated  as  genuine  serfs. 
They  spontaneously  pay  the  taxes  to  the  civil  authorities,  and  bind  themselves 
beforehand  to  do  all  that  may  be  required  of  them.    Hence  they  naturally  accepted 
Christianity,  at  least  in  appearance,  when  ordered  to  do  so  in  1722.    But  every 
family  still  cherishes  its  household  gods,  represented  either  by  quadrupeds  with 
scaly  tails,  or  by  the  masked  figure  of  a  man  with  a  tall  head-dress.    These  rude 
figures  are  attached  to  the  bark  of  a  pine,  fir,  or  birch  tree,  whence  the  Russian 
term  Shaitanka,  or  Shaitanskaya  ("  Satanstead  "),  applied  to  so  many  forest  clear- 
ances.   The  Voguls  also  worship  a  great  national  idol,  doubtless  the  "  Old  Woman 
of  Gold  "  mentioned  by  Herberstein.    Its  sanctuary,  say  the  hunters,  is  found  in 
the  midst  of  swamps  and  gloomy  forests  in  some  upper  valley  of  the  Urals.    Women 
passing  near  the  hallowed  site  dare  not  even  look  upwards  to  the  trees  shading  the 
deity,  for  a  single  glance  would  cost  them  their  lives.    During  the  night  of  the 
feast  the  men  gather  rou  d  the  idol  and  kindle  a  scaffolding  of  stakes,  which  bums 
like  a  huge  torch.     On  the  return  of  darkness  a  member  of  the  tribe  approaches  a 
horse  tethered  to  a  tree,  and  strikes  him  with  a  pointed  knife.    The  blood  is 
received  in  a  sacred  goblet,  of  which  every  Vogul  drinks.    The  rite  is  supposed  to 
have  failed  should  the  horse  die  at  once,  or  before  all  have  had  their  share  of  the 
blood.    The  Vog^s  are  also  said  to  worship  the  sun,  invoking  it  for  fine  weather 
either  directly  or  through  their  Shamanist  priest,  in  whom  they  have  great  confi- 


840 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


iHt 


dence.     "  Our  Hhamans,"  they  say,  "  are  better  than  the  popes.    The  popes  foretell 
the  things  of  death,  the  shamans  those  of  life." 

Like  so  many  other  Finnish  peoples,  the  Voguls  have  their  family  totems 
tattooed  on  their  heads,  arms,  and  legs.  These  figures,  mostly  representing  bows 
and  arrows,  squares,  circles,  or  arabesques,  are  not  merely  ornamental,  but  possess 
a  sacred  chamctcr,  symbolizing  the  family  traditions  and  genealogies  from  genera- 
tion to  generation.  In  the  forest  the  Vogul  carves  his  totem  on  the  trees  to 
indicate  his  passage  to  those  who  may  pass  by  after  him.  He  also  attaches  it  to 
the  religious  or  civil  documents  presented  to  him  by  the  priests  or  Government 
officials,  and  he  endeavours  to  cure  sores  and  ulcers  by  tattooing  the  skin  close  to 
the  part  afEected.  But,  in  spite  of  all  these  symbolic  tattooings,  the  Voguls  are 
probably  the  least  sociable  of  the  Siberian  aborigines.  In  summer  they  live  in 
isolated  families,  each  pursuing  the  forest  game ;  in  winter  they  pitch  their  tents 
or  build  their  huts  at  considerable  distances  one  from  the  other,  being  nowhere 
grouped  together  in  villages.  Even  the  family  spirit  seems  but  slightly  developed. 
The  hunter  may  have  one  or  more  wives  according  to  his  means,  but  the  least  dis- 
turbance dissolves  the  union,  and  the  husband  will  then  often  live  quite  alone, 
accompanied  only  by  his  reindeer  and  dog.  Most  of  the  old  men  thus  forsaken 
by  their  wives  die  a  solitary  death,  victims  generally  either  of  hunger  or  cold. 
Hence  burials  also  are  attended  with  little  ceremony.  A  grave  is  dug  on  the  spot 
where  the  body  is  found,  and  with  it  are  buried  the  arms  of  the  departed  together, 
with  a  supply  of  tobacco  and  brandy,  but  no  salt,  which  is  imknown  in  the  Vogul 
cuisine. 

The  Ostiaks. 

The  chief  nation  in  North-west  Siberia  is  that  of  the  Ostiaks  of  Bussian  and  other 
European  writers,  but  who  call  themselves  £ondi-Ehu  ("  People  of  the  Ehonda 
River  "),  As-Khu,  As- Yak  ("  People  of  the  Ob  "),  or  simply  Manzi— that  is,  "  Men." 
To  As- Yak  some  tface  the  term  Ostiak,  which  others  identify  with  the  Tatar 
TJshtiak,  or  "  Stranger,"  or  to  the  Hussian  "  Chftd,"  which  has  the  same  sense,  and 
which  is  generally  applied  by  the  Slavs  to  the  ancient  races  of  Siberia.  According 
to  the  ethnographic  charts  the  Ostiaks  would  appear  to  occupy  a  vast  domain 
stretching  from  the  Ob  estimry  to  the  middle  course  of  the  Irtish,  and  from  the 
Urals  to  Nijnyaya  Timguska.  But  this  region,  of  some  400,000  square  miles,  is 
mostly  a  solitude,  in  which  the  Ostiaks,  according  to  the  latest  estimates,  number 
scarcely  25,000  souls'  altogether.  The  names  of  many  tribes  mentioned  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  seem  to  have  vanished  with  the  tribes  themseh  es. 
The  important  memoirs  of  Castren  and  Radlov  on  the  languages  of  these  peoples 
are  all  the  more  precious  that  they  all  seem  destined  to  rapid  extinction  as  inde- 
pendent ethnical  groups.  Several  Ostiak  communities  near  the  Russian  settlements 
have  already  lost  their  national  speech,  and  are  known  only  by  tradition  to  have 
belonged  to  the  old  stock.  The  Russified  Ostiaks  are  said  to  be  generally  of 
smaller  stature,  but  more  prolific,  than  those  who  have  preserved  their  racial  purity. 

When  the  Cossacks  conquered  Siberia  the  Ostiaks,  who  opposed  them  with 


popes  foretell 

family  totems 
ssenting  bows 
il,  but  possess 

from  genora- 
.  the  trees  to 
attaches  it  to 
r  Government 
I  skin  close  to 
le  Voguls  are 
•  they  live  in 
ch  their  tents 
eing  nowhere 
tly  developed. 

the  least  dis- 
3  quite  alone, 
thus  forsaken 
nger  or  cold. 
g  on  the  spot 
rted  together, 

in  the  Vogul 


nan  and  other 
the  Ehonda 
at  is, "  Men." 
th  the  Tatar 
me  sense,  and 
According 
vast  domain 
md  from  the 
iiare  miles,  is 
tates,  number 
ioned  at  the 
IS  themsel  \  os. 
these  peoples 
Jtion  as  inde- 
n  settlements 
[tion  to  have 
generally  of 
racial  purity. 
1  them  with 


s» 


THE  OPTIAKS. 


841 


H'- 


%^z£*- 


if 


W 


numerous  armies,  had  a  complete  national  organization,  and  dwelt  in  regularly  built 
towns.  In  the  single  expedition  of  1501  the  Russians  destroyed  forty-one  of  thoMo 
fortified  places,  the  ruins  of  some  of  which  are  still  to  bo  seen  in  the  Obdorsk 
district.  Now  the  Ostiaks  have  become  more  hunters  and  fishers,  dwelling  in 
wretched  ho'  els,  abjectly  submissive  to  their  Russian  masters,  und  only  too  glad  to 
pay  their  taxes  whenever  they  are  not  prevented  by  their  extreme  poverty.  So 
rapid  is  the  decrease  of  the  race  in  some  districts  that  it  has  been  attributed  not 
only  to  famine,  but  to  the  sterility  of  the  women  and  mortality  of  the  children,  two- 
thirds  of  whom  perish  in  their  first  year.  The  births  are  also  diminished,  on  the  one 
hand,  by  polygamy,  on  the  other  by  celibacy,  occasioned  by  the  diflUculty  of  paying 
the  kalim.  Yet  hunger  and  misery  would  alone  suffice  to  explain  the  decay  of  tho 
race.  The  tribute  exacted  by  the  Russian  Government  had  formerly  to  be  paid  in 
peltry.  But  the  fur-bearing  animals  disappear  with  the  destruction  of  the  forests, 
and  the  Ostiaks  are  now  bound  to  pay  in  specie.  Being  thus  unable  to  refund  the 
advances  made  for  com,  their  winter  supplies  are  often  stopped,  and  then  whole 
families  perish  of  famine  fever.  The  extinction  of  the  race  is  also  accelerated  by 
their  love  of  drink,  and  the  condition  of  some  tribes  is  altogether  so  deplorable, 
and  their  approaching  extinction  so  inevitable,  that  it  has  been  proposed  to 
distribute  the  children  amongst  the  Russian  families  and  leave  the  adults  to  their 
fate. 

Although  on  the  old  maps  their  territory  bears  the  name  of  Yugria,  the  present 
Ostiaks  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  pure  representatives  of  the  Ugrian  family,  of 
which  the  Hungarian  Magyars  are  a  branch.  No  pure  Ostiaks  are  found  south  of 
the  60th  parallel,  where  the  crania  present  different  types,  dthough  all  are  more 
or  less  brachycephalic,  some  approaching  the  Mongol,  others  the  Lapp  form.  The 
Ostiak  dialects  also,  which  of  all  the  Finnish  idioms  most  resemble  the  Magyar, 
show  obvious  relations,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  Tatar,  on  the  other  to  the  Mongolian. 
Relying  on  this  twofold  relationship,  Castren  assigns  to  the  race  an  Altaic  origin, 
for  in  the  Alta'i  highlands  alone  they  coidd  have  come  in  contact  both  with  Tatars 
and  Mongols.  Like  other  Finnish  dialects,  the  Ostiak  language  is  very  harmonious. 
Its  phonetics  include  a  sibilant  analogous  to  the  English  th,  but  the  letter  /  is 
wanting. 

The  Ostiaks  are  physically  rather  smaller,  but  when  well  fed  quite  as  robust  as 
the  Russians.  They  have  round  features,  arched  forehead,  prominent  cheek  bones, 
short  and  round  chin,  black  and  slightly  oblique,  but  very  sparkling  eyes.  Tho 
hair  is  block  and  pliant,  and  the  beard  very  thin,  as  amongst  most  Asiatics.  As 
with  other  Finnish  peoples,  the  type  of  the  young  women  approaches  far  nearer  to 
the  Mongolian  than  does  that  of  the  adults. 

The  district  of  Obdorsk,  chief  centre  of  the  Ostiak  tribes,  represents,  both 
ethnically  and  geographically,  the  conditions  which  prevailed  in  Europe  during  tho 
reindeer  period.  Like  the  Europeans  of  that  epoch,  the  Ostiaks  eat  both  carnivorous 
and  graminivorous  animals,  the  fox  and  allied  species  being  their  favourite  food. 
They  devour  the  raw  flesh,  as  did  the  troglodytes  of  the  Weser  valley,  always 
beginning  with  the  intestines,  which  are  regarded  as  the  tit-bits.    Stone,  horn,  and 


842 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


r-r;' 


wm 


bono  are  still  chiefly  used  in  the  fabrication  of  their  implements,  which  are  exactly 
like  those  of  the  old  Euroijcun  cave  men.  The  bear's  tooth  is  their  amulet,  the 
symbol  of  their  pledged  word,  the  remedy  for  most  complaints.  The  mats  plaited 
by  the  Ostiak  women  resemble  those  of  the  Swiss  luke  dwellers  quite  as  much  as  they 
do  those  of  the  modem  Eamchudale  tribes,  just  as  the  instruments  used  by  them  in 
weaving  their  yams  are  identical  with  those  still  found  in  North  Russia,  and  which 
certainly  date  from  prehistoric  times. 

Political  oppression  and  usury  have  destroyed  the  national  unity  and  civilisa- 
tion of  the  Ostiaks,  and  caused  them  to  abandon  their  old  towns.  Still  many  large 
communities  have  retained  the  old  spirit  of  solidarity,  the  members  regarding 
themselves  as  relatives,  and  mutually  aiding  each  other.  Thus  the  successful 
hunter  shares  the  spoils  of  the  chase  with  those  who  return  empty-handed.  Owing 
to  their  strict  honesty,  differences  are  rare  between  members  of  the  federation  ;  but 
when  they  arise  appeal  is  made  to  an  elder,  whose  decision  is  final.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Obdorsk  family  quarrels  are  settled  by  the  prince  descended  in 
direct  line  from  the  chief  appointed  by  Catherine  II.  The  prince  and  elders  receive 
no  subsidy  from  the  people,  but  neither  they  nor  the  shamans  are  above  accepting 
presents  from  their  subjects. 

From  time  immemorial  every  Ostiak  federation  has  had  its  special  gods,  protectors 
of  the  race,  guarded  by  the  shamans,  who  are  at  once  the  priests,  prophets,  doctors 
and  wizards  of  the  tribe.  The  sacred  groves  contain  hundreds  of  these  deities, 
rudely  carved  figures  of  divers  forms,  of  cen  resembling  the  Polynesian  idols.  Each 
family  has  also  its  gods,  cut,  like  the  others,  out  of  wooden  blocks,  and  mostly 
dressed  in  red  garments,  with  tin  heads,  and  often  armed  with  swords  and  coats  of 
mail.  But  above  all  these  tribal  and  family  divinities  the  great  god  is  throned  in 
the  "  seventh  world,"  clothed  in  the  light  of  dawn,  and  speaking  with  the  voice 
of  thunder  and  the  storm.  This  is  Turm,  or  Turum,  whose  name  recalls  that  of 
the  Scandinavian  Tor,  or  the  Taraun  of  the  Gauls.  No  one  dare  invoke  him, 
for  he  hears  not  even  the  shaman's  prayer,  and  is  (piided  only  by  the  immutable 
laws  of  justice  or  of  destiny.  Hence  no  offerings  are  mode  to  him,  and  to  his  sons 
and  other  inferior  deities,  including  the  St.  Nicholas  of  the  Russians,  are  reserved 
the  sacrifices  of  reindeer  and  sheep  (sometimes  immolated  in  the  church  itself),  the 
presents  of  furs,  antlers,  and  other  precious  objects.  At  the  same  time  the  shaman 
alone  can  render  these  offerings  acceptable ;  he  alone  can  nuike  his  voice  reach  the 
ears  of  the  gods  in  his  chants  and  beating  of  the  drum.  A  ribbon  at  the  end  of  a 
pole  held  before  the  idol's  mouth  indicates  by  its  flutterings  the  divine  will.  The 
shamans  also  are  alone  authorised  to  work  miracles,  which  are  regarded  as  such  not 
only  by  the  natives,  but  by  the  Russians  themselves.  For  them  the  "block 
religion  "  is  no  less  efficacious  than  their  own,  although  it  acts  in  virtue  of  the  evil 
spirit.  Amongst  most  of  the  Siberian  populations  the  shamans  are  a  sort  of  half- 
divine  beings,  controlling  the  hidden  forces  of  natiu'e,  conjuring  the  elements, 
healing  maladies,  detecting  the  secrets  of  the  futxre,  holding  familiar  converse  with 
the  good  and  evil  spirits  of  heaven  and  earth.  "  To  the  hero  brute  force,  but  to 
the  shaman  the  words  that  give  strength ;  to  the  hero  bow  and  arrow,  but  to  the 


THE  OSTIAKS. 


848 


.  are  exactly 
amulet,  the 
mats  plaited 
nuch  as  they 
[  by  them  in 
1,  and  which 

and  civilistt- 
many  large 
'8  regarding 
D  successful 
[ed.  Owing 
aration;  but 
lal.  In  the 
lescended  in 
Iders  receive 
ve  accepting 

Is,  protectors 

bets,  doctors 

hese  deities, 

idols.    Each 

,  and  mostly 

and  coats  of 

is  throned  in 

th  the  voice 

lialls  that  of 

invoke  him, 

i  immutable 

i  to  his  sons 

are  reserved 

h  itself),  the 

the  shaman 

ce  reach  the 

the  end  of  a 

Bwill.     The 

1  OS  such  not 

the  "black 

e  of  the  evil 

sort  of  half- 

le  elements, 

on  verse  with 

'orce,  but  to 

,  but  to  the 


shaman  the  power  in  virtue  of  which  the  arrow  hits  or  misses  the  mark,  the  wound 
kills  or  not.  To  the  hero  noise  and  clatter,  what  we  see  and  what  we  hear,  but  to 
the  shaman  what  we  neither  hear  nor  see,  silent  wisdom,  the  science  of  causes  and 
the  knowledge  of  things."  Wrangell  himself  admits  that  he  could  never  look  on  a 
shaman  without  a  sort  of  awe.  But  this  superhuman  power  is  not  hereditary,  nor 
does  the  shaman  select  his  disciples  from  his  own  family.  If  he  observes  in  the  tribe 
a  young  man,  thin,  pale,  and  haggard,  subject  to  sudden  paroxysms  of  fury  or 
epilepsy,  fond  of  solitude,  holding  nightly  vigils,  him  he  chooses  as  his  successor. 
He  first  strives  to  regulate  his  fits  by  magic  i-emedies,  then  subjects  him  to  a  period 
of  novitiate,  and  teaches  him  the  art  of  working  wonders.  The  shaman's  magic  is 
a  veritable  science,  in  so  far  as  it  imparts  an  understanding  of  certain  physiological 
phenomena  with  a  view  to  profit. 

Occasionally  the  gods  of  one  family  or  tribe  pay  a  visit  to  tbose  of  another. 
Then  take  place  the  gpreat  ceremonies,  warlike  dances  that  have  lost  their  meaning, 
mimicry  of  hunting  scenes,  much  playing  on  the  dombra,  a  stringed  instrument  like 
the  tombora,  borrowed  by  the  Magyars  from  the  Southern  Slavs.  Dancing  ends  with 
a  banquet,  of  which  the  gods  partake,  and  at  which  the  shamans  smear  their  faces 
with  blood.  But  the  deity  must  show  his  g^titude  for  the  offering ;  its  value  is 
discussed  with  him,  and  he  is  sometimes  induced  to  be  more  moderate  in  his 
demands,  more  generous  in  his  dealings.  There  are  also  wicked  gods,  such  as  the 
water  god,  who  is  sometimes  appeased  by  drowning  a  reindeer  in  the  river.  Ideas 
of  sanctity  or  magic  are  associated  with  everything  in  nature  distinguished  by  its 
strength,  size,  or  solitary  grandeur.  The  cedar  towering  above  the  forext  pines  is 
a  sacred  object,  as  is  also  the  bear,  "  son  of  Turum,"  and  representative  of  justice 
on  earth.  When  he  is  slain  in  the  chase  the  hunter  implores  forgiveness,  for  five 
days  afterwards  performing  divers  ceremonies  in  presence  of  the  body,  intermingled 
in  some  tribes  with  blows  and  insults.  No  oath  is  so  sacred  as  that  taken  "  by  the 
jaw  of  the  bear,"  for  he  sees  everything,  knows  all  things,  whether  alive  or  dead. 
Like  most  of  the  Finnish  tribes,  the  Ostiaks  pay  great  respect  to  their  departed 
brethren,  taking  care  to  provide  them  with  everything  they  needed  on  earth — 
sleigh,  javelin,  harpoon,  axe,  knife,  hearth-stone,  fuel,  and  at  least  a  semblance  of 
food.  Parents  also  keep  a  figure  of  the  dead,  dressing  and  undressing  it,  placing 
it  at  the  table  and  putting  it  to  bed.  But  after  three  years  they  regard  the  death 
as  a  settled  point,  for  the  body  is  now  decomposed,  and  the  puppet  buried  with  the 
remains  in  a  grave  decked  with  reindeer  horns,  carved  images,  tinkling  bells,  and 
streaming  ribbons.  In  the  "  third  world  "  there  are  no  more  ailments,  no  more 
Russian  officials,  no  more'  taxes  to  pay.  Unfortunately  the  Ostiaks  never  enter 
this  heaven,  but  remain  in  the  "  second  world,"  which  lies  beyond  the  Gulf  of  the 
Ob,  at  the  other  side  of  the  ocean. 

The  Ostiak  wife  is  purchased  like  an  ox,  and  always  regarded  as  impure.  She 
is  even  nameless,  and,  as  with  the  Samoyedes,  she  is  excluded  from  the  part  of  the 
tent  reserved  for  the  provisions.  In  some  tribes  the  husband  and  her  own  children 
are  even  accustomed  to  fumigate  the  place  she  has  occupied.  She  never  inherits 
anything,  but  herself  forms  part  of  the  family  inheritance.    Nevertheless  the  mild 


mam 


mtm 


yy:  -  '     '!■«• 


844 


ASIATIC  RUS6IA. 


character  of  the  raeo  protects  her  from  all  violence,  and  for  the  gonial  good-humour 
and  kindlinoHft  of  the  huHbandH  many  Ostiuk  fumilicH  might  servo  as  models  to  their 
IluHsiun  neighbours.  In  the  south  and  along  the  Ob,  whoro  Tatar  influences 
prweded  those  of  tho  Slavs,  the  v^omcn  are  obliged  to  go  veiled,  or  else  to  turn 
aside  in  tho  presence  of  tho  men.  In  other  respects  all  tho  Ostiaks  rusemblo  tho 
Hamoycdos  in  their  habits,  dross,  and  speech,  and,  like  them,  live  on  their  reindo(>r 
herds. 

Tho  Sumoyedos  of  the  Ob  and  Tnz  estuaries  and  Lower  Yenisei  valley  belong  to 
tho  Yurak  stock,  and  arc  consequently  allied  to  those  of  North-oast  Europe.  They 
are  tho  same  small,  timid,  moody,  and  hospitable  race,  though  they  still  practise 
tho  religion  of  blood,  and  force  bits  of  raw  flesh  between  the  teeth  of  their  idols. 
Tho  Eastern  Samoyedes,  met  here  and  there  south  of  the  Toimir  peninsula  as  far  as 
tho  Khatanga  Fiord,  form  another  group,  that  of  the  Tavgi,  of  toner  known  to  the 
Russians  us  tho  Bikaya  Orda,  or  "  Savago  Horde,"  not  becausa  less  civilised,  but 
because  they  have  not  yet  boon  baptized,  and  have  remained  more  independent 
than  the  other  Samoyedes.  They  keep  aloof  from  the  Russian  traders,  priests,  and 
officials  ;  but  in  theii  progress  northwards,  beyond  the  Slavs,  Tunguses,  and  Yakuts, 
they  have  nowhere  reached  the  sea.  The  coast  region  they  regard  as  belonging  by 
right  to  tho  "  white  bear  people,"  and  seriously  relate  how  their  frequent  attempts 
to  conquer  that  territory  were  defeated  by  the  bears,  who  always  unfairly  pitted 
twelve  of  their  men  against  eight  Samoyede  warriors. 

Some  few  tribes  are  scattered  much  farther  south  in  the  Upper  Yenisei  basin 
beyond  the  districts  settled  by  the  Russians.  These  are  the  Eamasses,  or  Eamas- 
sintzes,  who  occupy  the  banks  of  the  Kan  and  Mona,  south-east  of  Krasnoyarsk. 
Castrcn  regards  them  as  the  purest  of  the  race,  being  those  who  have  remained 
in  their  primitive  homes  near  the  Altai  Mountains.  Several  of  the  surrounding 
Tatarized  or  Mongolized  tribes  state  that  their  forefathers  spoke  a  different 
language  from  their  present  speech,  and  Castren  assumes  that  this  must  have  been 
of  Same  or  Finnish  stock.  Driven  by  the  Tatars  from  their  native  valleys,  the 
Samoyodes  followed  the  Yenisei  and  Ob  north  and  north-west,  leaving  colonies 
here  and  there  in  the  regions  less  exposed  to  attack,  but  obliged  in  many  places 
to  change  their  name,  language,  and  usages,  accoi-ding  to  the  populations  with 
whom  they  came  in  contact.  Thus  during  the  Tatar  rule  most  of  them  became 
absorbed  in  the  Tiaiki  element.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Ob  and  in  the  valleys 
of  its  eastern  tributaries,  the  Chulim,  Ket,  and  Tim,  there  are  about  4,000 
Samoyedes,  usually  grouped  with  the  Ostiaks,  and  who  will  probably  ere  long  come 
to  be  regarded  as  Russians. 

The  Ural  Mining  DisTKicmj. 

The  Slav  element  is  relatively  very  dense  in  the  portion  of  the  government  of 
Perm  comprised  in  the  Ob  basin,  and  which  has  already  &  population  of  about  one 
million.  While  naturally  benefiting  by  the  advantages  derived  from  its  proximity 
to  Europe,  this  region  still  relies  on  its  own  resources  for  its  relative  importance  in 


"■qiismMWBMinp 


THE  URAL  ICNINO  DISTIUCTS. 


846 


l^ood-humour 
xloU  to  their 
ir  influoncoM 
el8e  to  turn 
roftemblo  the 
heir  reindeer 

ley  belong  to 
irope.  They 
still  practise 
f  their  idols, 
sula  as  far  as 
known  to  the 
civilised,  but 
I  independent 
i,  priests,  and 
I,  and  Yakuts, 
belonging  by 
uent  attempts 
nfuirly  pitted 

Yenisei  basin 

es,  or  Eamas- 

Erasnoyarsk. 

ave  remained 

surrounding 

a  different 

list  have  been 

e  valleys,  the 

viug  colonies 

many  places 
ulations  with 
them  became 
in  the  valleys 

about  4,000 
ere  long  come 


the  empire.  The  Central  Urals  are  the  chief  mining  country  in  Russia,  yielding 
the  precious  metals,  iron,  coal,  and  salt  in  abundance.  As  on  the  Kuropoau  slupcs, 
the  crystalline  rocks,  and  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  triassio  formations  of  the 
higher  ridges  and  lateral  spurs,  have  been  partially  disintegrated  and  strewn  along 
the  eastern  foot  of  the  mountains,  and  amongst  these  muBses  of  dtn)riH  are  found 
the  valuable  minerals  by  which  the  Slavs  have  been  attracted  to  this  region.  Fiscal 
reasons  have  induced  the  Government  to  group  in  one  administrative  province  the 


Fig.  IM.— Laxbi  akd  MxiuHBt  is  thi  I»t  BAinr. 

SmU*  1  :  456,000. 


ei'SOr 


OJIOm. 


ovemment  of 
of  about  one 
its  proximity 

importance  in 


mining  districts  of  both  slopes,  whereas  the  natural  limits  ought  to  follow  either 
the  water-parting  between  the  Ob,  Petchora,  and  Volga  basins,  or  else  the  depres- 
sion of  the  Irtish,  coinciding  with  the  ancient  maritime  strait  between  the 
Caspian  and  Arctic  Ocean.  The  actual  administrative  frontiers  between  the  two 
continents  have  been  traced  almost  at  haphazard,  obliquely  crossing  the  rivers, 
and  intersecting  without  any  geographical  system  the  region  of  lakes,  swamps, 
forests,  and  uncertain  slopes  which  stretch  east  of  the  Ural  range. 


mm 


846 


ASIATIC  aussu. 


About  the  beginning  of  the  oightoentb  century  the  mineral  wealth  of  thin 
country  lH>gan  firnt  to  t)o  utiliHtHl  by  the  eHtubliNhmcnt  of  Nmolting  worka  on 
tbo  HitoM  of  the  old  "rh6do"  niincN.  The  growing  importance  of  th<<  diNtrict,  the 
large  revenue  dorivwl  by  the  Govonuncnt  from  itn  rcHourcea,  and  cM|H>cially  the 
colossal  fortunes  rapidly  made  by  a  few  lucky  spoculutors,  soon  drew  attention  to 
those  highlands,  which  have  since  become  one  of  the  classic  lands  of  geology.  As 
many  as  100,000  hands  have  here  been  empl6yc<l  at  a  time ;  but  since  the  discovery 
of  the  Califomion  and  Australian  "  El  Dorados  "  the  relative  importance  of  the 
Urals  as  a  mineral-producing  land  bos  been  greatly  reduced.  Still,  although  the 
copper  orcH  of  the  Yekaterinburg  district  cannot  comf>ete  in  the  European  market 
with  those  of  Australia,  Chili,  or  Bolivia,  the  iron  ores  of  the  Urals,  equalling 
in  value  the  best  found  in  Sweden,  must  always  retain  their  value  for  Russia, 
while  for  its  beautiful  malachites  and  other  rocks  the  Ural  range  still  holds  the 
first  place.  The  railway  now  connecting  the  two  chief  towns  of  the  province, 
Perm  and  Yekaterinburg,  will  aid  in  the  more  rapid  development  of  these  treasures, 
which  have  scarcely  been  hitherto  utilised  except  for  royal  residences  and  some 
privileged  museums.  The  malachite  deposits  are  conveniently  situated  near  the 
railway  station,  which  bears  the  name  of  "  Asia,"  as  if  to  remind  the  European 
traveller  that  he  has  entered  another  continent.  At  Nijne-Tagilsk,  already  noted 
for  its  gold,  platinum,  and  iron,  a  pure  block  of  magnificent  malachite  weighing  over 
300  tons  has  boon  found  at  a  depth  of  300  feet  from  the  surface.  The  Visiikaya- 
gora  Hill,  which  has  supplied  the  furnaces  of  Thgilsk  and  Neviansk  since  1720, 
consists  of  a  huge  mass  of  iron,  containing  at  least  6,000,000,000  cwt.  of  ores,  about 
two-thirds  of  which  are  pure  metal. 

Topography  of  West  Siberia. 

The  old  capital  of  this  mining  district  is  Verkho-Tutie,  so  called  from  its  position 
in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Tura.  It  was  founded  in  1598  on  the  site  of  Nerom- 
kura,  the  Oorodiahche  of  the  Chiides  or  Yoguls,  and  remained  for  over  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  the  commercial  centre  of  all  the  mining  districts.  Here  is  the  oldest 
monastery  in  Asiatic  Russia.  But  it  lost  all  its  importance  when,  in  1763,  the  new 
route  was  opened  much  farther  south  between  Perm  and  Yekaterinburg.  From  the 
same  cause  its  neighbour  Pelim,  on  the  Tavda,  was  soon  reduced  to  an  obscure  hamlet. 
All  the  mines  and  metal  works  of  the  Upper  Tura  basin  constitute  the  Goro- 
Blagodat  district.  The  mountain  of  this  name  is  a  mass  of  magnetic  iron,  1,560 
feet  high,  on  the  frontier  of  Europe  and  Asia.  According  to  the  legend  this 
remarkable  lodestone  mountain  was  revealed  to  the  Russians  by  a  Yogul,  who 
was  burnt  alive  by  his  countrymen,  for  having  thus  attracted  the  foreigners  into 
the  land.  Strong  native  magnets  are  now  seldom  found  here,  the  best  specimens 
coming  from  Mount  Eashkanar  (2,800  feet),  overlooking  the  town  of  Nijne- 
Turinsk.  ^ 

The  valley  of  the  Tagil,  which  joins  the  Tura  within  the  limits  of  the  Perm 
government,  is  richer  in  metal  works  even  than  the  Upper  Tura  basin ;  but  the 


"W*^!**''" 


TOroORArUY  OF  WEST  8IBEUIA. 


847 


alth  of  thiK 
g  works  on 
'  (liHtrict,  tho 
quMnally  the 
'  attention  to 
feolojfjr.     As 
the  (liHCOvery 
ptance  of  tho 
although  the 
ipean  market 
lis,  equalling 
)  for  Russia, 
till  holds  the 
the  province, 
leso  treasures, 
ces  and  some 
ited  near  the 
the  European 
already  noted 
ireighing  over 
["he  Visokaya- 
Ic  since  1720, 
of  ores,  about 


g- 


am  its  position 
ite  of  Nerom- 

one  hundred 
•e  is  the  oldest 

763,  the  new 
From  the 
)scure  hamlet, 
ate  the  Goro- 
ic  iron,  1,560 
0  legend  this 
Vogul,  who 
oreigners  into 
lest  specimens 
wn  of  Nijne- 

of  the  Perm 
lasin;  but  the 


mining  industry  has  al* »  bcon  oxtondt'd  t«»  tho  valhiy  of  tho  Uppi'r  Joiva,  whioh 
rises  a  little  east  of  tho  suuruo  of  the  Tagil  in  the  Munii>  uplundrt.  Hero  iiro  tht> 
famous  NeviniiHk,  or  Neivinsk  works,  ostubliMhcd  in  UM).  In  1702  IVtor  thoUrcut 
secured  thoni  in  "  jMJrpt^tuity  "  to  tho  minor  Doniidov,  including  in  tho  grunt  u 
tract  of  3,212,000  acres.  Like  Pisa,  Neviunsk  boasts  of  its  luuuiug  towor,  a  heavy 
pile  lacking  tho  elegance  of  tho  Italian  structure. 

A/apai/irni;  oast  of  Neviansk  and  on  tho  sumo  river  Noiva,  is  also  an  active 
mining  centre,  its  iron  and  copper  works  employing  thousands  uf  smelters  and 
miners.  Tho  chief  entrepot  of  all  thoso  highland  towns  and  villages  is  Irbif,  at 
the  junction  of  the  rivers  Irbit  and  Nitza.  Originally  a  mere  Tatar  nlohoda 
surrounded  by  waste  tracts  and  wixHllunds,  Irbit  took  rank  as  u  city  in  1775,  in 
recompense  fur  its  loyalty  to  Catherine  II.  during  the  insurrection  of  I'ugachov. 
Since  then  it  has  not  greatly  increaHc<l  in  si/o,  but  during  the  month  of  February 
it  becomes  every  year  tho  Nijni-Novgorod  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Its  empty  houses 
are  now  filled  with  visitors  from  every  part  of  tho  empire,  numbering,  according  to 
the  state  of  trade,  from  12,000  to  20,000.  Since  tho  beginning  of  tho  century  its 
trade  has  increased  more  than  tenfold,  and  its  exchanges  amounted  in  1870 
altogether  to  09,263,000  roubles.  Irbit  has  gradually  become  the  great  provision 
market  for  tho  whole  of  Siberia,  and  through  it  European  Russia  supplies  its 
inhabitants  as  far  as  the  Pacific  seaboard  with  all  their  requirements,  receiving  in 
exchange  chiefly  furs  and  hides.  But  the  fair  onco  over,  Irbit  sinks  to  the  position 
of  a  dull  provincial  town.  The  neighbouring  iron  mines  have  lost  much  of  their 
former  importance,  though  the  "  Irbitskiy-zavod  "  smelting  works,  40  miles  south- 
west of  the  town,  still  produce  about  12,000  tons  of  iron  yearly. 

After  watering  the  Turinsk  district  and  recoiling  the  Nitza,  the  Tura  flows 
north-east  towards  Tunifiii,  one  of  tho  great  cities  of  Siberia.  This  place  was 
already  famous  before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians,  and  its  old  walls  figure  on 
Herberstein's  map  of  1549.  The  Siberian  Tatars  still  know  it  by  the  name  of 
Jenghiz-tora,  or  "  City  of  Jenghis,"  attributing  its  foundation  to  the  Mongolian 
conqueror.  Situated  at  the  converging  point  of  numerous  routes,  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  chief  water  highway  in  Siberia,  and  forming  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  great  birch  avenue  planted  by  Catherine  II.  from  Nijni-Novgorod  to  the 
Ural  mining  districts,  Tumen  has  become  one  of  the  chief  trading-places  in  the 
Ob  basin.  Like  Irbit,  it  has  its  yearly  fairs,  at  which  the  exchanges  in  tea  and  other 
merchandise  amount  to  upwai^ds  of  a  million  roubles.  But  it  is  chiefly  a  manu- 
facturing town,  growing  yearly  in  importance,  and  already  claiming  to  be  the 
"  Manchester  of  Siberia."  It  produces  most  of  the  carpets  sold  in  Russia,  and 
amongst  its  numerous  factories  are  steam-engine  works,  a  tannery  in  which  hides 
are  prepared  to  the  yearly  value  of  about  a  million  roubles,  and  building  yards  for 
the  steam  fleet  of  the  Ob  basin.  The  surroimding  towns  and  villages  also  produce 
quantities  of  wooden  wares,  household  utensils,  and  boxes  of  all  sorts,  and  about 
50,000  sleighs  and  carts  are  annually  made  in  the  district.  Tumen  is  the  chief 
dep6t  of  the  steamers  plying  on  the  Ob,  although  connected  with  the  river  naviga- 
tion only  during  the  spring  floods.     In  summer  the  boats  are  seldom  able  to  ascend 


84S 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


kw. 


Fig.  187. — Yekatehinhuho  and  Bbbbzotsktv. 

Scale  1 :  480,000. 


the  Tura,  and  usually  stop  at  Artomonora,  on  the  Tohol,  midway  between  Tumen 
and  Tobolsk. 

Still  less  advantageously  situated  for  fluvial  navigation  is  Yekaterinhur/j,  lying 
at  ihe  eastern  foot  of  the  Urals,  which,  however,  here  rise  scarcely  more  than 
650  feet  above*  the  town.  But  it  is  conveniently  placed  for  overland  communica- 
tion, and  forms  at  present  the  Asiatic  terminus  of  the  European  railway  system. 
It  also  occupies  a  central  position  between  the  northern  and  southern  mining 
districts  of  the  Urals,  6  miles  south-west  of  Bcryozov,  or  Beresovshiy-zaroii,  which 
till  recently  derived  much  importance  from  its  gold  and  platinum  mines,  discovered 

in  1820.  The  metal  works  of  Verkh- 
Isetskiy,  fonning  a  north-western 
suburb  of  the  city,  and  those  of  Nijne- 
Isetskiy  a  little  south-east  of  it,  have 
also  acquired  considerable  importance, 
especially  from  their  blast  furnaces. 
Yekaterinburg,  which  is  one  of  the 
finest  cities  in  the  empire,  occupies  a 
gentle  slope  on  the  banks  of  the  Iset, 
which  here  broadens  to  a  navigable 
lake  fringed  with  verdure.  Lofty 
white  houses,  with  green  sheet-iron 
roofs  resembling  slabs  of  malachite, 
rise  above  the  picturesque  wood  cot- 
tages, and  are  themselves  overlooked 
by  the  domes  and  belfries  of  the 
churches,  from  which  a  view  may  be 
had  of  the  Urals  in  the  distance. 
Founded  in  1722,  Yekaterinburg  soon 
rose  to  importance  as  the  centre  of  an 
extensive  mining  district.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  inspectors  of  mines, 
forming  a  sort  of  government  apart, 
and  its  stone  polishers  forward  to 
Europe  poiphyry  vases,  malachite  and 
rhodonite  tables,  and  a  thousand  objects  in  topaz,  jaspar,  and  rock  crystal, 
all  admirably  cut,  but  betraying  little  variety  of  design.  The  Government 
mint,  where  copper  and  even  gold  and  platinum  coins  were  struck,  has 
been  abandoned ;  but  its  loss  has  been  compensated  by  large  machinery  and  other 
private  works.  Here  are  a  meteorological  observatory,  and'  the  Society  of 
the  "Naturalists  of  the  Urals,"  which  publishes  interesting  memoirs  on  the 
geology,  flora,  faima,  and  ethnology  of  these  highlands.  The  society  was  founded 
in  1872,  and  in  1876  it  had  already  nearly  seventy  stations  in  various  parts  of  the 
Urals,  whose  comparative  tables  are  of  great  use  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
the  local  climate.     In  the  neighbourhood  are  many  objects  of  interest,  such  as  the 


elliles. 


iHMtlJIl 


f:»^:-*H<w' 


)etween  Tumen 

terinbut'fj,  lying 
ely  more  than 
nd  communica- 
railway  system, 
uthem  mining 
•iy-zaro'i,  which 
lines,  discovered 
orks  of  Verkh- 

north-westem 
those  of  Nijne- 
east  of  it,  have 
Me  importance, 
bkst  furnaces, 
is  one  of  the 
)ire,  occupies  a 
ks  of  the  Iset, 
to  a  navigable 
irdure.  Lofty 
reen   sheet-iron 

of  malachite, 
isque  wood  cot- 
ilves  overlooked 
belfries  of  the 
a  view  may  be 
n  the  distance, 
aterinburg  soon 
he  centre  of  an 
rict.  It  is  the 
Mitors  of  mines, 
vemment  apart, 
ers  forward  to 
s,  malachite  and 
id  rock  crystal, 
he  Government 
ere  struck,  has 
inery  and  other 
the  Society  of 
nemoirs  on  the 
iety  was  founded 
ious  parts  of  the 
a  knowledge  of 
rest,  such  as  the 


iP- 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  WEST  SIBERIA. 


849 


numerous  blocks  of  stratified  granite  between  2  and  3  miles  south  of  Lake  Shartash, 
and  from  their  form  known  as  "  stone  tents,"  One  of  the  rocks  on  the  river 
Pishma  bears  inscriptions  in  an  unknown  language,  and  in  a  character  far  more 
elegant  than  those  in  use  amongst  the  Altai  and  Yenisei  peoples. 

The  other  towns  east  of  Yekaterinburg  in  the  Perm  government  are  Kamiahlov 
on  the  Pishma,  Dalmatov  and  Shadrimk  on  the  Iset.  In  the  south  the  most 
important  place  is  Troitzk,  conveniently  situated  on  the  Orenburg-Omsk  route  at 
the  junction  of  two  fertile  valleys,  and  on  the  edge  of  the  steppe.  But  since  the 
Orenburg-Tashkend  route  has  become  the  main  highway  between  Europe  and 
Turkestan,  Troitzk  has  lost  much  of  its  former  importance.  In  the  Shadrinsk 
district  is  the  small  town  of  Krestoroye,  whose  fair,  next  to  that  of  Irbit,  is  the  best 
attended  on  the  Asiatic  slope  of  the  Urals.  Its  exchanges  amounted  in  1875  to 
8,350,000  roubles. 

Kurgan,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tobol,  but  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Perm 
government,  recalls  the  former  existence  of  a  royal  burial-place  560  feet  in  circum- 
ference, and  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  ditch.  After  extracting  a  quantity  of  gold 
and  silver  objects  the  Bussians  converted  the  moimd  into  a  fortress,  which, 
however,  they  were  obliged  to  abandon,  owing  to  the  erosions  of  the  Tobol.  The 
military  colony  was  then  removed  5  miles  farther  down,  and  gradually  developed 
into  a  flourishing  trading-place.  Yalutorotsk,  also  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tobol, 
was  foimded  in  1641  on  the  ruins  of  an  old  Tatar  city,  and  is  a  busy  place  during 
the  horse  fair.  The  surrounding  district,  the  most  densely  peopled  in  Siberia,  is 
very  nroductive  in  com,  cattle,  tallow,  and  hides. 

Oc  '*«  Ishim,  which  flows  parallel  with  the  Tobol  to  the  Irtish,  are  several 
impc'  aces.     Akmolinak,  capital  of  a  district  near  the  sources  of  the  river,  is 

much  ^.^uented  by  the  surrounding  Kirghiz  tribes.  Farther  west  is  the  old 
Cossack  stanitza  of  Atbaaar,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ishim  and  Atbasar.  Petropavloak, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ishim,  although  beyond  the  Kirghiz  territory,  is  the 
centre  <^  a  large  trade  with  the  nottiads,  over  3,000  of  whom  have  here  settled 
down  in  sedentary  communities.  Inhim,  about  midway  between  Petropavlovsk 
and  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  visited  by  over  10,000  strangers  during  the 
December  fair,  at  which  the  exchanges  amount  to  5,000,000  roubles.  In  the 
surroimding  lacustrine  steppe  there  are  over  300  basins,  which  are  alternately  lakes 
well  stocked  with  fish  and  rich  meadow  lands.  They  were  dry  in  1841,  began  to  be 
flooded  in  1859,  and  in  1864  the  water  had  everywhere  resumed  its  normal  level. 

The  first  place  on  the  Irtish  deserving  the  name  of  town  is  Ust-Kamenogorsk, 
situated,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  at  the  "  issue  of  the  mountain  gorge,"  near  the 
mining  region.  The  copper  mines  of  Bieh-  Udovtkiy,  in  the  valley  of  the  Olubokaya 
to  the  north-east,  employ  about  1,000  hands.  Lower  down,  Semipalatinsk,  capital 
of  a  government,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  but  has  often  had  to  change 
its  site,  owing  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  stream  and  the  encroachment  of  the  sand 
dunes.  Its  Biissian  name  of  Semi-Palat,  or  "  Seven  Buildings,"  is  due  to  the  seven 
neighbouring  heaps  of  ruins,  formerly  used  as  temples  by  the  surrounding 
Kalmuks.    In  the  adjoining  Ablaikit  valley  are  the  ruins  of  another  Buddhist 


SBSS 


an 


8fi0 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


!! 


temple.  The  large  trade  formerly  carried  on  by  Semipalatinsk  with  the  Chinese 
town  of  Chugucbak  has  been  almost  completely  suppressed  by  the  recent  troubles 
in  Kashgaria.  Its  commercial  relations  are  now  chiefly  with  Tashkend  and  Bokhara. 

Below  Semipalatinsk  there  are  no  towns  till  we  reach  Omsk,  which  occupies 
both  banks  of  the  Om  at  its  junction  with  the  Irtish,  and  on  the  main  Siberian 
highway  in  the  zone  of  Russian  colonisation,  between  the  Southern  Kirghiz  and 
Northern  Tatar  populations.  Omsk  is  the  present  capital  of  West  Siberia,  and  its 
old  fortress  has  become  the  residence  of  the  civil  and  military  administrators.  Here 
are  a  military  gymnasium  with  350  students,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  and 
since  1877  a  branch  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society. 

East  of  Omsk  the  main  route  ascends  the  Om  valley  to  Kainak,  midway  between 
the  Irtish  and  Ob,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  Baraba  steppe.  Amongst  its  inha- 
bitants are  several  hundred  Jews,  banished  to  this  part  of  Siberia  for  Bmuggling. 
For  a  distance  of  600  miles  along  the  Irtish  between  Omsk  and  Tobolsk  the  only 
town  is  Tara,  standing  on  the  left  bank,  opposite  the  confluence  of  the  river  Tara. 
It  is  a  much  older  place  than  Omsk,  and  was  formerly  the  head-quarters  of  the 
military  expeditions  organized  to  reduce  the  Kirghiz.  Peter  the  Great  caused 
700  of  its  Raskolnik  inhabitants  to  be  butchered  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  and  since  then  Tara,  lying  beyond  the  great  Siberian  highway,  has 
remained  nearly  stationary. 

Tobolsk,  former  capital  of  all  Asiatic  Russia,  and  still  the  chief  town  of  a 
government,  is  also  a  decayed  place,  taking  for  population  the  sixth  rank  only 
amongst  Siberian  cities.  Yet  it  occupies  a  position  of  vital  importance  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Irtish  and  Tobol,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  West  Siberian  fluvial 
navigation.  But  it  lies  beyond  the  dSth  parallel,  near  the  limits  of  cereal 
vegetation,  and  has  ceased  to  be  a  station  on  the  main  Siberian  highway,  which 
was  formerly  deflected  northwards  to  pass  by  the  governor's  palace,  and  which  now 
runs  from  Tumen,  through  Yalutorovsk  and  Ishim,  straight  to  Omsk.  But  it  still 
remains  the  rallying-place  of  the  Russians  banished  to  Siberia,  and  the  seat  of  the 
"  administration  of  the  exiles."  When  visited  by  Falk  in  1772  it  had  a  population 
of  15,000,  which  has  since  then  remained  nearly  stationary.  All  its  old  Tatar 
and  early  Russian  monuments  have  disappeared,  destroyed  either  by  the  Cossacks 
or  by  the  two  fires  which  wasted  the  place  in  the  eighteenth  century.  But  with 
its  painted  domes  and  kreml,  or  citadel,  commanding  the  lower  quarters  on  the 
banks  of  the  Irtish,  Tobolsk  still  remains  one  of  the  most  imposing  cities  in 
Siberia.  Its  fish  market  is  one  of  tbo  best  supplied  in  the  world,  annually  drawing 
about  8,900  tons  from  the  Lower  Ob,  for  which  the  Ostiak  fishers  receive  probably 
no  more  than  10,000  roubles,  but  which  realise  on  the  spot  at  least  1,000,000 
roubles. 

Below  Tobolsk  there  are  no  towns  on  the  Irtish;  but  Samaroca,  on  a  hill 
commanding  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Irtish  and  Ob,  which  are  lower  down  con- 
nected by  a  network  of  canals,  is  a  noted  place,  occupying  the  site  of  a  former 
Ostiak  capital.  But  the  aborigines  have  long  been  replaced  by  the  Russian 
Tamshchiki,  or  "  conductors,"  engaged  in  the  transport  trade. 


•MMMMpp 


mm 


the  Chinese 
:ent  troubles 
nd  Bokhara, 
lich  occupies 
lain  Siberian 
Kirghiz  and. 
)eria,  and  its 
rators.  Here 
history,  and 

way  between 
^st  its  inha- 
*  smuggling, 
jlsk  the  only 
B  river  Tara. 
arters  of  the 
i^reat  caused 
)  the  oath  of 
ighway,  has 

if  town  of  a 
h  rank  only 
tance  at  the 
)erian  fluvial 
ts  of  cereal 
hway,  which 
i  which  now 
But  it  still 
e  seat  of  the 
a  population 
ts  old  Tatar 
the  Cossacks 
^  But  with 
rters  on  the 
ag  cities  in 
ally  drawing 
ive  probably 
St  1,000,000 

a,  on  a  hill 
r  down  con- 
of  a  former 
the  Russian 


wmS^^m^^^' 


mmmmmmmm 


TOPOGRAPHY  OP  'YLST  8IBEEL  . 


861 


Vhk 


North  of  the  Altai  and  the  BarnaAl  plainn  there  are  no  large  towns  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ob.  KoUmn  has  acquired  some  importance  as  a  fishing  station  and 
market  for  fami  produce.  But  the  centre  of  trade  in  this  region  is  Tonmk,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tom,  some  600  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Ob.  Of  all 
the  Siberian  cities  Tomsk  probably  most  resembles  a  Russian  town  in  the  archi- 
teotiiro  of  its  houses,  the  splendour  of  its  shops,  and  its  general  commercial  activity. 
The  Cossacks  of  Tomsk  have  been  the  true  conquerors  of  Siberia,  and  their  services 
were  recognised  in  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  title  of  "Sons  of  Boyards,"  con- 
ferred on  them  by  the  Czar.  Some  hundreds  of  gold  miners  find  profitable 
employment  in  the  auriferous  districts  of  the  south  and  south-east,  which,  though 
less  rich  than  those  of  East  Siberia,  can  be  worked  at  less  expense.  In  population 
Tomsk  ranks  with  the  four  largest  cities  in  Siberia,  and  is  destined  soon  to  become 
the  intellectual  centre  of  Asiatic  Russia  as  the  scat  of  a  university.  Although 
over  fifty  years  ago  richly  endowed  by  private  munificence,  the  first  stono  of  this 
institution  was  not  laid  till  1880.  '  To  it  will  be  attached  a  botanic  ^  den  on 
extensive  grounds  g^ven  for  the  purpose  by  a  citizen  of  the  place.  Like  all 
Siberian  towns,  Tomsk  covers  a  vast  space,  its  straggling  suburbs  spreading  for 
miles  in  all  directions.  In  1876  the  landing-place  for  steamers  was  over  4  miles 
from  the  centre  of  the  city. 

East  of  Tomsk  the  two  towns  of  Mariimk  and  Achinsk,  in  the  Chulim  basin, 
have  some  importance  as  stations  on  the  g^reat  Siberian  highway.  But  for  hundreds 
of  miles  down  the  Ob  the  so-called  towns  are  little  more  than  groups  of  huts. 
Between  Tomsk  and  the  Irtish  confluence,  a  distance  of  over  060  miles,  nothing 
occurs  except  the  two  wretched  towns  of  Narim — that  is,  "  swamp  "  in  Ostiak — below 
the  Ket  delta,  and  Surgut  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  affluent  of  like  name.  About 
420  miles  still  farther  down  stands  Berozov,  the  northernmost  town  in  the  Ob 
basin.  It  lies  on  the  Sosva,  a  tributary  of  the  Little  Ob  from  the  Urals,  and  has 
become  famous  as  a  place  of  banishment.  Here  died  Menshikov,  Ostermann,  and 
the  two  Dolgorukiy,  besides  hundreds  of  less  known,  though  no  less  generous 
patriots,  doomed  to  a  slow  death  in  this  glacial  land,  far  from  friend  and  foe  alike, 
torn  from  all  the  joys  of  life  and  fierce  struggles  for  freedom.  Berozov  is  en  the 
verge  of  the  habitable  world,  producing  nothing  but  a  few  hardy  vegetables,  yet 
deriving  some  importance  from  its  trade  in  furs,  though  even  these  are  now  chiefly 
restricted  to  squirrel  skins.  Farther  north  there  are  only  a  few  fishing  stations,  of 
which  the  best  known  is  Obdorak,  consisting  of  about  sixty  houses  and  a  chapel,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ob.  In  this  Arctic  region  the  climate  is  too  severe  for  working 
the  gold,  platinimi,  and  iron  mines  of  the  surrounding  hills.  In  sununer  the 
surface  thaws  only  to  a  depth  of  from  8  to  12  inches,  and  in  winter  the  glass  falls 
to  — 12°  and  even  — 16°  Fahr.  The  Obdorsk  fair,  where  the  Ostiaks  and  Samoyedes 
formerly  sold  their  furs,  is  much  less  frequented  than  formerly.  The  natives  now 
prefer  to  trade  with  Turukhansk,  on  the  Yenisei,  where  the}  run  less  risk  of  losing 
the  produce  of  a  year's  chase  for  a  few  quarts  of  brandy. 

Mangazeya,  founded  by  the  Cossack  hunters  farther  east  on  the  Taz,  has  ceased 
to  exist,  and  has  been  succeeded  by  the  haiiiet  of  Tazorka. 


llliUliWIIMlUI 


mum 


tarn 


882 


ASIATIC  BUS8U. 


ill 


IV.— YENISEI-HAIKAL  BASIN. 

The  waters  flowing  through  the  Yenisei  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  belong,  like  those 
of  the  Oh,  to  two  different  basinN.  The  Ulungur  and  lUack  Irtish  are  properly 
Mongolian  rivers,  ^vhich  have  been  enabled  to  drain  northwards  through  a  brcuk 
in  the  surrounding  mountains.  In  the  same  way  the  Selcnga  rises  in  the  uplands 
fringing  the  Gobi  desert,  and  pursues  a  winding  coarse  through  a  depression  of 
the  hilly  plateau,  whent^o  flow  east  and  north-east  various  head-streams  both  of 
the  Lena  and  Amur.  The  Selonga  falls  into  the  great  transverse  trough  now 
filled  by  Lake  Baikal,  and  through  a  depression  lying  at  an  angle  with  this  vast 
lacustrine  Iwsin  the  Angara  also  escapes  to  the  Yenisei.  The  emissary  flows  at 
first  parallel  with  the  Lena,  and  these  two  rivers  were  probably  at  one  time  con- 
nected through  a  lateral  broach.  But  the  Angara  is  now  deflected  ^rthwards, 
descending  in  a  series  of  rapids  through  a  still  imperfectly  excavated  channel. 
After  receiving  the  Oka  and  other  tributaries  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Upper 
Tunguska,  as  if  it  were  really  a  different  stream,  and  after  describing  a  great 
curve  towards  the  north  and  west,  it  flows  in  a  gentle  current  to  the  Yenisei. 

The  Yenisei  itself  rises  in  a  mountain  cirque  east  of  the  Altai  range,  escaping 
from  its  upper  basin  through  a  succession  of  defiles  in  the  parallel  Sayan  ridges, 
and  flowing  thence  regularly  northwards  to  the  Arctic  Oceon,  uninterrupted  by 
the  nunierous  geological  breaks  obstructing  the  course  of  its  great  affluent  from 
the  oast.  Hence  it  rightly  retains  the  same  name  from  its  entrance  into  Russian 
territory  to  its  estuary,  and  it  thus  resembles  the  main  trunk  of  a  tree,  which 
throws  off  a  side  branch  longer,  stronger,  and  more  ramified  than  itself.*  In 
the  history  of  their  inhabitants  the  two  basins  of  the  Western  Yenisei  and 
of  the  Baikal  also  differ  from  each  other,  and  require  to  be  studied  apart. 


BASIN  OF  THE  WESTERN  YENISEI. 

The  Yenisei  receives  its  first  waters  from  the  Chinese  district  comprised 
between  the  Sayan  and  Tannu-ola  ranges  north  and  south,  and  bordered  east- 
wards by  the  lacustrine  plateau  where  rise  the  farthest  head-streams  of  the 
Selenga.  None  of  the  rivers  rising  in  this  district,  which  has  a  mean  elevation 
of  4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  have  received  from  the  natives  the  name  of  Yenisei.  But 
the  true  main  stream  seems  to  be  the  Bei-Eem,  which  is  the  "  Great  Yeniitei "  of 
some  writers,  and  which  is  fed  by  numerous  brooks  from  the  Eastern  Sayan,  better 
known  as  the  Ergik-targak  taiga.  The  Ehua-kem,  or  "Little  Yenisei,"  rises 
farther  south  on  the  heights  near  the  great  Lake  Eoso-gol,  and  receives  on  its  left 
the  waters  flowing  from  the  Tannu-ola  valleys.  The  united  stream,  which  now 
takes  the  name  of  TTlu-kem,  forms  the  real  Yenisei,  which  soon  receives  the 
Eemchik  from  the  converging  point  of  the  Altai,  Tannu,  and  Sayan  ranges. 
Although  there  seem  to  be  no  glaciers  in  these  highlands,  some  of  the  crests  rise 

*  Probable  length  of  the  Western  Yenisei,  2,680  miles;  probable  length  of  the  Selengm- Angara- 
Yenisei,  3,300  miles.    Probable  area  of  drainage,  1,180,000  square  milec. 


BASIN  OF  THE  WESTEBN  YENISEI. 


868 


f,  like  those 
irc  properly 
ugh  a  brciik 
the  uplands 
epresiiion  of 
iras  both  of 
trough  now 
ith  this  vast 
lary  flows  ot 
le  time  con- 
jrthwnrds, 
»d  channel. 
:  the  Upper 
ing  a  great 
onisei. 

ge,  escaping 
ayan  ridges, 
errupt«d  by 
iffluent  from 
nto  Russian 
tree,  which 
itself.*  In 
Yenisei  and 
rt. 


t  comprised 
rdered  east- 
earns  of  the 
lan  elevation 
enisei.  But 
Yenisei "  of 
$ayan,  better 
misei,"  rises 
es  on  its  left 
,  which  now 
receives  the 
lyan  ranges, 
te  crests  rise 

ielenga-Angara- 


hero  and  there  above  the  unnw-lino,  while  most  of  them  are  snow-clnd  for  oight 
mnnthn  in  tho  year.  Those  of  the  Krgik-lar^uk  arc  cortuinly  10,000  f«x>t  hij^li,  und 
passes  loading  over  this  choin  from  UuHsia  to  ( !hina  arc  at  clovatioriN  of  7,400  foct. 
With  its  northern  incline  the  rpj)cr  Yonisoi  Imsin  really  forms  part  of  Sil)oria 
in  its  climate,  flora,  fauna,  and  general  as{)ort,  but  not  in  its  inhaliitants,  who  are 
exclusively  of  Mongol  stock.  Tho  slopes  are  covered  with  forests  of  the  Silwrian 
cedar  and  larch,  beyond  which  stretch  thickofs  of  tho  rhododendron  and  other 
Alpine  plants,  while  the  rivers  and  lakes  are  fringed  with  poplars  and  willows. 

lif.  1M.~Uppi«  TiNiiiai  Bamn  and  Minuiimm  Sivras. 

1 1  !  0,400,000. 


.<0 


The  deer  is  chased  in  the  upland  forests,  and  the  grassy  plains  are  huney-combed 
with  the  underground  dwellings  of  the  tarbagan.  Still  the  transition  from  climate 
to  climate  may  be  observed  in  many  places,  and  especially  in  the  east,  where  the 
uncertain  water-parting  between  the  Yenisei  and  Selenga  is  strewn  with  lacustrine 
basins,  some  filled  with  salt  water,  others  containing  magnesia  and  mineral  sub- 
stances in  divers  proportions. 

About  half  a  mile  below  its  junction  with  the  Eemchik  in  Russian  territory, 
the  "  Great  River " — for  such  appears  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  Tungus  word 
Yoanesi,  whence  the  Russian  Yenisei — ^passes  in  a  bom,  or  narrow  defile,  through  a 


■MP 


mmm 


f.i<llilliiMui,i.iiMmr«a,i.i 


854 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


flerien  of  piirollcl  ridpfon,  ninning  M)uth*wo«t  ond  north-eoJit  on  tho  Royon  plutonu. 
Almut  10  milf»«  fn)in  thr  frontier  the  Rtrcum  enters  a  j<«»rf?c  scarcely  100  feet  wide 
and  3«)0  ynnU  lon^f,  thniu^h  which  a  liiko  was  draine<l  which  formerly  filled  the 
whole  upiHtr  Iwrnn.  Here  the  current  is  so  rapid  that  it  scorcely  over  freezes, 
though  u  little  lower  down  usually  ice-lmund  for  over  five  months  in  the  year. 
Further  on  tho  stream  in  interrupted  by  other  rapids  in  its  passage  through  the 
parallel  chains,  which  are  all  separated  from  each  other  by  deep  valleys  formerly 
filled  with  woter.  Of  those  rapids,  none  of  which  entirely  obstruct  the  navigation, 
tho  most  dangerous  is  tho  "  Great  Rapid  "  below  the  junction  of  the  Us.  Beyond 
the  Haynn  highlands  the  scone  changes  abruptly,  grassy  steppes  succeeding  to  moun- 
tain crags.  Dotwecn  Krasnoyarsk  and  Yeniseisk  some  reefs  and  rapids  also  cover 
tho  surface  with  foam,  and  cause  a  din  that  drowns  the  boatmen's  voices.  The 
longest  of  these  is  nearly  7  miles  in  length,  and  is  traversed  by  boats  descending 
the  stream  in  about  half  an  hour.  But  on  the  whcile  throughout  its  middle  and 
lower  course  tho  Yenisei  is  a  placid  stream,  with  a  fall  scarcely  exceeding  that  of 
tho  Ob.  At  Krasnoyarsk,  over  1,800  miles  from  its  mouth,  its  mean  elevation  is 
only  530  feet  above  the  sea,  and  at  Yeniseisk,  below  the  rapids,  230  feet. 

Like  the  Ob,  the  Yenisei  traverses  some  tracts  dry  enough  to  bo  regarded  as 
steppes.  Here  the  Tatars  pitch  their  tents  as  on  the  Turkestan  plains.  Thus 
the  Abakan  steppe  stretches  for  over  30  miles  along  tho  left  bank  above 
Minusinsk,  while  west  of  the  same  place  the  Kachinskaya  steppe  comprises  most 
of  the  plain  skirted  southwards  by  the  river  Abakan.  But  these  dried- up  tracts 
are  the  exception  in  the  Yenisei  basin,  where  tho  nmin  stream  is  swollen  by 
numerous  affluents,  especially  from  the  east,  making  it  one  of  tho  great  rivers  of 
Asia  even  before  its  junction  with  the.  Upper  Tung^ska.  Here  its  mean  breadth 
varies  from  5,000  to  6,500  feet,  expanding  to  4  miles  during  the  spring  floods, 
when  it  increases  in  depth  from  about  40  to  82  feet.  Its  volume,  apparently  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  Danube,  is  more  than  doubled  by  it«  union  with  the  Upper 
Tunguska,  and  under  the  pressure  of  this  current  the  main  stream  is  deflected 
westwards.  For  several  miles  the  turbid  and  yellow  waters  of  the  Yenisei  flow 
in  the  same  bed  side  by  side  with  the  d&rk  blue  Tunguska,  gradually  merging  in 
a  conomon  alluvial  stream.  The  fauna  of  the  two  rivers  also  differs,  the  sturgeons 
and  sterlets  of  the  Tunguska  having  black  backs,  while  those  of  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Yenisei  are  of  a  greyish  colour. 

Below  the  confluence  the  Yenisei,  like  most  Siberian  rivers,  flows  between  a 
low  bank  on  the  left  and  a  steep  cliff  on  the  right.  But  below  the  Sini  junction 
both  sides  are  high,  and  the  stream  is  here  obstructed  by  a  rocky  barrier,  causing 
it  to  expand  to  a  basin  about  10  miles  in  circumference,  and  studded  with  over 
fifty  islets.  This  is  the  only  obstacle  presented  to  the  navigation  of  large  steamers 
throughout  its  lower  course,  which  in  many  places  is  over  130  feet  deep. 

In  the  forest  region  below  the  Great  Tunguska  the  Yenisei  is  joined  by  two 
other  Tunguskas,  the  Podkamenyaya,  or  "Highland,"  and  the  Nijnyaya,  or 
"  Low,"  besides  the  Bakhta,  Yelogui,  Kureika,  and  other  affluents  scarcely  inferior 
in  volume.     The  Nijnyaya  is  about  1,620  miles  long,  and  over  half  a  mile  wide  at 


mmm 


INHABITANTS— TU]<;  CHCDEA. 


8S8 


ynn  platrnu. 

00  fwt  widt' 
rly  filled  tho 
Dvcr  freezes, 
in  the  year. 

through  the 
eys  formerly 
e  navigation, 
Jb.  Beyond 
ing  to  moun- 
ds alao  cover 
voices.  The 
:8  descending 
s  middle  and 
ding  that  of 

1  elevation  is 
Det. 

I  regarded  as 
)Iains.    Thus 

bank  above 
emprises  most 
ied-up  tracts 
B  swollen  by 
reat  rivers  of 
mean  breadth 
ipring  floods, 
arently  about 
th  the  Upper 
is  deflected 

Yenisei  flow 
Y  merging  in 
the  sturgeons 
le  Upper  and 

A's  between  u 
3ini  junction 
nier,  causing 
Bd  with  over 
irge  steamers 
p. 

>ined  by  two 
Nijnyaya,  or 
rcely  inferior 
k  mile  wide  at 


its  mouth.  In  a  warmer  lutitudo  it  would  form  a  niagnififciit  water  highway 
l)etwcH)n  the  Ypni«c>i  and  Lena  businH.  Vnr  it  rinon  near  the  liittor  riviT,  with 
which  it  at  first  riuiN  parulld,  upprnaohing  it,  noar  KiriMink,  tn  within  [•')  niiirn, 
but  then  turning  abruptly  north-west  to  the  YcnJHoi.  The  Taimura,  ono  of  its 
nfilucntN,  travorHOH  a  region  abounding  in  cool  bods,  one  of  which  has  been  oon- 
Humc<l  by  underground  firon. 

In  its  lower  course  through  the  glacial  zone  of  thn  tundrnm  the  Yenisei 
receives  no  more  affluents.  But  hero  it  partaken  more  of  the  character  of  a 
marine  estuary,  the  stream  being  at  times  nrrcNted  by  llio  joint  action  of  the 
tide  and  north  wind  HOO  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  exp  inding  over  a  Hpaco  30 
and  oven  40  miles  wide.  In  this  vast  frosh-wator  fiord,  Htuddod  with  low  isluiuU 
and  exposed  to  the  full  violence  of  the  fierce  winds  sweeping  over  the  tundra,  the 
navigation  is  very  dangerous  for  the  ordinary  flut-bottomod  fiNhing-smucks,  which 
seldom  venture  fur  from  the  banks.  But  before  reaching  the  sea  the  stream 
again  contracts,  and  is  only  12  or  14  miles  wide  at  its  mouth.  During  severe 
seasons  it  is  open  for  navigation  only  alraut  fifty  days,  from  July  lOth  to  the  end 
of  August.  Its  waters  are  less  rich  in  fish  than  the  C)b,  although  certau  portions, 
especially  of  the  cxtuary,  abound  in  animal  life,  inc  'udin'^  multitude  of  tench, 
lote,  perch,  taken  chiefly  as  food  for  the  dogs,  besidcc  «turg"on,  sa'  non,  and  other 
more  valuable  species.  Nearly  all  the  river  population  are  fishtrs,  agriculture 
and  stock-breeding  being  but  slightly  develojied  except  in  the  J^finusinsk  stepprt. 
Henco  the  navigation  of  the  Yenisei  has  hitherto  been  of  little  use  c  ;-)pt  for 
transporting  the  produce  of  the  fisheries.  Yet  the  region  traversed  \r  'I  uuounds 
in  minerals,  forests,  and  game,  whilst  the  southern  districts  might  piixiuco  foo<^ 
enough  for  the  sustenance  of  millions.  The  navigable  watorv^yj  vhich,  excluB''vo 
of  the  Baikal,  cannot  he  estimated  at  less  than  5,000  milej,  was  used  so  late  as 
1876  only  by  a  flotilla  of  four  steamers  and  two  sailing  vessels  under  50  tons 
burden.  Most  of  the  other  craft  consisted  merely  of  flat-bottomed  boats,  rafts,  and 
pontoons  taken  in  tow  by  the  tugs.  After  bringing  down  com  and  other  produce 
from  the  south  most  of  these  craft  are  taken  to  pieces,  and  the  timber  used  as  fuel 
or  for  building  purposes.  But  since  Nordenskjold  has  found  the  way  from  Europe 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  and  discovered  the  excellent  harbour  of  Dicksonhavn 
on  its  right  bank,  at  the  entrance  of  the  estuary,  trade  cannot  fail  to  be  developed 
on  this  great  artery  of  Central  Siberia.  Some  experimental  trips  have  even  already 
been  mode  by  English,  Scandinavian,  and  Siberia^  traders. 

Inhabftants — ^The  ChCdes. 

Doubtless  the  Yenisei  basin,  more  mountituious  in  the  south,  deficient  in  "  black 
loam,"  lying  at  a  g^-eater  distance  from  E.iropean  Russia,  and  stretching  less  towards 
the  south,  can  scarcely  ever  sustain  so  large  a  population  as  that  of  the  Ob.  At 
the  same  time  all  the  region  e.  mprised  between  the  Sayan  highlands  and  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Yenisei  and  Angara  has  already  been  almost  exclusively  settled  by 
Russian  communities,  scattered  in  groups  along  the  river  banks  and  the  great 


M0tS^yi^&KlllKtK^piSliJ9l*^^fi^^ 


866 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Siberian  overland  route.     The  antiquities  found  in   this    country  show  that  it 
formerly  possessed  a  considerable  population.     When  visited  by  Gmelin  in  1735 
the  gold,  silver,  and  copper  objee     found  in  the  graves  were  numerous  enough  to 
be  met  with  in  every  household.     In  the  Abakan  steppe,  on  both  banks  of  the  river 
of  like  name,  and  along  the  Yenisei  for  120  miles  below  Abakansk,  the  barrows  are 
grouped  in  hundreds  and  thousands,  especially  in  the  fertile  tracts.     Certain  parts 
of  the  steppe  are  like  vast  cities  of  the  dead,  where  the  mounds  are  so  crowded 
together  as  to  look  at  a  distance  like  herds  of  gigantic  animals.     Amongst  them  are 
some  of  recent  origin,  which  are  still  being  erected  on  the  occasion  of  great  religious 
ceremonies,  not  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  in  them  the  remains  of  renowned 
heroes,  but  only  as  receptacles  of  coats  of  mail,  stone  axes,  copper  implements, 
coins,  and  other  objects  dating  from  heroic  times.     Most  of  them,  however,  are 
ancient  kurgans  26  to  30  feet  high,  containing  either  chiefs  with  their  arms  and 
horses,  or  entire  families,  or  heaps  of  human  remains  thrown  in,  doubtless,  after 
some  great  battle.     These  are  the  so-called  "black"  kurgans.     But  the  most 
remarkable  tombs  are  those  enclosed  by  circles  of  stones,  some  of  which  are  carved 
in  the  form  of  men,  women,  and  children.     These  sculptured  stones  are  by  the 
Russians  called  baba,  the  same  name  that  they  give  to  the  nude  figures  surmounting 
the  kurgans  of  South  Russia.     But  most  of  the  figures  have  disappeared,  and, 
judging  from  what  remains,  they  would  seem  to  represent  men  of  Mongol  race,  and 
the  camels  that  accompanied  them  on  their  expeditions.     The  populations  whose 
remains  were  consigned  to  these  tumidi  were  in  other  respects  more  civilised  than 
the  Europeans  of  the  corresponding  bronze  epoch.     Amongst  their  jewellery  have 
been  found  genuine  works  of  art  in  beaten  gold,  besides  porcelain  and  bronze  vases 
embellished  with  bas-reliefs  of  animals,  such  as  the  argali,  deer,  eagle,  wolf,  and 
winged  monsters  like  griffins  or  flying  dragons.     Numerous  metal  mirrors  occur, 
resembling  those  still  used  by  the  Buriats  and  Mongolians  in  their  Buddhist  rites  ; 
but  iron  objects  are  found  only  in  the  barrows  of  recent  origin.     Figures  of  the 
duck,  an  animal  worshipped  by  the  ancient  Finns,  are  common.    According  to  the 
general  tradition  the  men  buried  in  these  tombs  are  "  ChMes,"  who  consigned 
themselves  alive  to  the  grave  on  the  appearance  of  the  birch,  emblem  of  Russian 
dominion,  in  their  woodlands. 

The  Soyots  and  Earaoassks. 

The  indigenous  population  of  the  Upper  Yenisei  basii^  both  in  China  and  Siberia, 
consists  of  Mongols,  Finns,  Tatars,  diversely  intermingled,  and  confounded  one 
with  the  other  by  nearly  all  travellers.  Most  of  the  peoples  living  in  the  Ob  basin 
are  also  met  in  various  parts  of  the  Yenisei  region.  Thus  the  Tatars  stretch  east- 
wards to  the  gates  uf  Minusinsk,  Eausk,  and  Erasnoyarsk.  The  Ostiaks  roam  over 
the  forests  on  both  banks  of  the  river  north  of  the  Angara  confluence,  while  the 
Samoyedes  pitch  their  tents  in  the  timdras  about  the  estuary.  Some  Samoyede 
families  are  even  found  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Ergik-targak,  in  the  valleys  of 
the  upper  affluents,  who  are  supposed  to  have  remained  in  their  primeval  homes 


■ill 


THE  S0T0T3  AND  KARAGASSES. 


85? 


y  show  that  it 
Grmelin  in  1735 
jrous  enough  to 
inks  of  tho  river 
the  barrows  are 
Certain  parts 

are  so  crowded 
nongst  them  are 
f  great  religious 
as  of  renowned 
)er  implements, 
m,  however,  are 
their  arms  and 

doubtless,  after 

But  the  most 
^hich  are  carved 
mes  are  by  tho 
pes  surmounting 
isappeared,  and, 
[ongol  race,  and 
pulations  whose 
pe  civilised  than 

jewellery  have 
nd  bronze  vases 
eagle,  woU,  and 
I  mirrors  occur, 
Buddhist  rites ; 

Figvires  of  the 
Lccording  to  the 

who  consigned 
)lem  of  Bussian 


lina  and  Siberia, 
confounded  one 
in  the  Ob  basin 
ars  stretch  east- 
3tiaks  roam  over 
lence,  while  the 
Some  Samoyede 
in  the  valleys  of 
primeval  homes 


after  their  kinsmen  had  migrated  northwards.  At  the  time  of  Castren's  visit  in 
1847  these  representatives  of  an  ancient  race,  known  in  the  country  as  Motors,  and 
calling  themselves  Tubalars,  seemed  to  be  dying  out.  Small-pox  had  made  great 
ravages  amongst  them,  and  most  of  the  survivors  had  migrated  to  Chinese  territory. 
Others  have  been  absorbed  in  the  surrounding  Tatars  and  Soyots,  and  the  old 
Samoyede  dialect  had  perished  even  before  the  race  itself. 

The  Soyots,  said  to  number  from  7,000  to  8,000,  are  Finns  like  the  Motors, 
and  speak  a  dialect  resembling  that  of  the  Samoyodes.  They  are  divided  into 
several  distinct  tribes,  occupying  two  or  three  valleys  in  Russian  territory ;  but  they 
are  far  more  numerous  in  the  Kem  and  Selenga  basins  within  the  Chinese  frontier. 
Having  had  formerly  to  pay  their  tribute  of  .furs  to  both  Governments,  they  have 
obviated  the  inconvenience  by  withdrawing  farther  from  the  borders,  and  leaving  a 
wide  unoccupied  space  between.  The  Soyots,  who  seem  to  have  become  mixed  with 
the  Tatar  race,  have  mostly  regular  features,  with  straight  nose,  small  and  very 
slightly  oblique  piercing  eyes,  broad  forehead,  pointed  chin,  an  intelligent,  resolute, 
and  thoughtful  expression.  They  practise  several  industries  with  very  great  skill, 
notwithstanding  their  primitive  implements.  They  extract  iron  from  the  ore, 
casting  it  into  bars  or  bxillets,  make  their  own  powder,  and  repair  their  rifles.  They 
also  navigate  the  lakes  and  rivers  on'  rafts,  but  occupy  themselves  rarely  with 
agriculture,  being  mostly  nomads,  whose  chief  wealth  consists  in  their  sheep,  cattle, 
yaks,  and  horses.  The  latter  are  very  shapely  and  much  valued  by  the  Minusinsk 
dealers.  Milk,  cheese,  butter,  and  kumiss  form  their  chief  diet,  but  they  are 
unfortunately  much  too  fond  of  atrak,  a  strongly  intoxicating  fermented  drink. 

More  nimierous  than  the  Soyots  are  the  Uriankhs,  who  call  themselves  Donva, 
and  who  are  supposed  to  be  of  TArki  stock.  They  resemble  this  race  in  features, 
and  most  of  them  speak  Tatar  dialects,  but,  unlike  most  T{irki  people,  they  are 
Buddhists  in  religfion.  Their  tribes  intermingle  with  the  Soyots,  though  the  bulk 
of  them  dwell  farther  east  in  the  Bei-kem  valley,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Eoso-gol, 
and  about  the  head-streams  of  tho  Selenga  and  Angara.  Some  are  hunters,  but 
most  of  them  are  stock-breeders,  living,  like  the  Soyots,  mailily  on  a  milk  diet.  But 
they  excel  them  as  agriculturists,  cultivating  barley  and  millet,  and  irrigating  their 
fields  with  canals  over  a  mile  long,  skilfully  traced  along  the  mountain  slopes.  But 
under  a  feudal  system  the  race  haq  become  impoverished.  The  dainan,  or  chief, 
and  the  aristocrats  own  herds  of  several  hundred  and  even  a  thousand  cattle,  while 
all  the  rest  are  nearly  destitute  and  reduced  to  a  state  of  serfdom.  Every  lord  is 
surrounded  by  retainers,  who  attend  slavishly  tc  all  his  personal  wants,  and  the 
nation  has  thus  become  divided  xnta  two  hostile  political  factions.  The  poor  are 
drawn  by  their  interests  towards  the  Russians,  whereas  the  nobles  and  lamas, 
belonging  mostly  to  the  same  families,  and  enjoying  the  same  privileges,  look  for 
support  from  the  Chinese  and  Mongol  officials.  Hence  Russion  explorers  are  very 
badly  received  by  the  dainan,  and  Mongol  influence  is  still  paramount  throughout 
his  territory.  The  Darkhats,  or  "  Freemen,"  who  dwell  farther  south  and  belong 
to  the  same  ethnical  group,  have  been  assimilated  even  in  speech  to  the  Mongolians. 
On  the  west  and  south-west  are  the  Soyons,  of  the  same  stock,  but  more  or  less 


'^^1  Vilimi^^^-Si^^^a^S'&^^^ 


MHh 


868 


ASIATIC  EUS8IA. 


mixed  with  Kirghiz  blood,  and  also  assimilated  in  speech  and  habits  to  the  Mon- 
golians. The  Shamanist  practices  of  the  "  Yellow  "  Soyons,  who  dwell  together 
in  Mongolia,  are  being  gradually  adapted  to  the  orthodox  Buddhist  rite,  and 
monasteries  of  lamas  are  already  springing  up  in  the  midst  of  these  nomads. 
Amongst  the  Darkhats  there  are  no  less  than  1,400  monks  in  a  total  population  of 
7,000.  The  old  customs  have  been  better  preserved  by  the  "  Black  "  Soyons,  who 
live  nearer  to  the  Russian  frontier,  and  who,  like  the  Soyots  and  Ealmuks,  prefer 
the  ox  to  the  horse  for  riding,  and  even  hunting.  On  these  beasts  they  are  said  to 
hold  their  own  against  the  best  horsemen. 

A  district  occupied  exclusively  by  Russian  colonists  separates  the  Soyot  and 
Uriankh  territory  from  the  Yenisei  T^tar  domain.  The  Karagasses  of  the  Northern 
Sayan  slopes  have  already  dwindled  to  a  few  hundred,  and  their  women  are  even  said 
to  be  no  longer  fruitful.  The  Sagai,  Kachines,  and  other  Tatar  peoples,  who  occupy 
the  basin  of  the  Abakan  to  the  number  of  14,000  or  15,000,  are  being  gradually 
Russified.  Most  of  those  living  in  the  steppes  west  of  the  Yenisei  are  very  com- 
fortable, many  of  them  counting  their  cattle  not  by  heads,  but  by  herds,  of  which 
some  possess  as  many  as  seventy,  averaging  fifty  head  each.  The  Yenisei  Tatars 
belong  mostly  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church ;  but  beneath  this  outward  show  the 
primitive  ideas  continue  to  flourish,  and  the  evil  spirit  is  still  worshipped. 


The  Tunouses, 

North  of  the  Russians  and  Yenisei  Tatars  the  dominant  people  are  the  Tungusep, 
already  mentioned  by  the  Dutch  writer  Massa  in  1612,  and  who  now  occupy  nearly 
all  the  region  limited  westwards  by  the  Yenisei,  but  especially  the  basins  of  the 
three  rivers  Tunguska  named  from  them,  and  most  of  the  Amur  valley.  Kinsmen 
of  the  Manchus,  and,  like  thom,  originally  from  the  Amur  basin,  they  gradually 
stretched  eastwards  to  the  Yenisei  and  northwards  to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  The 
Samoyedes  call  them  Aiya,  or  "  Young  Brothers,"  a  term  pointing  to  their  recent 
arrival  and  peaceful  relations  with  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  land.  About  the 
middle  of  its  course  they  have  crossed  the  Yenisei,  advancing  along  the  left  bank 
into  the  Ostiak  domain.  But  towards  the  centre  of  their  territory,  between  Lake 
Baikal  and  the  Lena,  they  are  hemmed  in  on  the  north  by  the  Yakuts,  southwards 
by  the  Buriats  and  Russians.  Being  mostly  nomads,  the  Tunguses  number  probably 
not  more  than  60,000  or  70,000  in  the  whole  of  Siberia,  but  their  courage,  activity, 
and  ready  wit  give  them  a  decided  moral  pre-eminence  over  the  other  natives. 
The  most  general  national  name  is  Donki,  whi  i,  like  that  of  Boye,  one  of  their 
chief  tribes,  means  "  Men."  The  Russian  form  Tungus  is  either  a  Tatar  word 
meaning  "  Lake  People,"  oi  more  probably  from  the  Chinese  Timghu,  "  Eastern 
Barbarians." 

According  to  their  pursuits  and  mode  of  life  the  Russians  have  divided  them 
into  "  Horse,"  "  Cattle,"  "  Reindeer,"  "  Dog,"  "  Steppe,"  and  "  Forest "  Timguses. 
Some  families  who  have  become  settled  have  adopted  Russian  ways,  and,  thanks  to 
their  superior  intelligence,  make  better  husbandmen  than  the  other  aborigines. 


ts  to  the  Mon- 
iwell  together 
hist  rite,  and 
these  nomads, 
population  of 
"  Soyons,  who 
ilmuks,  prefer 
ley  are  said  to 


ihe  Soyot  and 
:  the  Northern 
1  are  even  said 
8,  who  occupy 
ling  gradually 
are  very  com- 
Brds,  of  which 
iTenisei  Tatars 
rard  show  the 
jped. 


the  Tungrusep, 
occupy  nearly 
basins  of  the 
;y.  Kinsmen 
icy  gradually 
Ocean.  The 
o  their  recent 
..  About  the 
the  left  bank 
between  Lake 
;s,  southwards 
nber  probably 
rage,  activity, 
)ther  natives. 
,  one  of  their 
a  Tatar  word 
hu,  "  Eastern 


divided  them 
t "  Timguses. 
nd,  thanks  to 
>r  aborigines. 


Mi»»lrtw,.ilB) 


■MmiWivxtgtMmai-  "muma/mmtnam^ 


'^f*?T'!??W?r 


s  -^fj^*;--^  -   ,'fv:,,^ 


■^twMi^i^iyey 


THE  TUNQUSE8. 


859 


Vl 


But  most  of  tlie  nation  are  still  in  the  hunting  state,  roaming  through  the  woods 
without  tents,  and  seeking  temporary  shelter  in  caves  or  the  hollow  trunks  of  trees. 
A  little  sleigh  carries  all  their  c£Fect8,  and  with  this  they  will  journey  for  thousands 
of  miles,  from  the  Chinese  frontier  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  olways  retracing  their 
steps  with  unerring  certainty  over  hills,  plains,  rivers,  and  steppes.  The  least 
mark  left  by  the  hunter  on  his  track  is  recognised  and  respected  by  his  kinsmen. 
A  broken  branch  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  route  to  follow,  while  a  stick  thrown 
across  the  path  bars  farther  progress  in  that  direction.  Arrows  suspended  in 
divers  ways  speak  a  language  intelligible  to  the  nomad ;  but  nature  also  addresses 
him  in  a  multitude  of  ways,  which  he  interprets  with  astonishing  sagacity.  Signs 
meaningless  for  the  European  point  to  the  presence  of  game,  the  neighbourhood  of 
a  glade  or  running  water,  while  their  auperstition  sees  in  many  trifling  phenomena 
omens  for  good  or  evil,  for  luck  or  failure  in  the  chase.  Breaches  of  the  tra- 
ditional code  must  be  avoided.  In  difficult  moimtain  or  marshy  paths  silence  is 
religiously  observed,  and  libations  must  be  offered  to  the  evil  spirits,  should  the 
offering  cost  them  their  last  drop  of  brandy.  The  woman  in  labour  flees  to  the 
forest  and  is  confined  unaided,  at  the  risk  of  perishing  in  the  snow  or  rain.  The 
new-bom  infant  receives  the  name  of  the  first  stranger,  man  or  woman,  crossing  a 
burning  brand  at  the  threshold.  Usage  immemorial  also  requires  that  bodies  be 
not  buried,  but  exposed  on  the  branches  of  trees,  with  the  head  always  turned 
towards  the  west. 

Of  Mongol  appearance,  the  Tunguses,  with  their  round  features,  high  cheek 
bones,  and  ^mall  oblique  eyes,  are  distinguished  especially  by  the  square  form  of 
the  head.  Owing  to  their  active  habits  and  extreme  sobriety  they  are  generally 
thin  and  wiry  even  in  old  age,  gliding  swiftly  along  on  their  snow-shoes,  and  pass- 
ing like  a  flash  over  the  thin  ice,  where  the  heavy  Ostiak  would  not  dare  to  venture. 
They  are  fond  of  racing,  wrestling,  and  other  physical  exercises,  and  their 
impromptu  songs  are  always  accompanied  by  animated  gesture.  They  also  indulge 
in  the  dance  with  such  vigour,  and  even  frenzy,  that  spectators  of  other  races  are 
often  carried  away  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  moment  to  take  part  in  the  whirling 
motion.  Then  the  clownish  Ostiak,  bounding  round  with  bearish  step,  presents 
a  sorry  sight  by  the  side  of  the  nimble  Timgus,  with  his  graceful  and  noble  car- 
riage. These  nomads  are  also  noted,  amongst  all  Siberians  for  their  tasteful  and 
elegant  attire.  Those  of  the  Tunguska  especially  wear  a  costume  of  admirable 
g^race  and  lavish  splendour,  at  once  bold  in  design  and  displaying  an  astonishing 
perfection  in  the  details  of  its  embroidery  and  fringes.  Yet  any  other  native 
would  look  ridiculous  in  such  a  garb.  Surprising  resemblances  in  the  designs  of 
the  materials  seem  to  show  that  the  Tunguses  must  at  one  time  have  maintained 
constant  intercourse  with  Japan.  The  practice  of  wearing  armour  and  bucklers, 
formerly  so  conunon  throughout  Siberia,  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  ordinary 
weapon  is  now  the  palca,  a  long  shaft  terminating  with  a  sharp  blade,  on  which 
the  htmter  leans  in  guiding  his  sleigh.  The  tattoo  patterns  seen  on  many  faces 
caimot  compare  in  the  happy  disposition  of  the  lines  with  those  of  most  Polynesians. 
Amongst  the  women  the  chief  design  consists  of  four  parallel  curves  traced  on  both 


HJi LMLUl&j 


~rrt8a!ianmiE<iiBi(aMMii»— I 


860 


ASIATIC  EUS8IA. 


cheeks  from  the  corner  of  the  eyo  to  the  side  of  the  mouth,  with  transverse  lines 
outside  the  curves,  hearing  a  vague  resemblance  to  little  butterflies  with  folded 
wings. 

Since  the  time  of  Brand,  who  visited  Siberia  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  all  travellers  have  been  loud  in  their  praise  of  the  mental  qualities  of  the 
Tunguscs.  Full  of  animation  and  native  impulse,  always  cheerful  even  in  the  deepest 
misery,  holding  themselves  and  others  in  like  respect,  of  gentle  manners  and  poetic 
speech,  obliging  without  servility,  unaffectedly  proud,  scorning  falsehood,  and 
indifferent  to  suffering  and  death,  the  Tunguses  are  unquestionably  an  heroic  people. 
They  neither  exact  the  price  of  blood,  nor  do  they  practise  the  vendetta,  like  most 
barbarous  tribes.  But  in  accordance  with  the  code  of  chivalry  they  challenge  each 
other  to  mortal  combat,  and  their  meetings  are  regulated  with  a  scrupulous  cere- 
monial. Dwelling  in  the  same  climate  as  the  cimning  Yakut,  the  dull  Buriat  and 
profoundly  silent  Samoyede,  the  Tunguses  afford  a  striking  instance  of  the  per- 
sistence of  racial  traits  under  the  most  diverse  surroundings.  For  their  manner  of 
life  has  been  little  modified  by  contact  with  the  Russians.  Christians  in  appear- 
ance, they  have  preserved  their  religious  practices,  usages,  and  rude  freedom. 
"  Our  faith  bids  us  live  and  die  in  the  woods,"  they  say ;  and  so,  content  with  little 
and  extremely  temperate,  they  can  suffer  hunger  and  thirst  for  days  together 
imcomplainingly,  and  even  endure  the  privations  of  their  long  winters  with 
unabated  cheerfulness.  For  their  wants  one  animal,  the  reindeer,  one  tree,  the  birch, 
amply  suffice.  The  reindeer  gives  them  his  flesh  in  food,  his  skin  in  dress,  his 
sinews  and  entrails  as  thongs  and  cords,  his  bones  to  carve  into  implements  of  all 
sorts.  From  the  birch  comes  the  bark  wherewith  to  make  their  boxes,  baskets, 
cradles,  and  tents.  If  at  times  they  accompany  the  Russian  explorers  for  days  and 
weeks,  and  regularly  partake  of  their  meals,  in  this  they  do  but  comply  with  the 
national  custom,  which  makes  hospitality  the  first  of  duties,  and  permits  all  to  share 
alike  in  the  food  of  each.  Amongst  them  there  were  formerly  neither  rich  nor 
poor,  although  the  senue  of  property,  consisting  in  the  exclusive  right  to  hunt  in 
certain  districts,  hod  already  been  fully  developed.  But  now  each  family  has  its 
herd  of  reindeer,  and  its  credit,  or  rather  debt,  account  with  the  Russian  or  Yakut 
trader. 

Notwithstanding  their  buoyant  character  and  innate  force  of  resistance,  the 
Timguses,  hemmed  in,  so  to  say,  between  the  Russians  and  Yakuts,  are  threatened 
with  extinction  as  an  independent  nationality.  Although  their  numerous  offspring 
are  well  cared  for,  the  rate  of  mortality  is  very  high,  and  whole  families  are  at 
times  swept  away  by  small-pox,  measles,  scarlatina,  and  especially  famine,  their 
most  formidable  foe.  Always  exposed  to  this  danger,  they  speak  of  death  by  hunger 
with  remarkable  indifference,  as  if  such  an  evil  were  quite  in  the  natural  order. 
Of  the  former  camping  grounds  in  many  forests  nothing  is  now  to  be  seen  except 
the  remains  of  cabins  and  biers  suspended  between  two  boughs  a  few  yards  from  the 
ground.  The  Tungus  tribe,  which  opposed  the  longest  resistance  to  the  Russians, 
has  entirely  disappeared,  leoving  nothing  behind  except  its  name,  given  to  the 
village  of  Taseievskoye,  on  the  river  UsoUca,  north  of  Eansk. 


'.mij.. 


mmimmu 


w?^ 


runsverse  lines 
38  with  folded 

he  seventeenth 
[ualities  of  the 
1  in  the  deepest 
lers  and  poetic 
falsehood,  and 
I  heroic  people, 
ietta,  like  most 
challenge  each 
}rupulou8  cere- 
all  Biiriat  and 
ce  of  tho  per- 
heir  manner  of 
uns  in  appear- 
rude  freedom. 
Ltent  with  little 
days  together 
'  winters  with 
tree,  the  birch, 
n  in  dress,  his 
plements  of  all 
boxes,  baskets, 
rs  for  days  and 
)mply  with  the 
lite  all  to  share 
either  rich  nor 
ght  to  hunt  in 
family  has  its 
ssian  or  Yakut 

resistance,  the 
are  threatened 
erous  offspring 
families  are  at 
famine,  their 
sath  by  hunger 
natural  order, 
be  seen  except 
yards  from  the 
}  the  Russians, 
i,  given  to  the 


TOPOGEAPHY. 


Topography. 


861 


Their  geographicfll  position,  relatively  mild  climate,  and  fertile  soil  must  secure 
for  some  of  the  Yenisei  regions  an  important  future.  But  meantime  there  are  in 
this  basin  but  few  towns,  and,  with  the  exception  of  three  or  four,  even  these  are 
little  more  than  villages.  MinuHinsk,  lying  farthest  south,  and  centre  of  a  con- 
siderable trade  between  the  Upper  Yenisei  and  Mongolia,  had  4,000  inhabitants  in 
1863,  and  during  the  ten  following  years  this  number  had  not  increased  by  .000. 
It  is  well  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yenisei,  in  one  of  the  richest  mineral 
districts  in  Siberia.     Since  1835  the  tributary  streams  have  been  worked  for  gold, 

Fig.  189. — Bock  Ik8ciui>tiom  om  tuk  Bamkb  or  tui  Yimuu. 


of  which  about  8,776,000  roubles'  wwth  was  collected  between  1846  and  1869,  the 
present  mean  annual  yield  being  about  600,000  roubles.  The  lead  and  copper 
mines  of  the  neighbouring  mountains  have  not  been  utilised  since  the  abolition  of 
forced  labour,  the  attention  of  the  free  miners  being  directed  mainly  to  the  preciouis 
metal.  Nor  have  the  coal  beds  any  present  value,  owing  to  the  abundance  of  wood, 
the  few  industries,  and  lack  of  easy  communication.  The  salt  lakes  near  Minu- 
sinsk are  used  for  the  local  supply  alone,  and  the  iron  ores  are  worked  only  by  the 
Soyots,  the  produce  of  the  Urals  being  amply  sufficient  for  the  present  demands  of  the 
Russians  of  the  Yenisei.      But  in  certain  parts  of  these  highlands  there  is  not  a 

single  mountain  but  affords  ample  evidence  of  the  activity  of  the  ancient  native 
84 


v'iiiPiaHMRiiRnnmimcMnm'vmnt^'t^ff^ 


862 


ASIATIO  BUSSIA. 


miners.    In  the  Uba  valley,  north-east  of  Minusinsk,  there  occurs  a  block  of  native 
iron  weighing  over  1,700  lbs.,  which  Pullas  believes  to  be  of  meteoric  origin. 

The  village  of  Abakansk,  48  miles  below  Minusinsk,  was  an  important  strong- 
hold during  the  last  century,  before  the  foundation  of  Minusinsk.  Here  the  cliffs 
on  the  left  bank  are  covered  with  well-preserved  inscriptions,  two  in  Tatar,  and  all 
the  rest  in  Mongolian.  Hundreds  of  stone  tombs  disposed  in  twos  occupy  a  large 
space  in  the  neighbourhood.     Lower  down  another  rock,  near  the  village  of  Novo- 


Fig.  100. — RcaioN  or  thb  Ybniibi  Qold  Minii. 
8Mkla  1 : 1,000,000. 


"" 

|y|ll^piRKi|B^^pg^ 

i^m^i 

fi^HP 

iiBS^^S 

'iP^HlbH^HlP^slM 

^^Ph 

^^P 

nK^y^^H 

WM 

hh 

99 

SO' 

^^^^m 

n 

H 

BHtrflil^^^^^WMwiwHB? 

53 

HJHMJBBM^I^M 

HHfi 

IhS 

iffi^B^  1 

Kpb^B|^whB 

HD 

HR 

^^^Mm 

KH^s^ 

w 

J^^MS^'^MyJiHwIiHl 

te^^^^H 

H^^^H 

Ih 

nA< 

^^^ 

^KhmSi 

i 

ca 

scr 

H^^^9 

n 

m 

i^Mjii^aK^ 

& 

^HB^Vvll^^^^^lBiifEQRiAl^Ewx    **^dI^P^^^ 

^r\^'  iWiBfci 

^ 

i^^^P^^v* 

gg. 

94*                     t.  OTG 

,  90  UUm. 


selovo,  also  bears  ancient  writings,  and  a  cliff  on  the  banks  of  the  Sizim  is  inscribed 
with  hieroglyphics  representing  birds,  wild  beasts,  and  horsemen.  Another  rock 
on  the  Yenisei,  near  Krasnoyarsk,  is  covered  with  figures  of  men  painted  in  red. 

Krasnoyarsk,  or  the  "  Red  Cliff,"  capital  of  the  Yenisei  government,  stands  at 
the  foot  of  the  red  Afontova  escarpments,  on  a  peninsida  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Yenisei  and  Kacha.  Standing  on  a  navigable  river  where  it  is  crossed  by  the 
great  Siberian  highway,  and  forming  the  administrative  centre  of  a  vast  province, 
Krasnoyarsk  has  hod  a  rapid  development,  its  population  having  more  than  doubled 


^WT' 


■WMP 


block  of  native 
ic  ori(^n. 
portunt  strong^ 
Here  the  cliffs 
1  Tatur,  and  all 
occupy  a  large 
illage  of  Novo- 


^0 


:.^\ 


rim  is  inscribed 
Another  rock 

inted  in  red. 

tnent,  stands  at 

the  junction  of 
crossed  by  the 
vast  province, 

e  than  doubled 


TOPOOBAPUY. 


868 


since  the  middle  of  the  century.  It  is  the  largest  place  between  Tomsk  and 
Irkutsk,  but,  owing  to  its  bleak  climate,  is  avoided  by  travollors  in  winter.  Although 
the  neighbouring  coal  beds  are  not  worked,  it  is  the  chief  troding-pluco  for  all  the 
surrounding  mineral  districts.  In  the  vicinity  are  some  iron  and  sulphur  springs 
on  the  banks  of  the  Kachu. 

YfiiUeink,  though  taking  the  name  of  the  river,  ranks  only  as  the  second  place 
on  its  banks.  It  stands  on  the  left  side,  below  the  Upper  Tunguska  junction.  But 
this  advantageous  position  is  neutralised  by  the  fact  that  it  lies  almost  beyond  the 
zone  of  Russian  population,  in  the  midst  of  lakes  and  swumps,  on  u  low  ground 
often  covered  with  water  and  ice  during  the  thaw.  More  than  once  it  has  been 
threatened  with  complete  destruction.  During  the  last  century,  when  goods  were 
forwarded  mostly  bj'  water,  Yeniseisk  had  one  of  the  most  important  fairs  in 
Siberia  ;  but  the  current  of  trade  has  been  diverted  southwards  by  the  opening  of 
the  g^oat  overland  route.    Yeniseisk  stands  in  a  rich  iron  district,  and  fat  thcf  north 

Fig.  101.— From  Kuahnoyahbk  to  Kansk. 
SoUe  1 : 1,800,000. 


80 


the  stream  flowing  to  the  Yenisei  between  the  Upper  and  Mountain  Tunguska  are 
worked  for  gold.  Here  are  collected  over  two-thirds  of  all  the  gold  found  in  the 
Yeniseisk  government,  though  the  yield  of  late  years  has  fallen  off.*  Over  one- 
fourth  of  the  wretched  gold-washers  are  invalids,  and  of  the  16,000  hands  usually 
employed  about  1,000  yearly  attempt  to  escape.  The  districts  of  Kansk  and  Nijne- 
Udinsk,  watered  by  the  various  streams  flowing  irom.  the  highlands  between  the 
Yenisei  and  the  Angara,  are  also  auriferous,  and  the  salt  springs  north  of  Kansk 
yield  from  eleven  to  twelve  parts  pure  salt. 

North  of  Yeniseisk  we  enter  the  wilderness,  in  which  the  few  wretched  hamlet« 
fringing  the  river  banks  become  rarer  and  rarer  as  we  proceed  northwards.  Never- 
theless Turukhamk,  one  of  these  villages,  ranks  as  a  town,  wheret  he  officials, 
famished  almost  as  much  as  ^q  unhappy  exiles  themselves,  administer  the  a£Eair8 
of  the  nomad  Tungus,  Ostiak,  Samoyede,  and  Yakut  tribes,  and  the  few  settled 
traders  and  fishers  of  the  district.    Turukhanak,  capital  of  a  territory  with  scarcely 

"  Yield  of  gold  in  the  YeniseiBk  gOTernment  (187fi),  4,960,000  loubles;  hands  employed,  16,460. 


»«brIMK-:j?V-« 


86  i 


A8IATI0  RUSSIA. 


2,'200  Hottlwl  inhahituntH,  in  u  Hpuco  throe  tiinoH  the  hizo  of  Franco,  contuinH  of  itielf 
alone  over  ono-tifth  of  the  entire  ])opuIation.  ItM  little  houses  arc  scattered  over  an 
iHhtnd  ut  the  conHuenco  of  the  Turukhan  and  Yenisei,  hero  connnunicatinf^  with 
vast  tuiidrn  hikes.  A  harlmur,  a  few  stores  and  sheds,  await  the  trade  that  must 
some  day  bo  deveh)jKHl  l)etween  Kuro|)e  and  Siberia  by  the  Yenisei  ostuory.  Mean- 
while a  jjoltry  fair  attracts  the  Nunioyedes  and  Oatiaksuf  the  cxtronio  north  lietween 
the  Ob  and  Ticna.  The  severity  of  the  clinmto  and  tho  frozen  surface  have  hitherto 
prevented  the  workin)^  of  tho  vast  deposits  of  graphite  discovered  east  of  Turu- 
khansk,  liotween  tho  rivers  Turyoika  and  Nijnyaya  Tunguska.  Ono  alone  of  these 
bods  is  said  to  contain  at  least  200,000  tons  of  (graphite,  which  at  tho  London 
exhibition  of  1851  was  recognised  as  tho  best  in  tho  world. 

Near  the  small  port  of  Dundinka,  on  the  Lower  Yenisei,  recently  visited  by 
Nordonskjold,  thero  is  a  colony  of  skoptzi,  banished  from  Russia,  and  all  of  Finnish 
origin. 


THE  BAIKAL.ANOARA  BASIN. 

The  Selonga,  main  head-stream  of  the  Upper  Angara  basin,  rises,  like  the  Irtish 
and  Yenisei,  on  the  southern  slope  of  tho  mountains  skirting  the  Siberian  plains  on 
the  south,  and,  like  them,  it  escapes  northwards  through  a  gap  in  those  highlands. 
But  tho  Yenisei  falls  regularly  from  its  source  to  its  mouth  without  forming  any 
lacustrine  reservoir,  and  tho  Irtish  expands  only  in  the  shallow  depression  of  Lake 
Zaisan,  whereas  the  Self  nga  plunges  into  the  deep  trough  of  the  Baikal,  which  is 
completely  encircled  by  mountains.  Moreover,  the  Angara,  forming  the  outlet  of 
this  lake,  is  probably  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and  does  not  constitute  a 
direct  continuation  of  the  Selenga.  As  an  inland  Hja  Lake  Baikal  completely 
separates  the  Siberian  basin  which  drains  northwards  from  the  southern  region, 
which  has  received  the  name  of  Transbaikalia. 

The  mountains  rising  west  of  the  great  lake,  and  which  throw  o£f  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Selenga  southwards,  and  those  of  the  Angara  northwards,  belong  to 
the  Sayan  system,  itself  a  continuation  of  the  Altai'.  The  Ergik-targak  chain, 
forming  the  Russo-Chinese  frontier-line,  is  attached  to  the  Baikal  highlands  by  a 
group  of  lofty  summits,  which  rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  but  which 
were  none  the  loss  unknown  till  recently.  In  1832  Carl  Ritter  was  unaware  of 
their  existence,  and  although  the  chain  is  mentioned  by  Humboldt  under  the 
Mongolian  name  of  Mondorgon-ula,  it  is  by  him  confused  with  other  groups,  and 
reduced  to  one-third  of  its  true  elevation.  It  was  ascended  for  the  first  time  by  the 
naturalist  Radde  in  1859.  Here  the  Munku-sardik,  or  "  Silver  Mount,"  is  covered 
with  everlasting  snows  and  ice,  whereas  all  the  other  crests  are  bare  in  summer — a 
fact  that  can  only  be  explained  by  the  presence  of  a  warm  atmospheric  current 
blowing  from  the  west  towards  these  uplands.  The  Mongolians  never  ascend  the 
Silver  Mount,  always  stopping  at  the  place  of  worship  Ipng  at  the  foot  of  the 
southern  glacier.  Here  they  bathe  their  temples  in  the -rivulet  trickling  from 
the  glacier,  make  their  obeisance  several  times  before  the  invisible  genius  of  the 


I 


imma  i 


•^"mmrnmrn 


THE  BAIKAI.-ANOABA  BASIN 


mtainii  of  itself 
attcrcd  over  on 
iniicntiii)^  with 
rudo  that  must 
Htuary.   Moan- 

nurth  l)ctween 
D  have  hitherto 

cu»t  of  Turu- 
)  alono  of  these 
at  the  London 

ntly  visited  by 
loll  of  Finnish 


,  like  the  Irtish 
icrian  plains  on 
lose  highlands, 
ut  forming  any 
ression  of  Lake 
aikal,  which  is 
g  the  outlet  of 
ot  constitute  a 
kal  completely 
uthem  region, 

'  o£f  the  head- 
ards,  belong  to 
>targak  chain, 
lighlands  by  a 
ow,  but  which 
vas  unaware  of 
)ldt  under  the 
er  groups,  and 
rst  time  by  the 
nt,"  is  covered 
in  summer — a 
pheric  current 
ver  ascend  the 
he  foot  of  the 
trickling  from 
genius  of  the 


o 


o 

M 
r. 
o 

a« 

■a 
a 
H 


)A81N.                                       866 

■■■■■■■iV.'. 

1 

if 

1 

w^m. 

f 

i.  1" 

4'< 

si,," 

f.,  i';  ■ 

iHli^HBw 

i 

■  1 

J,  u[i 

*  rAv 

1 

t 

Hi 

"  6)Si 

f 

/■  f.^ 

wm*^. 

fi 

H^^.'     V''^     ' 

hJ 

2 

i' 

y  ^■••v  ,. 


mountain,  murmur  the  prescribed  orisons,  and  throw  a  few  drops  of  brandy  towards 
tihe  four  cardinal  points.    This  glacier,  the  only  one  on  the  Mongolian  side  of  the 


iyii!ip.'v»«!ft.     Ill" 


860 


ASIATIC  BUStilA. 


mountain,  cnvom  an  area  nf  atmut  4  nquaro  milon.  Hut  lui  tho  HilH*rian  nr  northern 
aide  tliuro  In  u  double  glacier  of  much  larger  Hize,  which  HcndH  itn  advanced  nioraineii 
2|  niilcH  from  the  crcHt,  damming  up  the  waters  tlowing  frcmi  the  blue  and  icy 
Lake  Yokhoi.  From  the  narrow  extremity  of  the  Munku-mirdik  tho  view  stretohoj 
west,  north,  and  eant  over  a  world  '<f  nrostii,  cragN,  and  w(K)dlan('  ,  v  the  rraxo 
in  lout  southwards  in  tho  bound leiw  region  of  tho  dcHcrt,  blending  ..  M.'i  »??'«tanoe 
with  the  sky.  Tho  blue  waters  of  the  great  Lake  Kosio  (KoNo-gol),  tho  large 
forosttt  (m  tho  lower  hIojh)  of  the  mountain,  contrast  with  tho  bright  rc<l  tints  of  t*  o 
bare  escarpments  and  the  snowy  peaks.  In  tho  middle  of  tho  lake,  which  stretches 
southwards  for  a  distance  of  about  70  miles  over  an  area  estimated  at  1,320  square 
miles,  the  eye  is  arrested  by  the  white  rocks  of  tho  Dalai-kui,  or  "  Navel  of  tho 
Sea,"  an  island  sacred  in  tho  eyes  of  all  liuddhists. 

Tho  pyramidal  Munku-sardik  forms  an  important  water-parting.  On  tho 
south-west  rise  various  streams  which,  from  afHuont  to  affluent,  ultimately  find 
thi'ir  way  to  tho  Ycfuisoi.  In  the  north-west  tho  river  Oka,  whoso  first  waters  ore 
collected  in  Lake  Yekhoi,  skirts  the  foot  of  tho  Ergik-targak  range,  thence  trend- 
ing north  and  north-eastwards  to  the  Angara,  and  forming  with  it  tho  Upper 
Tunguska.  In  tho  east  the  Liack  and  White  Irkut  also  rise  in  tho  neighbourhood 
of  tho  sacred  Mount  Nuku-daban,  whither  the  natives  bring  their  offerings  of  furs, 
bits  of  cloth,  gun  flints,  and  old  coins.  Lastly,  in  the  south  tho  head-streams  of  the 
Solenga  are  collected  in  the  great  reservoir  of  Lake  Eoso-gol.  But  the  streams 
flowing  in  these  various  directions  differ  greatly  in  volume,  the  annual  snow  and 
rain  fall  varying  considerably  according  to  the  aspect  of  tho  hills  and  the  atmospheric 
currents.  Thanks  to  the  deposits  of  graphite  discovered  by  Alibert  about  1850,  and 
lying  above  the  zone  of  forest  vegetation,  meteorological  observations  have  been  regu- 
larly taken  on  one  of  the  highest  points  of  these  highlands.  Alibert's  mine  con- 
tains many  thousand  tons  of  excellent  graphite,  already  well  known  to  artists,  and  now 
the  property  of  a  large  pencil  manufacturer  near  Nuremberg.  Unfortimately  the 
severity  of  the  climate  has  occasioned  the  temporary  abandonment  of  the  works. 

The  Tuxka  Highlands. 

To  the  same  orographic  system  belong  tho  mountains  stretching  eastwards  from 
the  Munku-sardik,  and  which  slope  down  to  the  banks  of  the  Irkut  near  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Baikal.  These  are  the  Qoltzi,  or  "  Treeless  Books  "  of 
Tunka,  north  of  which  other  parallel  chains  are  developed  between  the  Oka  and 
Angara  valleys.  The  Ooltzi  range  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Sayan 
highlands.  The  jagged  peaks  of  the  Goltzi  rise  pyramid  above  pyramid  north  of 
the  intervening  Irkut  valley,  south  of  which  tho  Sayan  range  is  developed  in  long 
rounded  crests.  Yet  both  are  composed  of  the  same  crystalline  and  palsoozoio 
rocks,  and  lava  streams  have  been  discharged  from  each.  Lava  beds  skirt  a  great 
part  of  the  Irkut  valley,  and  though  there  may  be  no  true  volcanic  cones  in  this 
region,  molten  rocks  have  been  erupted  in  the  Tunka  valley  near  Lake  Baikal,  as 
well  as  on  the  banks  of  the  Selenga  in  Transbaikalia.  I^eceived  as  to  the  character 
of  certain  so-called  trachyte  rocks,  many  travellers  have  exaggerated  the  impor- 


^■Wi 


TIIK  TUNKA  IIIOULANDS. 


M7 


1  or  northern 
cod  niorniiioM 
hluo  uiid  icy 
riow  stri'tchcj 
/;'.)'  the  «mj5o 
hit  »??i»»rinco 
>i..!  tho  large 
d  tints  of  >'  0 
lich  Htrotchofl 
1.320  square 
Navol  of  the 

ig.  On  the 
timately  find 
rnt  waters  are 
thonco  trond- 
it  the  Upper 
}ighbourhood 
•rings  of  furs, 
treams  of  the 
t  the  streams 
ual  snow  and 
B  atmospherio 
)ut  1850,  and 
vo  hoen  regu- 
t's  mine  con- 
tists,  and  now 
rtunately  the 
:he  works. 


ttiiicc  of  volcanic  action  in  thin  |mrt  of  RilKTin,  thoiip;}i  it  in  rctniirkiihlo  enough  that 
any  ignoouN  phenomena  nhoul(l  have  (K-curred  m  fur  from  tlm  Mca-foiiMf,  n«>ur  tlio 
groat  fronh-watcr  huMinHof  KakcH  Haikiil  and  KoHo-gui.  The  only  undoiihttMl  cniterH 
that  have  hero  \yot>n  dincoverwl  aro  the  two  "cuim"  in  the  Hayun  hi  'lilandn  alMmt 
the  noun!OH  of  the  Jun-buluk,  a  U>ft  tril)utary  of  the  Oku  near  the  ChiiieM)  frontier. 
Itining  415  feet  uIn>vo  a  plateau  itHolf  alM)ut  (i,('OU  feet  abovo  the;  Nca-level,  these 
heights  scorn  to  bo  of  nlight  ini|M)rtance  in  the  midst  of  thv  Hurrouiiding  numntainn ; 
but  the  lava  ntrouni  that  has  flowinl  from  tho  chief  crater  in  no  Ichm  than  12  :iiilos 
long.  Hugo  blocks  of  grunito  rurit  on  tho  bod,  which  seom  to  hIiow  that  it  dates 
from  the  pro-glacial  iwriod.  Earthquakes  occur  most  fro({ucntly,  and  with  tho 
greatest  violence,  in  tho  region  of  tho  Irkut,  Angara,  liuikal,  and  Muuku-sardik, 

Fig.    193.— MvNKU-tAHDIK   ANU   KaMAU-UAUAN. 
B«a«  1  :  8,000,000. 


.eoHiiM. 


stwards  from 
mt  near  the 
w  Books  "  of 
;he  Oka  and 
the  Sayan 
mid  north  of 
oped  in  long 
ad  paloeozoio 
skirt  a  great 
cones  in  this 
ke  Baikal,  as 
the  character 
1  the  impor- 


and  Irkutsk  itself  lies  in  the  chief  centre  of  seismic  action  in  Siberia,  as  Khojend 
does  in  that  of  Turkestan.  Great  subsidence  of  the  groimd  has  also  taken  place  in 
the  Selenga  and  Angara  valleys. 

The  Tunka  highlands  are  clothed  by  the  same  forest  vegetation  as  the  Sayan, 
and  both  systems  are  inhabited  by  the  some  animal  species.  But  the  lower  range 
skirting  the  Irkut  valley  on  the  south  differs  in  its  forest-clad  crests,  and  in  some 
features  of  its  geology  and  zoology,  from  the  Sayan.  With  it  begins  the  system  of 
the  Baikal,  which  develops  at  the  south-west  comer  of  the  lake  into  the  Kamar- 
daban,  highest  of  all  the  mountains  on  the  shores  of  the  Baikal.  It  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  7,100  feet,  and  is  covered  in  winter  with  vast  quantities  of  snow.* 


*  Various  altitudes  in  the  Munku-sardik  system,  according  to  iiadde  :— 

Feet 
Culminating  point  .        .         11,000  Alibert  Mine 

Base  of  the  SouUiem  ghicier  10,7fiO  Nuku-daban 

Upper  limit  of  flowering  plants  .        10,660  -  Lake  Koso-gol 

Upper  limit  of  forests  7,400 


Feet. 
7,460 
7,200 
4,470 


T 


868 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Lake  Baikal. 

The  heights  encircling  Lake  Baikal  have  a  mean  altitude  of  not  more  than 
from  3,000  to  4,000  feet.  Although  presenting  from  the  surface  of  the  water  the 
appearance  of  distinct  parallel  chains,  they  must  be  regarded  rather  as  forming 
part  of  the  hilly  plateau  whose  ridges  stretch  south-west  and  north-east  between 
the  Lena  and  Argun  basins.  The  lake  itself  partly  fills  two  cavities  in  the  plateau. 
For  it  really  forms  a  double  lake,  whose  two  nearly  equal  basins  were  formerly 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  chain,  of  which  the  large  island  of  Olkhon  on  the 
west  side,  and  the  "  Holyhead  "  promontory  on  the  east,  are  surviving  fragments. 
The  great  subsidence  of  the  land  that  has  here  taken  place  is  shown  by  sheer  cliffs 
continued  in  a  vertical  line  to  a  vast  depth  below  the  surface.     Most  savants 


Pig.  194. — Tm  "Cup"  at  thb  Source  op  the  Oka. 


^3;;^^ 


f?>'  -'^■\ 


^^^^ 


formerly  regarded  the  formation  of  the  lake  as  due  to  a  crevasse  of  volcanic  origin. 
But  a  geological  study  of  its  shores  has  proved  that  igneous  eruptions  have  had 
but  a  slight  effect  in  modifying  its  outlines.  No  lava  streams  have  been  discovered 
except  in  the  plain  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  lake,  north-west  of  the  Kamar- 
daban.  Nearly  all  the  hills  overlooking  its  waters  are  composed,  like  those  of  the 
southern  plateau,  of  coarse-grained  granites,  syenites,  crystalline  schists,  and 
porphyries,  alternating  here  and  there  with  old  chalks,  sandstonas,  and  very  thick 
beds  of  conglomerates. 

Lake  Baikal,  whose  name  is  probably  derived  from  the  Yakut  Bai-khai,  "  Rich" 
or  "  Fortunate  Sea,"  is  known  to  the  Mongolians  by  the  name  of  Dalai-nor,  or 
"  Holy  Sea,"  and  the  Russian  oettlers  themselves  give  it  the  same  title  (Sv'atoi/e 
More),  pretending  that  no  Christian  ha&  ever  perished  in  it  except  in  a  state  of 
mortal  sin.    But  all  alike,  Mongols,  Uriankhs,  Buriats,  and  Rusoians,  are  indig- 


LAKE  BAIKAL. 


869 


not  more  than 

i  the  water  the 

her  as  forming 

th-east  between 

3  in  the  plateau. 

were  formerly 

Olkhon  on  the 

ring  fragments. 

a  by  sheer  cliffs 

Most  savants 


volcanic  origin. 
}tions  have  had 
been  discovered 

of  the  Kamar- 
ike  those  of  the 
le  schists,  and 

and  very  thick 

u-khai,"Rich" 
)f  Dalai-nor,  or 
e  title  (^Sv'atoye 
)t  in  a  state  of 
itaoB,  are  indig- 


nant at  hearing  it  being  called  a  lake.  For  them  it  ia  a  fresh-water  sea,  equal 
almost  in  majesty  to  the  salt  ocean  itself.  The  fishermen  formerly  assured  Gmelin 
that  it  was  very  angry  at  being  called  "  lake,"  and  they  were  themselves  always 
carefid  to  speak  of  it  in  terms  of  marked  respect.  Thus  it  is  that  everywhere 
barbarous  peoples,  helpless  in  the  presence  of  the  unbridled  forces  of  nature,  have 
learned  to  fear  and  worship  them.  A  number  of  dangerous  reefs  are  regarded  as 
sacred,  and  when  the  wind  was  favourable  for  landing,  the  natives  were  formerly 
wont  to  come  and  offer  their  sacrifices.  One  of  these  holy  rocks  is  the  throne  of 
the  "  White  God,"  near  the  outlet  of  the  Angara.  But  the  most  hallowed  spot  is 
the  headland  projecting  from  the  east  coast,  and  terminating  with  the  cliffs  of  Cape 
Shaman,  rising  in  the  form  of  columns  or  rudely  fashioned  statues  some  150  feet 
above  the  surface.  In  the  eyes  of  the  Tunguses  these  rocks  are  gods,  rulers  of  the 
waters  that  bathe  their  feet,  protectors  of  the  birds  hovering  in  the  vast  cavity  of 
their  mouths. 

But  whether  sea  or  lake,  the  Baikal  is  the  largest  fresh- water  basin  in  Asia,  and 
in  most  of  the  popular  geographies  in  Bussia  it  still  ranks  as  the  first  lake  in  the 
world,  as  if  the  great  inland  seas  of  North  America  and  Central  Africa  had  not  yet 
been  discovered.  But  though  yielding  in  extent  to  these  vast  lacustrine  basins,  it 
surpasses  most  of  them  in  volume,*  for  it  is  of  prodigious  depth,  its  lowest  cavities 
reaching  far  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Even  close  in  shore,  at  the  foot  of  the  sheer 
cliffs,  it  is  over  330  feet  deep,  while  the  mean  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  850  feet,  and 
the  extreme,  as  determined  by  Dibowski  and  Godlewski  in  1876,  at  no  less  than 
4,550.  For  distances  of  several  miles  there  stretch  uniform  plains  3,950,  4,000,  and 
4,050  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  soimdings  have  recently  revealed  a  rocky 
ridge  over  3,300  feet  high,  running  parallel  to  the  Irkutsk  and  Transbaikal  shores, 
in  the  centre  of  the  basin,  which  is  thus  divided  into  two  secondary  depressions. 
Navigators  had  often  spoken  of  elevated  grounds  where  they  had  even  been  able  to 
cast  anchor  in  bad  weather.  But  no  credence  was  attached  to  these  reports  till 
Dibowski  and  Godlewski  showed  that  the  tradition  rested  on  actual  facts,  and  that 
there  is  a  depth  of  only  200  feet  above  the  sub-lacustrine  ridge.  Near  the  great 
cavities  rise  the  highest  coast  mountains,  so  that  here,  as  in  the  ocean,  the  depth  of 
water  corresponds,  as  a  rule,  with  the  elevation  of  the  shores.  The  water  is 
shallowest  and  the  land  least  abrupt  in  the  part  of  the  basin  to  the  north  of  the 
island  of  Olkhon  and  of  the  "  Holyhead  "  promontory,  and  the  depth  is  little  over 
200  feet  in  the  "  Little  Sea,"  as  the  gulf  is  called,  which  is  formed  by  the  island  of 

*  ComparatiTe  table  of  the  greut  fresh^water  lakes : — 


Ana. 

Extreme  Depth. 

HeuiDeptti. 

Anproximate 
Volame. 

BqlUlM. 

VMt. 

Feet. 

CnUo  KU. 

Baikal     . 

14,000 

«,6/S0 

860 

8,743 

Victoria  Nyaoza 

33,000 

— 

— 

— 

Tanganyika     . 

16,000 

— 

— 

— 

Superior  . 

32,000 

1,030 

600 

17,820 

Michigan . 

23,000 

860 

800 

6,130 

Huron     . 

22,000 

700 

230 

3,900 

Erie 

9,000 

200 

60 

369 

Ontario    . 

6,600 

600 

400  (i) 

1,944 

Gkneya    . 

S80 

1,100 

600 

87 

ippm 


U  il  Miib-tMuKMMNWJLManu 


J 


870 


ASIATIC  EUSSU. 


Olkhon  and  the  mainland.  Thanks  to  its  enormous  volume,  the  temperatura  of  the 
lake  is  very  uniform,  varying  at  the  surface  no  more  than  17°  Fahr.  throughout 
the  year. 

Notwithstanding  its  vast  size  and  volume,  the  present  lake  is  merely  a  remnant 
of  a  far  larger  basin.  The  steep  sides  and  more  sloping  beach  everywhere  show 
traces  of  former  and  higher  levels.  The  shingly  strand  that  occurs  at  intervals  all 
round  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  influents  shows  that  even  recently  the 
lake  was  ut  least  20  feet  higher  than  at  present.  But  in  still  more  remote  times  it 
was  much  larger,  communicating  with  the  old  lake  of  the  Irkut  valley  through  a 
channel  distinct  from  the  fissure  through  which  the  Angara  now  flows  to  the 
Yenisei.  The  portion  of  this  emissary  comprised  between  the  Baikal  and  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Irkut  was  formerly  a  mere  rivulet  flowing  to  the  Irkut,  and 
Beparated  by  a  sandstone  barrier  from  the  great  lake.  But  while  the  work  of 
erosion  was  going  on  north  of  this  barrier,  the  pressure  of  the  waters  of  the  basin 
was  acting  on  the  south,  till  a  time  came  when  an  opening  was  'effected  in  the 
rocks,  through  which  the  lake  made  its  way,  and  converted  the  Angara  into  one  of 

Fig.  195. — Depths  or  thb  Westbbm  Baikal. 


6Hnea.  -it  ,18  MM 

The  deptiu  are  represented  in  decuplei  of  tbeir  real  proportlona. 

the  great  rivers  of  the  world.  The  very  word  Angara  is  said  to  mean  in  Tungus 
"  water  escape,"  and  may  possibly  recall  the  sudden  outburst  through  the  fissure 
in  the  northern  edge  of  the  lake.  The  channel  was  gradually  enlarged  and 
deepened,  and  the  lake  thus  reduced  by  the  outflow  to  more  narrow  limits.  The 
difference  between  the  summer  end  winter  levels  scarcely  now  exceeds  3  or  4  feet, 
though  in  exceptional  years  the  floods  produced  by  the  melting  snows  cause  a  rising 
in  summer  of  from  6  to  7  feet.  These  slight  va.iations  of  level,  as  compared  with 
those  of  Maggiore  and  other  Alpine  lakes,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  inundations 
of  the  Selenga,  Barguzin,  Upper  Angara,  and  a  hundred  other  influents  have  time 
to  subside  before  reaching  the  common  reservoir,  while  they  receive  less  sedi- 
mentary matter  than  the  Alpine  lakes.  Hence  the  water  is  far  more  transparent 
than  that  of  Maggiore  or  Geneva.  The  smallest  pebble  is  perfectly  visible  3Jj  feet 
below  the  surface,  while  the  largo  rockti  tiisappear  from  sight  only  at  depths  of  50 
or  52  feet.  Even  after  heavy  rains  the  water  remains  clear  near  the  strand  and 
the  rivulets. 

To  the  samo  absence  of  alluvia  from  the  surrounding  granitic  valleys  is  due  the 
sharpness  of  outline  presented  by  the  angles  and  crests  of  the  coast  hills.     The 


erature  of  the 
r.  throughout 

ely  a  remnant 
ry^here  show 
,t  intervals  all 
.  recently  the 
emote  times  it 
ley  through  a 
■  flows  to  the 
il  and  its  con- 
xe  Irkut,  and 
»  the  work  of 
's  of  the  basin 
fEected  in  the 
ira  into  one  of 


24 


80 


»an  in  Tungus 
gh  the  fissure 
enlarged  and 
V  limits.  The 
ds  3  or  4  feet, 
cause  a  rising 
ompared  with 
le  inundations 
»nts  have  time 
sive  less  sedi- 
re  transparent 
visible  3'H  feet 
depths  of  60 
he  strand  and 

eys  is  due  the 
St  hills.    The 


w 


LAKE  BAIKAL. 


871 


shores  still  seem  to  preserve  their  original  architecture,  and  the  view  of  the  steep 
cliffs,  for  unknown  ages  resisting  the  erosive  action  of  the  water,  seems  to  carry  us 
back  thousands  of  centuries  to  a  stil!  more  primitive  state.  Yet  there  is  no  absolute 
lack  of  recent  formations,  especially  towards  the  shallow  northern  extremity  of  the 
basin.  Here  the  Upper  Angara  and  some  neighbouring  streams  unite  in  a  common 
marshy  delta,  separated  from  the  open  water  by  lines  of  dunes  from  6  to  30  feet 
high,  and  mostly  overgrown  vith  thickets  of  trailing  pines  and  other  timber.  In 
the  southern  basin  the  Selenga  delta  also  breaks  the  old  coast-line  by  its  alluvial 
deposits. 

The  clifEs  assume  their  grandest  and  most  picturesque  appearance  along  the 
western  shores,  and  especially  between  the  island  of  Olkhon  and  the  outlet  of  the 
Angara.  Here  the  irregular  tower-shaped  headlands  rise  from  700  to  1,000  feet 
above  the  surface,  clothed  here  and  there  with  pines  and  shrubs.  Between  these 
wave-beaten  and  grottoed  headlands  the  strata  of  the  softer  formations  have  partly 
fallen  in,  revealing  through  their  openings  the  amphitheatre  of  the  riverain  ranges 
towering  above  the  terraced  plateaux.  But,  in  spite  of  their  majesty,  these  land- 
scapes seldom  fail  to  produce  a  depressing  effect  on  the  traveller.  No  dwellings, 
no  cultivated  lands,  nothing  is  anywhere  visible  except  savage  nature  and  the 
wilderness.  As  we  skirt  its  desolate  shores  the  aspect  of  the  hills  undergoes  little 
change,  headland  succeeding  headland,  rocky  inlet  to  rocky  inlet,  in  endless  mono- 
tony, the  scene  changing  so  slightly  that  ive  seem  to  be  still  in  the  same  place. 
The  forests  covering  the  slopes  and  narrow  strips  of  shore  consist  exclusively  of 
pines,  firs,  the  larch,  and  other  Siberian  species.  Nowhere  do  we  meet  the  ash, 
the  elm,  or  oak,  whose  abimdant  foliage,  varied  tints,  and  majestic  forms  impart 
such  a  charm  to  the  scenery  in  the  "West.  The  dull  and  monotonous  green  of  the 
pine  becomes  in  the  end  as  depressing  as  the  blackish  crags  themselves,  rusted  in 
the  distance  by  the  red  blossom  and  brown  stems  of  the  rhododendron.  The  poplar 
bahamifera  alone,  with  its  green  branches  resembling  those  of  the  walnut,  recalls 
the  leafy  trees  of  Europe. 

Lake  Baikal  is  too  vast  to  be  perceptibly  affected  by  its  tributaries ;  hence  the 
surface  waters  drift  from  shore  to  shore  entirely  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
atmospheric  currents.  The  general  movement  towards  the  south-west,  spoken  of  by 
Hess,  lasts  only  d  iring  the  prevalence  of  the  polar  wind,  which,  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  lake,  is  called  barguzin,  because  it  seemB  to  come  from  the  bay  to 
which  the  river  Barguzin  flows.  The  contrary  wind,  blowing  from  the  west  and 
south-west,  takes  the  name  of  kuUuk,  from  the  village  standing  at  the  western 
angle  of  the  lake.  Besides  these  more  prevalent  winds,  sudden  squalls  and  storms 
sweep  down  through  the  valleys  and  side  gorges,  frequently  changing  the  direction 
of  the  waves,  or  raising  streaks  of  surface  foam  across  the  heavy  ground  swell. 

Lake  Baikal  freezes  regularly  in  winter  from  about  the  end  of  November  to  the 
month  of  May.  ,  But  fierce  gales  often  break  its  icy  fetters.  Even  when  frozen 
throughout  to  the  normal  thickness  of  from  4  to  5  feet,  and  crossed  without  danger 
by  swift  postal  sleighs,  the  crust  never  ceases  to  heave  with  the  liquid  mass  sup- 
porting it.     The  traveller  hears  the  mufQed  sound  of  the  waters  rolling  beneath 


872 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


their  solid  roof,  and  producing  a  slow  wavy  motion.  At  times  a  sudden  shock 
causes  the  ice  to  vibrate  with  a  metallic  sound,  or  to  break  into  long  narrow  fissures 
cleared  by  the  trained  horses  at  a  bovid.  It  is  probably  through  these  temporary 
rents  that  the  air  penetrates  to  the  deep,  enabling  the  fishes  and  seals  to  live 
through  the  long  winter  in  the  ice-bound  waters. 

To  the  winter  frosts  succeed  the  fogs  of  spring  and  summer.  When  the  cold 
water,  liberated  by  the  storms  from  the  crust  separating  it  from  the  air,  begins 
freely  to  diffuse  its  vapours  throughout  space,  the  lake  immediately  becomes  like  a 
vast  seething  caldron.  Every  morning  in  spring  it  is  covered  by  a  dense  haze, 
which,  in  the  afternoon,  is  dissipated  with  the  increased  temperature  of  the  surface 
waters.  For  the  same  reason  the  atmosphere  again  becomes  bright  about  the 
end  of  summer  and  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  temperature  of  the  waters 
approaches,  and  at  last  even  surpasses,  that  of  the  air. 

The  Baikal  fauna  is  relatively  poor  in  distinct  species.  The  lack  of  alluvial 
lands  on  the  coast,  and  the  rapid  fall  of  the  cliflj  into  depths  of  several  himdred 
yards,  have  prevented  the  development  of  Crustacea  and  other  in-shore  animals. 
Aquatic  birds  are  consequently  also  somewhat  rare.  Few  birds  arc  seen  in  summer 
besides  the  fishing  cormorants  and  flocks  of  mews,  one  species  of  which  is  elsewhere 
imknown  except  in  Iceland  and  West  Europe.  But  in  spring  and  autumn  the 
surrounding  woodlands  are  temporarily  enlivened  by  flights  of  birds  of  passage 
migrating  to  and  fro  between  Central  Asia  and  Siberia.  The  lake  abounds  chiefly 
in  varieties  of  the  sturgeon  and  salmon,  especially  the  so-called  omul  species.  But 
the  myriads  of  fishes  spoken  of  by  Pallas  and  other  early  travellers  as  ascending 
from  the  lake  have  disappeared,  and  so  great  is  the  destruction  of  spawn  by  the 
fishermen  that  whole  species  are  threatened  with  extinction,  unless  measures  be 
taken  for  their  preservation.  Some  have  already  disappeared  at  some  unknown 
period,  and  are  now  found  only  in  the  Little  Frolika,  or  "  Trout  Lake,"  the  Dava- 
chanda  amut  of  the  Tunguses,  situated  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  great 
basin.  This  reservoir  is  extremely  deep,  and  aboimds  in  trout,  which  have  not  yet 
been  found  either  in  Lake  Baikal  or  in  any  of  its  tributarus,  and  in  its  fauna  are 
included  many  other  peculiar  species  of  fish,  xuo  seals  are  not  evenly  distributed 
over  the  whole  of  Lake  Baikal,  being  mainly  confined  to  the  west  coast.  In  summer 
they  are  met  chiefly  on  the  east  side  of  Olkhon  Isleud,  whereas  in  autumn  they 
frequent  the  southern  shores  between  the  Barguzin  and  Selenga  Rivers.  Whether 
belonging  to  the  oceanic  fauna  or  altogether  to  a  peculiar  species,  they  are  tmdis- 
tinguishable  from  the  Phoca  foetida  of  Spitzbergen.  Being  eagerly  pursued  for 
their  skins,  sold  at  large  profits  to  the  Chinese  traders,  they  seldom  show  themselves 
above  the  surface,  nor  do  they  swarm  on  the  beach  like  those  of  the  polar  seas,  but 
bring  forth  their  young  on  ice  floes. 

An  inland  sea,  where  fishing  is  decajring,  where  there  are  no  villages  or  any 
centres  of  industry,  is  naturally  but  li/tle  navigated.  The  first  steamer  seen  in 
Siberia  was  no  doubt  launched  on  its  waters  in  1844,  but  only  for  the  local  service 
between  the  Irkutsk  coast  and  the  Selenga  delta.  All  the  trade  of  the  lake  is 
concentrated    in    this  comer,  through  which    travellers  and   mei'chandise  are 


mm 


sudden  shock 
narrow  fissures 
lese  temporary 
d  seals  to  live 

When  the  cold 
the  air,  begins 
becomes  like  a 
'  a  dense  haze, 
!  of  the  surface 
ght  about  the 
of  the  waters 

ack  of  alluvial 
(veral  hundred 
-shore  animals, 
leen  in  summer 
ch  is  elsewhere 
id  autumn  the 
rds  of  passage 
ibounds  chiefly 
'  species.  But 
*s  as  ascending 
:  spawn  by  the 
38  measures  be 
K>me  unknown 
ke,''  the  Data- 
y  of  the  great 
ih  have  not  yet 
n  its  f  atma  are 
nly  distributed 
t.  In  summer 
n  autimin  they 
ers.  Whether 
;hey  are  imdis* 
ly  pursued  for 
low  themselves 
polar  seas,  but 

irillageB  or  any 
earner  seen  in 
le  local  service 
of  the  lake  is 
ji'chandise  are 


THP  ANGAEA  WATEE  SYSTEM. 


978 


wm 


forwarded  from  Siberia  to  China  and  the  Amur  basin.  Before  the  introduction 
of  steam,  the  sailing  vessels,  buffeted  by  the  winds  or  lost  in  the  fogs,  often  took 
over  a  fortnight  to  make  the  passage  of  about  60  miles  across  the  lake.  During 
the  time  intervening  between  the  open  navigation  and  sleighing  the  traders  follow 
the  land  route  roimd  the  western  extremity  of  the  lake,  along  the  foot  of  the 
Eamar-daban  range. 

Lake  Baikal  drains  a  region  estimated  at  about  128,000  square  miles,  of  which 
the  Selenga  basin  in  Mongolia  and  Transbaikalia  comprises  at  least  two- thirds. 
The  semicircle  formed  by  the  contour  of  this  basin,  a  vast  plain  covered  with  a 
brown  and  porous  poi-phyry  resembling  lava  in  appearance,  is  no  less  than  1,530 
miles  in  circumference.  Here  the  main  stream,  which  rises  in  Lake  Koso-gol,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Munku-sardik,  and  which,  after  receiving  various  names,  at  last  takes  that 
of  the  Selenga,  describes  a  large  curve  some  660  miles  long.  This  river  is  navigable 
for  flat-bottomed  boats  throughout  its  lower  course  below  the  junction  of  the 
Orkhon,  and  the  Eiakhta  dealers  make  use  of  it  to  forward  their  teas.  Thus  from 
the  Chinese  frontier  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  for  a  distance  of  over  2,700  miles,  an 
uninterrupted  navigable  waterway  may  be  followed  from  the  Selenga  to  Lake 
Baikal,  and  thence  through  the  Angara  and  Yenisei  to  the  sea.  The  Selenga 
receives  some  large  tributaries,  notably  the  Ijda  from  Transbaikalia,  whose  broad 
valley,  descending  from  the  Stanovoi  range,  begins  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
Amur.  The  alluvial  plain  formed  by  the  Selenga  at  its  mouth  skirts  the  shores 
of  the  lake  for  a  distance  of  over  18  miles,  and  here  the  river  ramifies  into  eight 
or  ten  branches,  varying  in  relative  importance  according  to  the  erosions  and 
floods.     Recently  the  surface  of  the  delta  subsided  over  a  considerable  space. 

TiiE  Angara  Water  System. 

The  Selenga,  the  Barguzin,  and  the  Yerkhnaya  Angara,  traversing  the  moun- 
tainous country  of  the  Timguses,  jointly  with  other  smaller  affluents  and  the  rains, 
discharge  an  excess  of  water  into  the  lake,  which  is  carried  off  by  the  Angara, 
one  of  the  great  rivers  of  Asia,  with  a  volume  of  certainly  not  less  than  105,000 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Emerging  fr(>m  *i  wide  bay;  whose  shores  are  covered 
with  larch  groves,  its  seething  waters  encircle  tLe  "Shaman  Rock,"  and  flow 
rapidly  thro  .;•,  i  a  bed  falling  from  20  to  3''i  inches  in  the  mile,  beyond  which  ihey 
are  joined  by  the  Irkut,  Euda,  Eitoi,  and  Bieleya,  without  appearing  to  be  greatly 
swollen  by  these  affluents.  So  swift  is  the  curreiit  that  its  deep  blue  and  almost 
black  waters  sweep  by  the  cliffs  of  Irkutsk  after  its  tributaries  have  been  covered 
with  a  thick  crust  of  ice.  Long  after  the  iutenseiy  cold  winter  has  sot  in  the 
stream  remains  free  from  floes,  but  is  wrapped  in  a  densi.  fog  almost  concealing 
the  liurface  from  view.  The  Angara  begins  to  freeze  only  after  the  glass  has 
stood  at  —  20"  Fahr.  for  several  days ;  but  then  it  becomes  ice-bound  so  rapidly  that 
it  may  be  safely  crossed  in  twelve  hours  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  crystals. 
At  the  break-up  the  floating  masses  are  dashed  violently  against  the  still  frozen 
crust  of  the  more  placid  stream  lower  down,  and  are  accumulated  at  the  entrance 


874 


ASIATIC  BU8SIA. 


I  I 


of  tlie  gorges,  where  they  are  ut  times  heaped  up  over  130  feet  above  the  surface. 
"When  these  masses  give  way  they  are  carried  down,  together  with  fragments  of 
rock  torn  from  the  clifis  along  the  banks  of  the  river. 


mm"^ 


INHABITANTS-TEE  BUEIATS. 


876 


Fig. 


197> — Rapidb  of  the  A>oaba. 
Soale  1 ;  870,000. 


ove  the  surface, 
th  fragments  of 


Of  the  defiles  the  most  famous  is  that  in  which  the  stream  descends  in  rapids, 
and  even  forms  amidst  the  reefs  veritable  falls  avoided  by  ordinary  craft.  For  a 
space  of  over  40  miles  below  the  Oka  confluence  the  Angara,  henceforth  known 
as  the  Yerkhnaya  Tung^ska,  rushes  between 
itn  granite  and  syenite  walls  over  a 
series  of  nine  rapids.  Here  the  continu- 
ous uproar  produced  by  the  waves  dash- 
ing against  the  rocky  islets  is  heard  at  a 
distance  of  several  miles.  Yet  these  rapids 
are  safely  run  by  the  steamers,  the  fury  and 
din  of  the  angry  waters  merely  causing  a 
passing  feeling  of  excitement  amongst  the 
passengers.  Below  the  confluence  of  the 
Him  the ,  Angara  flows  through  another 
gorge,  whose  serpentine  and  basalt,  sides 
rise  some  600  feet  above  the  surface.  These 
are  its  last  escarpments,  although  beyond 
them  the  stream,  unable  to  pierce  the 
1  orthem  plateau,  is  deflected  westwards  to 
its  junction  with  the  Yenisei.  Not  far  from 
the  confluence  it  receives  the  large  river 
Chuna,  which  drains  a  vast  basin  watered  by 
the  auriferous  torrents  f rojm  the  Sayan  high- 
lands. Amongst  the  tributaries  of  the  An- 
gara are  also  some  "  salt "  rivers,  orA  even 
in  one  of  its  islands,  about  40  miles  below 
the  Irkutsk,  several  salt  springs  flow  from 
rock-j  everywhere  surrounded  by  fresh  water. 
Many  coal-fields  are  also  embedded  in  its 
rocky  sides,  forming  a  reserve  of  future 
wealth  for  this  region. 

Inhabitants — The  Buriats.  ■ 

As  on  the  Yenisei,  the  Russians  are  the 
dominant  element  in  the  Selenga  valley,  on 
Lake  Baikal,  and  along  the  banks  of  the 
Angara.     But  many  forest  tracts  are  still  exclusively  occupied  by  the  Buriats  and 
Txmguses,  from  the  latter  of  whom  the  Angara  takes  one  of  its  names. 

These  two  indigenous  peoples  present  a  remarkable  contrast  to  each  other. 
The  Timgus  is  brave,  cheerful,  modest,  respectful,  and  upright,  whereas  the  Buriat 
is  generally  timid,  peevish,  rude,  impassive,  treacherous,  and  especially  lazy,  more 
80  even  than  the  tarbagan,  from  which  animal  he  steals  in  winter  its  store  of 
roots  concealed  in  its  burrows.     His  broad  features,  with  their  high  cheek  bones,   ' 


ao  Miles. 


87(1 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


are  aeldoin  lit  up  with  a  bright  open  expresflion.  He  rarely  opens  wide  his  small, 
slant  eyes,  while  his  thick  lips  protrude  beyond  a  broad  snub  nose.  Most  of  the 
Buriata  arc  robust  and  broad-shouldered,  but  inclined  to  stoutness,  awkward,  and  of 
heavy  carriage,  like  their  Mongolian  kinsmen.  Their  besetting  sin  is  intemperance, 
and,  as  they  are  unable  to  resist  the  action  of  alcohols  so  well  as  the  Eussians, 
a  glass  even  of  the  weakest  brandy,  or  a  few  draughts  of  fermented  milk,  suffice 
to  completely  upset  them.  AVhen  not  compelled  by  poverty  to  dispense  with  all 
household  comforts,  and  dress  in  rags  or  the  rude  skins  bequeathed  to  him  by  his 
elders,  the  Buriat  is  fond  of  display.  Hugs  are  spread  on  the  floor,  or  hung  on 
the  walls  of  his  hut ;  he  decks  himself  in  a  silken  robe  fastened  by  a  girdle,  in 
which  he  sticks  his  pipe  and  teacup.  His  wives  and  children  wear  embroidered 
garments,  adorned  with  metal,  and  the  horsehair  tufts  hanging  on  the  breast  are 
interlaced  with  mother-of-pearl  beads,  gold  coins,  bits  of  malachite,  and  silver 
fringes. 

Like  their  Kalmuk  brethren,  of  Mongol  stock,  and  near  the  Chinese  frontier 
entirely  assimilated  to  the  Mongolian  nomads,  the  Hunm,  or  "  Men,"  as  the 
Buriats  call  themselves,  speak  various  Mongolian  dialects,  and  their  civilisation, 
such  as  it  is,  has  evidently  come,  and  still  comes,  from  the  south.  The  men  shave 
thoir  heads  and  wear  the  Chinese  pig-tail.  The  lettered  classes  have  various 
religious  books  translated  from  Tibetan,  Mongolian,  and  Tangut,  and  their 
religious  practices  differ  in  no  respect  from  those  of  the  Buddhists  beyond  the 
frontier.  They  have  also  their  lamas  dressed  in  red  robes,  with  yellow  head- 
dresses and  party-coloured  girdles,  and  they  are  fond  of  processions,  musical  fdtes, 
and  frequent  ceremonial  gatherings.  There  is  scarcely  a  single  Buriat  family  in 
Transbaikalia  without  at  least  one  priest,  and,  as  a  rule,  every  third  son  "  enters 
the  church."  On  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  especially  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Irkutsk,  the  Buriats  have  become  Russified,  and  thousands  of  them  have  even 
accepted  baptism.  The  two  races  have  also  become  to  some  extent  intermingled, 
so  that  while  the  Buriats  were  becoming  Russians,  the  opposite  process  was  also 
going  on.  In  many  villages  it  is  diffictilt  to  trace  the  true  origin  of  the  people, 
especially  as  both  Cossacks  and  Buriats  speak  both  langiiages.  In  the  villages 
the  peasantry  are  proud  of  speaking  Mongolian,  just  as  in  the  towns  the  civilised 
Russian  parades  his  knowledge  of  French.  In  the  Baikal  basin  the  Buriats  are 
found  in  the  purest  state  probably  in  the  island  of  Olkhon,  where  they  are  seldom 
visited  by  travellers  or  traders. 

The  Tungus  is  a  hunter,  whereas  the  Buriat,  coming  from  the  Mongolian 
steppes,  is  above  all  a  stock-breeder,  though  also  a  fisher  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes. 
Like  the  £almuk,  he  uses  the  ox  for  riding,  but,  imlike  him,  prefers  the  horse,  and 
the  animals  of  this  race  are  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  in  Siberia,  not  for  their 
beauty,  but  for  their  marvellous  powers  of  abstinence  and  endurance.  The  Buriat 
horses  cover  30  or  even  60  miles  at  a  trot,  without  eating  or  drinking,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  journey  seem  still  fresh.  In  winter  it  is  usual  to  expose  the  horse 
during  the  night  in  a  perfectly  open  court,  and  thus  accustom  him  to  intense  cold, 
which  would  soon  destroy  horses  of  any  other  breed.     The  Buriats  highly  value 


Mil 


I  wide  his  small, 
le.  Most  of  the 
awkward,  and  of 
is  intemperance, 
as  the  Russians, 
tied  milk,  suffice 
dispense  with  all 
ed  to  him  by  his 
loor,  or  hung  on 
1  by  a  girdle,  in 
'ear  embroidered 
a  the  breast  are 
ohite,  and  silver 

Chinese  frontier 
"Men,"  as  the 
;heir  civilisation. 
The  men  shave 
ses  have  various 
agut,   and  their 
bists  beyond  the 
th  yellow  head- 
as,  musical  fStes, 
Buriat  family  in 
bird  son  "  enters 
le  neighbourhood 
them  have  even 
nt  intermingled, 
process  was  also 
in  of  the  people. 
In  the  villages 
wns  the  civilised 
the  Buriats  are 
they  are  seldom 

the  Mongolian 
ores  of  the  lakes, 
rs  the  horse,  and 
ria,  not  for  their 
ice.  The  Buriat 
king,  and  at  the 
jxpose  the  horse 
a  to  intense  cold, 
iats  highly  value 


INHABITANTS-THB  BURIATS. 


877 


these  inseparable  companions,  which  bear  them  so  swiftly  over  the  steppe  and 
through  the  forest,  and  from  long-established  usage  they  never  kill  and 
eat  the  saddle  horse,  but  those  only  which  have  never  been  used  as  moimts. 
According  to  religious  tradition  the  riding  horse  must  accompany  his  master  on 
his  long  journey  beyond  the  tomb.  But  care  is  taken  to  cheat  the  Deity  by  sub- 
stituting an  old  broken-down  hack,  or  tethering  a  young  steed  to  the  grave  with 
a  slight  string  easily  broken.  Thus  the  terrified  animal  easily  snaps  his  bonds 
and  trots  off  to  join  the  herd.  "  We  have  given  him  to  God ;  God  has  given  him 
back  to  us !"  is  the  excuse  for  the  pious  fraud.  In  some  districts  the  Buriats  have 
also  learnt  from  the  Russians  the  art  of  hay-making  and  tilling  the  land,  and  in  the 
government  of  Irkutsk  they  have  even  become  more  skilful  husbandmen  than  their 
teachers.  They  manure  and  irrigate  the  land  more  regularly,  and  own  more  live 
stock.  In  industrious  habits  they  are  surpassed  only  by  the  Raskolnik  colonists,  the 
most  intelligent  and  laborious  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Siberia. 

In  the  direction  of  the  Tunguses  the. territory  occupied  by  the  Buriats  is  sharply 
defined.  To  the  Tunguses  belongs  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake  Baikal,  whereas 
the  rest  of  the  lake,  from  Olkhon  Island  and  the  Sacred  Headland  to  the  Gulf  of 
Eultuk,  is  Buriat  domain.  The  Buriats  are  divided  into  tribes,  named  mostly  from 
the  district  occupied  by  them,  and  subdivided  into  aimaks,  each  with  its  prince 
(tahha)  and  elders,  forming  and  governing  itself  according  to  its  own  usages. 
Some  of  the  aimaks  have  formed  confederacies,  which  hold  assemblies  in  the  forest 
glades,  or  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes,  to  discuss  their  conunon  interests.  The  Govern- 
ment abstains  from  interfering  in  their  local  affairs  and  differences,  except  in  the 
case  of  disputes  between  the  tribal  chiefs.  No  recruits  have  hitherto  been  raised 
amongst  them,  and  although  strips  of  the  vast  domain  ceded  to  them  by 
Catherine  II.  "  for  ever  "  are  from  time  to  time  appropriated  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Russian  settlers,  there  still  remains  more  than  they  can  cultivate. 

Proceeding  from  north  to  south,  the  Buriat  Shamanism  merges  by  imperceptible 
stages  in  Buddhism.  The  influence  of  Russian  orthodoxy  has  also  made  itself  felt, 
especially  by  the  introduction  into  the  Buriat  pantheon  of  the  legendary  St.  Nicholas, 
whose  myth  corresponds  exactly  with  that  of  the  Mongolian  Tsagan  Ubukgun,  or 
"  Old  Man  in  White."  Hence  the  image  of  the  latter  is  worshipped  by  the  Rus- 
sians themselves,  just  as  the  Buriats  bring  their  offerings  for  St.  Nicholas  to  the 
Russian  churches.  Although  very  religious,  the  Northern  Buriats  have  but  a  small 
nimaber  of  shamans,  being  too  poor  to  support  them ;  but  they  do  not  fail  them- 
selves to  perform  all  the  prescribed  rites  before  their  household  gods  woven  in 
camel-hair,  and  before  the  divinities  of  the  headlands  and  sacred  rocks  on  the  lakes, 
streams,  and  springs,  conciliating  the  good  and  evil  genii  by  offerings  of  furs, 
ribbons,  mirrors,  or  horsehair.  In  the  world  in  which  they  live  every  object  seems 
alive,  looking  down  on  them,  listening  to  their  prayers,  animated  by  friendly  or 
hostile  feelings  towards  them.  Hence  the  Buriat  passes  with  a  sort  of  awe  by 
these  formidable  rocks,  springs,  or  woodlands.  For  at  times  a  single  word  or  any 
unseemly  laughter  was  sufficient  to  rouse  their  anger  and  stir  up  the  sleeping 

storm. 

2S 


nil*" 


^^I 


II 


I  ; 


876 


A8UTI0  RUSSIA. 


The  BuriiitH  woro  long  known  by  fho  numo  of  HriitNkiyo,  or  "  Brotherly," 
givon  to  thoni  by  tho  Sil)oriiin  coloni.stH,  doubtloMH  through  un  uniutcntionul  phiy  of 
wordH.  Tho  fort  nuHod  for  their  reduction  ut  tho  coiifluoiico  of  iho  Angurii  und 
Oku,  und  which  bus  Hinco  bocoinu  a  suiull  town,  Htill  beurin  tlio  numo  of  HratNkiy- 
ostrog.  But  for  tho  luHt  two  conturioH  the  Buriutn,  who  nuinl)er  iiltogethtu"  alM>ut 
250,000  (114,000  in  IrkutHk,  and  130,000  in  Transbuikulia),  liuvo  given  up  all 
idea  of  revolting,  and  aro  now  rckoned  amongst  tho  mont  peaceful  Hubjocts  of  the 
Czar.  They  had  at  one  time  even  to  endure  a  police  admini§tration  of  extreme 
rigour.  In  virtue  of  the  conventions  Higncd  betw(!en  China  and  HuHsia  limiting 
tho  frontiers  of  the  two  empires  in  1727  and  1708,  the  grea^.nf  precautions  had 
been  taken  to  prevent  the  migration  of  tho  nomads  from  ono  tenf'i.jiy  to  the  other. 
It  thus  happened  that  the  regulations  had  to  be  most  strictly  enforced  in  the 
Buriat  and  Mon(X()l  districts,  in  consequence  of  the  commercial  relations  carried  on 
across  the  frontier  of  Maimachin.  Tho  intermediate  neutral  zone  varied  in  width 
from  6  to  .36  miles  according  to  tho  niihiro  of  tho  country,  and  pillars  were  set  up 
as  landmarks  all  along  the  lino.  This  lino  had  to  be  daily  visited  by  tho  resjicctivo 
frontier  guards,  and  wherever  any  truces  of  trespassers  were  detected  tho  sjwt  was 
carefully  surrounded  by  stones  or  sods,  in  order  to  presorvo  this  pnjof  of  guilt  until 
the  culprits  woro  denounced  and  punished.  Wherever  tho  frontier  was  croosed  by- 
streams,  atukos  were  planted  on  either  side,  between  which  were  stretched  horsehair 
ropes  from  bank  to  bank.  Thus  no  one  could  cross  tho  line  under  pretence  that  he 
had  not  perceived  it.  These  regulations  wore  strictly  observed  till  1852,  but  since 
then  tho  ropes  have  been  neglected,  tho  imperial  seal  attached  to  the  posts  has  been 
broken,  and  most  of  the  landmarks  have  disappeared.  Twice  a  year  some  Cossack 
horsemen  still  ride  up  to  the  Mongolian  stations,  with  their  passports  consisting  of 
tablets  which  correspond  exuctly  mth  other  bits  of  wood  taken  by  the  Mongolians 
from  the  same  block.  The  two  pieces  are  fitted  together,  and,  when  all  is  found  to 
be  right,  Cossacks  and  Mongols  salute  each  other,  and  with  mutual  blessings  drink 
copious  libations  to  the  glory  of  their  respective  sovereigns. 

Topography. 

The  city  which  guards  the  frontier  in  the  Selenga  basin  has  long  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  with  China.  In  1728,  after  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  two  empires,  the  two  factories  of  the  Bussiau  and  Chinese  traders 
were  founded  at  a  distance  of  G50  feet  from  each  other.  In  the  south  was  Mai-mei- 
chen  (MaimacMn),  or  the  "  Chinese  Mart ;  "  in  the  north  Kiakhta,  commanded  by 
the  fortified  Cossaok  station.  Between  the  two,  although  both  are  built  of  wood, 
the  contrast  is  complete,  and  it  would  be  elsewhere  difficult  to  find  a  more  striking 
instance  of  diversity  in  tho  appearance  of  two  neighbouring  towns.  Eiakhta 
resembles  the  elegant  quarter  of  a  European  city,  and  its  principal  church,  sur- 
mounted by  a  bright  dome,  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Siberia.  Maimachin  looks  inore 
like  a  suburb  of  Pekrn,  but  much  better  kept  than  the  other  towns  in  the  northern 
provinces  of  China.     The  doors  are  covered  with  carvings,  and  strips  of  red  paper 


?<!m. 


or  "Brothorly," 
tcutiunul  piny  of 
*'io  An^rti  uiul 
lino  of  MratHkiy- 
iiltogothor  alM)ut 
vo  jrivou  up  ull 
1  Hubjocta  of  tho 
itiou  of  oxtromo 

Hussiu  limitin}^; 

precautions  hud 
'jty  to  the  other. 

enforced  in  tho 
ationa  carried  on 

varied  in  width 
Ihirs  were  sot  up 
l)y  the  respective 
;t(^d  the  8|)ot  was 
M)i  of  f^uilt  until 
r  was  croosod  by 
•etched  horsehair 

pretence  that  ho 
1  1852,  but  since 
lie  posts  has  been 
)ar  some  Cossack 
)rt8  consisting  of 

the  Mongolians 
m  all  is  found  to 
1  blessings  drink 


long  enjoyed  a 
<n  of  a  treaty  of 
1  Chinese  traders 
ith  was  Mai-mei- 
,  commanded  by 
e  built  of  wood, 

a  more  striking 
:owns.  Eiakhta 
pal  church,  sur- 
ichin  looks  inore 

in  the  northern 
ips  of  red  paper 


TOPOOBArUY. 


879 


arc  pnstcil  on  the  wuUn.  Singing  birds  are  kept  in  ull  tho  houscN,  and  little  1m>1Ih 
chiming  in  the  wind  hung  frr)m  tho  upturno<l  corners  of  thi<  roof.  In  thi»  inter- 
vening space  between  the  two  towns  the  Chinese  have  (IiMi)<>Hed  large  planks  in  tho 
form  of  a  screen,  to  protect  their  dwellings  from  the  luiluful  influences  of  the  Ilus- 
siun  atmosphere,  and  on  this  screen  was  formerly  painted  tho  churacter  meaning 
"  good  luck."  Thus  every  noxious  breath  from  Kiakhta  ond  every  profane  expres- 
sion uttered  by  the  Russians  was  stopped  half-way,  and  driven  back  to  the  dosort. 
A  "  pigeon  "  trading  jargon,  which  is  neither  Chinese  nor  Russian,  has  sprung  up 
in  this  frontier  emporium  between  the  Chinoso,  or  Nikoudzi,  and  the  Russians,  or 
0-lo-lo-seh. 

The  prosperity  of  Eiakhta  and  Muimachin  has  greatly  varied  with  the  political 
vicissitudes.  All  trade  has  at  times  been  interrupted  for  years,  but  tho  enonnous 
profits  of  tho  monopoly  enabled  the  Kiukhta  dealers  soon  to  recover  their  former 
opulence.  China,  which  sells  to  Russia  much  more  than  it  buys,  exported  ut  first 
nothing  but  gold,  silver,  rhuburb,  and  silks.  Rut  tea  gradually  Wumo  tho  staple 
of  her  export  trade,  and  the  Russians  long  boasted  of  enjoying  the  best  tea  in  tho 
world,  thanks  to  tho  "  Eiakhta  Caravan,"  which  took  eighteen  months  to  reach  the 
Nijni-Novgorod  fair  from  the  Chinese  frontier.  '"lie  first-class  teas  brought  to 
Eiakhta,  and  which  the  high  officials  and  guc  the  dealers  are  privileged  to 

taste,  have  undoubtedly  uu  exquisite  flavour.  Tin  ,  come  directly  from  tho  planta- 
tions where  the  very  best  crops  are  raised,  and  these  plantations  are  owned  by  tho 
Ruspon  dealers  themselves.  But  adulteration  g^es  on  all  along  tho  line  of  tho 
great  overland  route,  at  first  at  Irkutsk,  then  at  Tomsk  and  Nijni-Novgorod,  and 
lastly  at  Moscow.  The  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  of  1858,  in  any  case,  put  an  end  to  the 
commercial  monopoly  of  Eiakhta,  and  at  the  Nijni-Novgorod  fair  in  1880  the  tea 
from  that  quarter  represented  no  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  whole  amount  disposed 
of.  At  present  Russia  receives  by  sea  and  from  foreign  countries  most  of  the  pro- 
duce she  formerly  imported  directly  from  China  through  Maimaohin.  Other  routes 
have  also  been  opened  towards  Pekin  and  the  Yang-tse-kiang  at  various  points  of 
the  frontier,  and  especially  through  Eobdo,  so  that  the  trade  is  no  longer  obliged  to 
stop  before  the  mystic  screen  of  Maimachin.  Yet,  though  the  exchanges  of  Eiakhta 
have  consequently  considerably  fallen  off,  it  still  does  a  large  trade  of  a  miscel- 
laneous character,  and  the  fairs  of  the  "  white  month  " — that  is,  of  February — are 
much  frequented  by  the  Chinese  and  Mongolians.  Including  the  neighbouring 
town  of  Tro'itzko-savsk,  lying  over  a  mile  to  the  north,  and  the  residence  of  most 
of  the  officials,  Eiakhta  is  the  most  populous  place  in  Transbaikalia,  and  the  richest 
in  all  East  Siberia.  On  the  Selenga  is  its  port  of  Ust- Kiakhta,  or  "Eiakhta 
Mouth,"  so  named  from  the  rivulet  which  here  joins  the  main  stream.* 

The  two  towns  of  Seknginak,  "  Old "  and  "  New,"  lying  at  a  short  distance 
from  each  other,  have  not  the  importance  which  might  be  supposed  to  attach  to  the 
central  towns  of  such  a  large  basin  as  that  of  the  Selenga.  But  the  surrounding 
d^jtricts  are  unproductive  except  along  the  banks  of  the  auriferous  Chikoi.     Vast 

•  Average  yearly  trade  of  Kiakhta:— 1824— 30, 13,680,460  roubles;  1880— 49, 13,313,410  roubles; 
1849—69,  13,313,410  rouble*.    Trade  of  Eiakhta  and  the  Amur  district  in  1872,  10,840,000  roubles. 


aMfeW!M:.'-Uiw 


A8IATI0  RUSSIA. 


inu'.tH  conHiHt  of  nandy  und  solino  Htoppon,  nomo  of  whose  lukoa  uro  ovon  brackish. 
Houth-wPHt  of  hktlengiiiMk,  lu'ur  the  south  Hide  of  the  Ho-called  "  Oo«"kj  I^uke,"  stands 
the  chief  tonipU*  of  the  Buriuts,  in  which  resides  the  Khunilw  uia,  with  us  inany 
an  two  hundre<l  monks,  under  the  direct  authority  of  a  pries'  f  Urga.  Klephunt 
tusks,  huge  shells  from  the  Indian  Ocean  used  us  holy-wuter  fonts,  tiger  and  leopard 
skins,  beur  evidence  to  the  constant  relations  formerly  maintained  between  the 
Ikikul  lumas  and  Huddhists  of  India  through  Tilwt. 

Next  to  Kittkhta  the  chief  town  in  Transbaikalia  is  Verkhnye-UJimk,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Uda  und  Selenga,  navigable  for  steamers  to  this  point.  It«  port 
on  Lake  Buikul  is  the  village  of  Potohkoye,  whose  houses  cluster  round  a  wealthy 
monastery  west  of  the  river  mouths.  None  of  the  villages  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Baikal  have  yet  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town.  Litttenichnaya,  on  the  gulf  at 
the  Angara  outlet,  is  a  landing  station  for  the  pcoj  1'>  of  Irkutsk ;  Kultuk,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  the  lake,  is  a  small  fishing  ha\  i>'a ;  und  Dush-kachan,  at  the 
north  end,  is  another  little  \Ktrt,  where  the  Tungusos  come  to  pay  their  tribute  in 
peltry.  Turka,  on  the  east  coast  over  aguiiist  Olkhon  Island,  is  a  mere  thermal 
station  with  sulphur  and  iron  springs,  utilised  by  a  few  invalids  from  Irkutsk. 
Baryuzin,  lying  on  the  river  of  like  name  and  at  some  distance  from  the  east  coast, 
is  important  only  as  the  capital  of  a  district.  Tuiika,  in  the  valley  of  the  Irkut,  is 
a  largo  straggling  village,  whose  houses  are  scattered  over  a  vast  space  in  the  midst 
of  fields  and  meadows. 

Irkutsk,  capital  of  East  Siberia,  and  probably  tho  largest  city  in  Asiatic  Russia 
north  of  Tashkend,  does  not  stand  on  the  river  Irkut,  as  its  name  might  imply. 
No  doubt  a  peltry  '  \ctory  was  established  on  the  Angara  at  the  junction  of  the 
Irkut  in  1652,  nine  years  after  the  &<Bcovery  of  the  former  river.  But  in  1669  the 
trading  station  was  removed  to  the  other  side,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ushakovka 
rivulet,  and  here  was  rapi-lly  devi  loped  ,  o'ty  which  now  covers  a  space  of  several 
square  miles.  When  Gmelin  vtau  t!  it  v'  1735  Irkutsk  had  already  a  population 
of  6,500,  composed,  however,  n^  •-':M:y  of  officials,  soldiers,  traders,  servants,  with 
scarcely  any  wome^.  Hence  ;  >  imilies  could  be  founded,  and  the  population  had 
to  be  constantly  recruited  with  iresh  elements.  The  mortality  has  at  all  times  been 
higher  than  the  birth  .  te,  but  in  winter  the  place  is  crowded  with  thousands  of 
gold-seekers  from  the  surrounding  upland  valleys.* 

The  town,  with  its  broad  straight  streets  lined  by  old  houses,  has  no  remarkable 
monuments.  It  boasts  of  possessing  the  oldest  building  in  all  Siberia,  but  this  is 
merely  the  fragment  of  a  fort  on  which  is  legible  the  date  1661.  On  a  triumphal 
arch  erected  in  1858  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Aigun  is  inscribed  the 
haughty  legend, "  Road  to  the  Great  Ocean  " — words,  however,  justified  by  conquest. 
A  section  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society,  founded  here  in  1869,  publishes 
important  memoirs ;  but  some  of  its  most  precious  documents  have  perished  in  a 
recent  fire,  which  at  the  same  time  destroyed  a  large  part  of  the  town.     Irkutsk  is 

•  Population  of  Irkutsk  in  1838,  16,669;  in  1867,  23,989.    Ezc«aa  of  mortality  botr-  ^—67, 

1,426.  Immigntion  lame  period,  8,846.  Population  in  1876, 3!i,614,  of  whom  12,870  were  ofitvialt,  loldierB, 
priests,  monks,  conTicto,  and  servants. 


I  L<von  bnickuh. 
K)  I^ke,"  itanda 
a,  with  us  inony 
Jrgn.  Klepbunt 
igor  and  loupard 
>od  betwoon  the 


e-Ut/iiuk,  at  the 

point.     It«  port 

■ound  a  woalthy 

shores  of  Lake 

,  on  the  gulf  at 

;  Kultuk,  at  the 

ih-kachan,  at  the 

their  tribute  in 

a  mere  thermal 

I  from  Irkutsk. 

1  the  east  coast, 

of  the  Irkut,  is 

ooe  in  the  midst 

1  Asiatic  Russia 
le  might  imply, 
junction  of  the 
But  in  1669  the 
the  TJshakovka 
space  of  several 
Ay  a  population 
,  servants,  vrith 
population  hod 
it  all  times  been 
th  thousands  of 


s  no  remarkable 
teria,  but  this  is 
On  a  triumphal 
is  inscribed  the 
ied  by  conquest. 
1860,  publishes 
e  perished  in  a 
wa.     Irkutsk  is 


3re  ofitiiialt,  wldiert, 


mm 


Mtawsfa 


MM 


-.-  II  Ml  I       "■'^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


■A£12.8 

I4J  ■■■ 

lit  1^ 

m  m 

*o    "2.0 


2.2 


IL25  II  1.4 


m  m 


1.6 


Hiotograi^c 

Sciences 

Corporalion 


A 


^:<Sf 


-^ 


/. 


^ 


73  WfST  MAIN  STRMT 

WIBSTIR,N.Y.  USM 

(716)872-4S03 


n ;  ,',A^';ix  'X^^fts;,.':;^  ,^;g:::ss3sf'Mai<ssasM^^3^»t-i| 


IHaiiW-'4;«%M-nUtt:kf'  1. 


^- 


;«^«a«itt*!»»W»'. 


«' 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHM/ICMH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


m 

,s.i 


Canadian  Inttituta  for  Historical  Microraproductions  /  Institut  Canadian  da  microraproductions  liistoriquas 


■iHiiiiiiii  II  III  ,1111. ML  iijjw  ■  II!  jjwyjai,,wiiiiijM^jii,>myi»i4,wiii«ffl 


r::. 


% 
^ 


"#■ 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


881 


an  industrial  centre,  and  the  number  of  its  factories,  amongst  which  distilleries,  as 
in  the  rest  of  the  empire,  hold  a  prominent  position,  has  been  rapidly  augmented. 
A  porcelain  and  faience  manufactory,  supplied  with  clays  of  excellent  quality,  has 
been  established  in  the  district,  and  its  products  are  exported  to  Transbaikalia. 
Various  smaller  induslries,  started  by  Polish  exiles,  have  largely  contributed  to  the 
progress  of  Irkutsk  and  East  Siberia.  But  the  city  is  distinguished  especially  as 
an  intellectual  centre  above  all  other  Siberian  towns.     Its  inhabitants  .study  much. 

Fig.    198.— POFVLATIOMB  OV  THK  IbKUTSK  OoTEBNHBNT. 
Aooofding  to  ChiidoTikr.   Scale  1 :  U,70(^00a 


Bnaiaiu.  Tkknta.  Bnriata.  Tnngaaw.  KangaoM. 


discuss  the  current  events  and  ideas,  and  at  times  betray  symptoms  of  opposition 
with  which  the  Government  will  have  to  reckon.  Here  is  published  the  only 
independent  periodical  in  Siberia. 

So  thinly  peopled  is  the  country  that  for  900  miles  below  Irkutsk  there  are  no- 
towns  on  the  Angara,  although  the  village  of  Balagansk  is  dignified  with  the 
name.  The  only  town  in  the  whole  basin  at  a  distance  from  the  main  stream  is 
N\jne-  Udinsk,  on  the  Uda  and  on  the  great  route  to  Moscow,  in  the  centre  of  a 


w^ 


i||Kl/.ii»(H]|W« 


882 


ASIATIC  KUSSIA. 


gold-washing  and  iron-mining  region,  of  which  it  is  the  entrepot.  More  than  half 
of  the  province  is  still  altogether  uninhabited,  and  elsewhere  the  various  ethnical 
groups  of  Russians,  Buriats,  Tunguses,  Tatars,  and  Earagasses  are  scattered  in 
isolated  communities  over  the  land.  Goitre  is  a  very  prevalent  affection  in  certain 
parts  of  the  Irkutsk  government,  especially  those  watered  by  the  Lena.  Compared 
with  the  whole  population,  the  sufferers  represent  scarcely  more  than  1  per  cent,  of 
the  inhabitants,  but  iix  some  districts  the  proportion  is  as  high  as  one-tenth,  while 
in  certain  villages  it  rises  to  a  third  and  even  one-half  of  the  peasantry.  All  these 
cretins  are  of  Russian  descent,  the  non-Slav  native  elements  never  being  attacked. 
The  cause  of  this  immunity  must  be  attributed,  not  to  any  ethnical  privilege,  but  to 
the  care  taken  by  the  Buriats  and  Tunguses  to  avoid  the  districts  where  the 
malady  is  endemic.  Even  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Irkutsk  a  magnificent  valley, 
one  of  the  most  fertile  and  best  sheltered  from  cold  winds  in  the  whole  province, 
the  Russians  were  surprised  to  find  completely  deserted,  and  hastened  to  settle  in  it. 
llcnce  all  the  villages  here  bear  Russian  names,  and  form,  so  to  say,  a  sort  of 
linguistic  as  well  as  a  pathological  enclave  in  the  midst  of  the  surrounding  popula- 
tions.    Hero  goitre  is  very  common. 


v.— BASIN  OF  TttE  LENA— SHORES  OF  THE  ARCTIC  OCEAN. 

East  of  the  Yenisei  several  important  rivers  take  their  rise  in  the  uplands  limited 
northwards  by  the  basin  of  the  Nijnyaya  Tunguska,  and  flow  thence  in  a  winding 
course  through  the  tundra  solitudes  to  large  estuaries  on  the  Frozen  Ocean,  These 
streams,  and  the  lakes  traversed  by  them,  are  as  yet  known  only  in  their  main 
features,  although  they  have  been  visited  for  over  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  by 
hunters  and  the  officials  to  whom  Ostiaks,  Samoyedes,  Tunguses,  and  Yakuts  are 
obliged  to  pay  their  tribute  of  peltries.  The  few  natives  of  the  country  are 
designated  mainly  by  the  names  of  these  rivers,  whose  frozen  surfaces  are  used  by 
them  as  highways  during  the  winter  season.  Hence  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the 
Pyasina  or  Pyasida,  Taimira,  Balakhna,  Anabara,  Khatanga,  and  its  tributary,  the 
Boganida,  in  early  Siberian  records.  But  although  many  of  these  rivers  are  over 
600  miles  long,  their  economic  value  may  be  regarded  as  of  no  account.  The 
official  returns  give  less  than  500  inhabitants  to  the  vast  basins  of  the  Pyasina  and 
Ehatanga,  belonging  to  the  Yenisei  government,  and  the  Russian  "  vnllages " 
figuring  on  the  maps  are  merely  clusters  of  two  or  three  zimoviije,  or  winter  cabins, 
with  an  average  of  from  five  to  ten  occupants  each.  Khatangskoye,  on  the 
Ehatanga,  capital  of  all  this  region,  consisted  in  1865  of  a  chapel  and  five  cabins, 
inhabited  by  nine  persons.  Ehculd  navigation  ever  be  developed  on  the  Arctic  sea- 
board, some  new  centres  of  population  will  certainly  spring  up  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ehatanga,  whose  fiord,  180  miles  long,  offers  an  excellent  haven,  in  which  the  first 
explorers  of  the  polar  seas  found  refuge.  A  comparison  of  the  earlier  charts  with 
that  drawn  up  by  Bove,  of  the  Nordenskjold  ex^)edition,  shows  how  little  was  known 
of  the  Taimir  region,  notwithstanding  Middendorff's  survey  and  the  voyages  of  the 
peltry  traders.     The  different  charts  show  discrepancies  of  several  degrees. 


± 


BASIN  OP  THE  LENA— SHORES  OF  THE  AECTIC  OCEAN. 


888 


are  thun  half 
iou8  ethnical 
scattered  in 
on  in  certain 
.     Compared 
I  per  cent,  of 
-tenth,  while 
y.     All  these 
ing  attacked, 
vilege,  but  to 
ts  where  the 
ificent  valley, 
lole  province, 
to  settle  in  it. 
Hiy,  a  sort  of 
iding  popula- 


OCEAN. 

plands  limited 
5  in  a  winding 
Dcean.     These 
in  their  main 
fifty  years  by 
d  Yakuts  are 
e  country  are 
ee  are  used  by 
:urrence  of  the 
tributary,  the 
rivers  are  over 
tccount.      The 
le  Pyasina  and 
an  "  villages  " 
winter  cabins, 
skoyc,  on   the 
nd  five  cabins, 
the  Arctic  sea- 
e  banks  of  the 
which  the  first 
ier  charts  with 
ttle  was  known 
voyages  of  the 
egrees. 


The  Olenyok,  whose  lower  course  flows  for  over  5°  of  latitude  jjurallel  with  the 
Lena,  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  Siberia  next  to  the  Ob,  Yoni«ei,  Lena,  and 
Amii  With  its  windings  it  is  no  less  than  1,200  miles  long,  and  empties  into  the 
sea  through  a  mouth  6  miles  wide,  and  from  20  to  24  feet  deep,  offering  a  good 

>;  ;'  J         Kg.  199. — Coast  ok  the  Taimib  Peninsula. 

,  Soale  1 :  6,1100,000. 


OldCoiut-liiie. 

Cout  anrrered  by  Palander. 


Bciate  of  the  Vrga  and  T.»iut. 
Probable  Coatt-Une. 


120  Miles. 


harbour  immediately  west  of  the  low-lying  peninsula  formed  by  the  alluvia  of  the 
Lena.  Explored  throughout  most  of  its  course  by  Czekanowski  and  Miiller  in 
1874,  this  river  is  not  merely  a  waterway  traversing  the  tundra,  and  fringed  here 
and  there  by  dwarf  shrubs.     For  it  rises  in  the  middle  of  a  forest  region,  and  it 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


carries  seawards  numbers  of  trees,  which  are  stranded  on  the  shores  of  the  large 
islands  and  mainland.  Besides  timber  the  Olcnyok  valley  also  abounds  in  mineral 
wealth,  as  well  as  naphtha  springs  and  fishes  in  great  variety.  The  camping  grounds 
of  fishers  and  hunters  are  more  numerous  on  its  banks  than  on  the  western  rivers 
flowing  through  the  frozen  peninsula  of  Taimir.  There  is  even  a  true  villogo,  that 
of  Bolkalak,  or  Ust-Olenskoye,  on  its  estuary.  Here  were  found,  in  186!],  sixty- 
two  half-castes  descended  from  Yakut  women  and  Russian  exiles,  who  had 
completely  forgotten  their  Slav  mother  tongue.  On  the  right  1»»>nk,  over  against 
Bolkalak,  Anjou  found,  in  1822,  the  traces  of  the  encampment  where  the  membero 
of  the  Pronchishchev  expedition  passed  the  winter  of  1737,  and  the  graves  where 
most  of  them   were  buried.      The  observations  made  by   MuUer  on   terrestrial 


Fig.  200.— Old  Lakb  travekbbd  by  thb  Vitim. 
AocordioR  4o  KropotUn.    Scale  1 : 1,666,000. 


S4MUN. 


magnetism  during  his  Olenyok  expedition  have  shown  that  the  pole  of  magnetic 
intensity  lies  approximately  between  the  64th  and  6dth  parallels,  and  about  114° 
east  longitude  between  the  Olenyok  and  Vilfii. 

The  Lena  and  its  Inhabitants. 

The  Lena,  rival  of  the  Ob  and  Yenisei  in  volume,  and  the  most  copious  river  in 
East  Siberia,  belongs  entirely  to  the  basin  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  does  not  rise, 
like  the  Irtish,  Yenisei,  and  Selenga,  south  of  the  ranges  bordering  the  Mongolian 
plateau ;  hence  it  has  no  deep  defiles  to  pass  through  in  order  to  reach  the  Siberian 
plains.  Its  basin  is  connected  with  that  of  the  Angara  by  a  depression  which 
seems  to  have  been  formerly  traversed  by  a  large  river.  But  at  present  its  first 
head-streams  rise  at  a  relatively  slight  elevation  above  the  sea,  the  highest  crests  of 
the  Baikal  coast  range  whence  they  flow  having  an  altitude  of  no  more  than  from 
3,000  to  4,000  feet.  Nevertheless  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Lena  are  very  picturesque. 
Its  narrow  stream  here  flows  at  first  between  schist  formations,  succeeded  at 


■MVM 


•mr 


of  tho  large 
Is  in  mineral 
ping  grounds 
restem  rivers 
i  village,  that 
186;i,  sixty- 
BB,  who  had 
,  over  against 
the  membero 
graves  where 
m  terrestrial 


le  of  magnetic 
ttd  about  114° 


iopious  river  in 
;  does  not  rise, 
the  Mongolian 
ch  the  Siberian 
spression  which 
)re8ent  its  first 
ighest  crests  of 
aore  than  from 
3ry  picturesque. 
I,  succeeded  at 


THE  LENA  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS.  Mf 

Kachuga  by  red  sandstones,  belonging  probably  to  the  Permian  system.  The 
steep  rocks  rise  from  200  to  300  feet  above  the  current,  tenninating  in  jagged  and 
crenellated  crests.  Those  cliffs  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  the  advanced  Hpurs  of  a 
lofty  range,  but  when  ascended  they  are  found  to  form  merely  the  edge  of  an 
almost  level  plateau.  While  those  on  the  left  bank  are  almost  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion, the  recesses  and  terraces  of  those  on  the  opposite  side  are  overgrown  with  leafy 
trees  and  conifers.  Between  these  steep  and  rocky  walls  the  stream  flows  rapidly, 
but  is  everywhere  navigable  below  the  village  of  Kachuga,  some  96  miles  from  its 
source.  North  of  the  sandstone  fonnations  begins  the  so-called  "  Cheek  Defile," 
where  the  swift  current  of  the  Lena  is  commanded  by  chalk  cliffs  100  feet  high, 
and  pierced  with  grottoes.  Here  the  river  is  no  less  than  70  feet  deep,  but  navi- 
gation is  endangered  by  its  abrupt  windings,  reefs,  and  rapid  flow.  One  of  the 
rocks  in  this  defile  is  the  chief  divinity  of  the  surrounding  Buriats. 

Farther  down  the  volume  of  the  Lena  is  doubled,  and  its  width  increased  to 
1,400  feet  by  its  junction  with  the  Vitim.  Of  the  two  rivers  the  latter  is,  in  fact, 
the  larger,  both  in  length  and  volume,  flowing  as  it  does  from  a  region  more 
exposed  to  the  moist  monsoons  of  the  Pacific*  But  its  course  being  more  irregular 
and  less  suited  for  navigation,  the  Lena  was  naturally  regarded  by  the  riverain 
population  as  the  main  branch.  The  Yitim  rises  east  of  Lake  Baikal,  in  the  hilly 
plateau  stretching  from  this  lake  to  the  Yablonoi  highlands,  and  crossed  by  parallel 
ridges  nmning  north-east  and  south-west.  The  river  and  its  numerous  head- 
streams  flow  at  first  in  the  depressions  of  the  plateau,  and  then  unite  in  a  common 
stream  through  fissures  opened  transversely  between  the  intervening  ridges.  Even 
where  the  Vitim  has  assumed  the  aspect  of  a  large  river  the  main  valley  and  those 
of  its  affluents  alternately  follow  the  normal'  direction  of  the  plateau  from  south- 
west to  north-east,  while  the  side  valleys  run  south-east  and  north-west.  Owing  to 
its  sharp  windings  and  swift  current,  the  Yitim  remains  imnavigable  till  it  has 
passed  the  falls  by  which  its  course  is  interrupted,  about  340  miles  above  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Lena.  The  depressions  which  it  traverses  were  formerly  filled  by 
terraced  lakes,  most  of  which  have  been  successively  replaced  by  alluvial  plains. 
Some,  however,  still  remain,  notably  the  great  T^ake  Oron,  connected  with  the  Vitim 
by  a  short  emissary.  West  of  the  main  < '  \am  travellers  have  had  to  cross 
extensive  lava  beds  stretching  in  the  direction  c '  Lake  Baikal,  and  one  of  which  is 
no  less  than  70  miles  long. 

Below  the  peninsula  formed  by  their  confluence  the  united  streams  flow  between 
low  banks,  here  and  there  still  interrupted  by  sandstone  and  chalk  cliffs,  rising  in 
some  places  160  feet  and  upwards,  and  reflecting  their  hanging  branches  in  the 
stream.  The  most  romantic  scenery  in  this  section  is  noted  for  the  so-called 
"  Colonnades  of  the  Lena,"  resembling  ruined  castles,  whose  ramparts  and  towers 
stretch  for  several  miles  along  the  right  bank.    Here  the  Lena  is  swollen  by  the 


*  Length  of  the  Lena  from  aource  to  the  Yitim  junction 

„  Yitim 

„  Lena- Yitim  to  the  Arctic  Ocean   . 

4rea  of  drainage         .        .        ,        . 


876  miles. 
1,280    „ 
3,280    „ 
1,000,000  aquare  mfles. 


■^KW 


8H(J 


ASIATIC  RUS8IA. 


ropiouN  Olokinii  aflliu'iit,  wIioho  rapid  curront  ih  felt  18  inili'M  Im>1<)W  tlio  confiiu'iico. 
Fui'tluT  down  it  is  led  by  «till  liirffor  (ril)utarit'« — the  Aldan  on  it8  rif^ht,  and  the 
Vilfti  on  itM  Ifft  bank,  inarklnjf  t\w  liniitH  of  itn  middle  courHO.  Henceftirth  coasini^ 
to  wind  i-astwardM  round  tlir  plateaux  of  Central  Siln'ria,  it  pursuoH  itsnomud  north- 
wcHtorly  courMO  to  the  Arcti(!  Ocean  in  an  iHland-Htuddnl  channel,  with  a  mean  width 
of  from  4  to  0  niileH,  an<l  in  Momo  pluecH  expanding  to  broad  inland  seaH.  At  tho 
Aldan  junction  it  is  over  12  niiloH  wide  from  bank  to  bunk.  Tho  valley  of  the 
Vilui  may,  in  a  j^eneral  way,  Ik)  re„  irded  tin  forming  an  easterly  continuati(m  of  thot 
of  the  Nijnyaya  Tunjj;uMka,  and  as  extended  towards  the  PaciHc  by  tho  busin  of 
the  Aldan.  The  course  of  the  Lena  is  (lonsequontly  hero  croHHe<l  by  a  transverse 
deiiression,  which  ut  uU  times  uilurded  un  important  highway  of  local  migration 

•     •••'         V  KiR.  201.— Lena  Delta. 

Accordinir  to  NordenikjOld.  According  to  Wrongell  and  Anjon. 


Boalo  1 : 4.480,000. 

eOlUlei. 


and  commercial  intercourse,  and  which  now  presents  certain  advantages  to  the 
Russians,  the  valley  of  the  Aldan  offering  the  shortest  route  from  tho  Lena  basin 
to  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Under  a  milder  climate  such  a  geographical  position  must 
have  given  rise  to  a  first-class  political  or  trading  capital. 

After  the  Aldan  and  Vilfti  the  great  river  of  East  Siberia  has  acquired  its  full 
bulk,  being  henceforth  joined  only  by  insignificant  afiluents.  The  forest  vegetation 
along  its  bankn  also  becomes  gradually  stunted  and  inipoverished  in  species  until 
they  are  at  lust  succeeded  by  the  lichens  and  mosses  of  the  tundra.  The  islands 
grow  nothing  but  scrub,  though  the  Titari,  or  "  Larch  Island,"  the  last  of  them, 
contains,  besides  the  lurch  whence  it  is  named,  a  little  park  of  firs,  birches,  and 
poplars.  Below  this  plot  of  verdure  begins  the  vast  delto  of  the  Lena,  comprising 
an  area  of  about  8,800  square  miles.     But  aU  this  watery  region  is  not  formed 


TUE  LENA  AND  ITS  INUAIHTANTS. 


confluence, 
•ht,  and  tbo 

rth  coiislnj^ 
nniil  north- 
moan  width 
118.  At  the 
iilloy  of  the 
lit  ion  of  that 
ho  bunin  of 
a  transvorHe 
il  niigmtion 


f^/At 


TC 


itages  to  the 
e  Lena  basin 
position  must 

[uired  its  full 
sst  vegetation 

species  until 
The  islands 

last  of  them, 
,  birches,  and 
a,  comprising 
s  not  formed 


entirely  by  alluvial  deposits.  In  the  n()rth-w(>st  the  Khangaliit  distriet,  limited  on 
one  side  by  the  wst  flank  of  the  (U'ltu,  on  the  other  by  a  braneh  of  the  river,  in  an 
uneven  tract  strewn  with  lakes  and  hills.  This  in,  in  fact,  an  ancient  marine  island, 
or  group  of  islands,  wliieli  have  been  gradually  connected  with  the  mainland  partly 
by  the  alluvia  of  the  river,  partly  also  by  the  upheaval  of  the  land.  Hence  the 
sedimentary  matter  brought  down  by  the  stream  no  longer  finds  a  free  passage  to 
the  sea  in  the  direction  of  the  north-west,  the  rocky  escarjjments  of  the  Hil)erian 
coast  and  the  Khangalat  uplands  hero  forming  a  natural  limit  to  the  delta. 
Consequently  the  chief  branches  of  the  Lena,  with  their  alluvia,  have  boon  deflecited 
eastwards,  and  it  is  hero  that  the  outlines  of  the  islands,  the  winding  and  ramifica- 
tions of  tho  fluvial  channels,  are  most  frequently  modified.  Off  the  estuary  the 
water  ia  but  slightly  brackish,  but  very  dangerous  to  nuvigatin  i,  averaging  no  more 
than  from  HO  to  45  feet  deep.  The  form  of  tho  delta  is  being  changed  from  year 
to  year  by  tho  alluvial  deixjsits,  drift-wood,  storms,  and  especially  by  the  floating 
ice,  which  at  tho  break-up  sweeps  whole  islands  bodily  seawards.  The  charts  j)re- 
parod  at  various  periods  from  mord  or  loss  hasty  coast  surveys  offer  discrepancies 
far  too  serious  to  bo  regarded  as  the  personal  errors  of  the  cartographers.  But 
since  the  Russians  have  been  acquainted  with  tho  delta  tho  chief  channel  of  naviga- 
tion is  that  which  flows  round  the  eastern  headland  of  tho  continent,  opening 
towards  the  south-east  on  tho  south  side  of  a  triangular  peninsula.  Under  pressure 
of  the  in-shore  current  setting  west  and  east  in  continuation  of  the  warm  current 
from  the  Atlantic,  the  whole  of  tho  peninsula  formed  by  tho  alluvia  of  tho  Leno 
has  been  deflected  eastwards,  thus  diverting  tho  fluA^al  waters  to  tho  eastern  sea- 
board. North  of  the  delta  the  Tumaskiy  branch,  though  much  obstructed  with  sand- 
banks, has  maintained  its  channel  near  a  landmark  set  up  by  Laptyev  on  its  bunks  in 
1739.  The  channel  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  delta  regfion  is  recognised  by 
mariners  by  tho  Ice  Cape,  a  headland  so  named  from  tho  snow  and  floes  which 
here  persist  throughout  the  year  at  the  foot  of  the  cli£fs  unexposed  to  the  solar 
rays. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Lena  has  only  been  brought  into  water  communication 
with  Europe  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  its  occupation  by  the  Bussians.  In 
1878  the  steamer  Lena,  commanded  by  the  Norwegian  Johonnsen,  penetrated  the  river 
and  ascended  as  far  as  Yakutsk.  The  way  has  now  been  opened,  and  it  is  hoped  may 
be  occasionally  used,  notwithstanding  tho  serious  obstacles  opposed  to  the  naviga- 
tion by  the  floating  ice  round  the  Taimir  peninsula,  and  even  at  the  entrance  of  tho 
Lena  mouths.  In  the  delta  branches  the  thaw  does  not  set  in  till  the  end  of  June, 
or  even  the  beginning  of  July,  and  the  floes  massed  together  and  driven  inland  by 
the  polar  winds  are  said  to  completely  block  the  entrance  sometimes  throughout 
the  whole  simimer.  Hence  no  regular  navigation  can  be  established  between  the 
Lena  and  "West  Europe  until  tlie  circumpolar  observatories  proposed  by  Wey- 
precht  have  been  established,  and  the  general  movement  of  the  ice  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  duly  signalled  to  the  western  ports.  The  Lena  is  far  less  accessible  to 
shipping  than  the  Ob  or  Yenisei ;  but  although  it  can  never  have  the  same 
importance  for  intenu^tional  trade,  it  none  the  less  offers  certain  facilities  for 


RAR 


ASTATIC  RUSSIA. 


vtTiH'tiiiff  oxchatif^im  with  thu  iiitoriur,  whoru  i(»  bunin  offorn  a  nuvigublo  waterway 
of  iiltopfother  not  Iohh  than  ({,000  miles.* 

Tlio  imtural  ronourccn  of  thin  iMiHin,  whoito  ontiro  population  ncarcrly  cxcoodn 
I'lOO.OOO,  rival  thow  of  Wimt  Sil)eriu.  The  river  itself  ubuundH  in  tiMh  no  Iom 
than  the  Oh,  while  itn  foroHts  are  more  extenHivo.  It  in  uIho  Nkirtixl  by  fertile 
plains  and  ]>Iuteaux  affording  excellent  pasture.  The  auriferous  sands  of  the 
Vitim  and  C)Ioknia  are  the  richest  in  all  Asia ;  argentiforoun  lead,  copper,  and 
in)n  ores  are  met  in  various  places,  although  no  systematic  Hurvey  has  yet  been 
made  of  these  treasures.  Halt  in  superabundance  is  yieldinl  by  many  lakes,  solino 
springs,  and  whole  mountains  of  chloride  of  sixlium.  Sulphur  springs  rise  along 
the  river  banks,  and  are  lost  in  the  stream.  I^astly,  coul  bods  belonging  to  the 
same  formation  as  those  of  the  Nijnyaya  Tunguska  basin  crop  out  along  the 
banks  of  the  Vil(^i,  and  skirt  the  Lena  almost  uninterruptedly  for  over  000  miles 
below  the  "  Colonnades."  Some  of  those  coal-fields,  kindled  by  the  forest  fires, 
have  been  burning  for  years,  and  the  smoke  rising  from  the  eminences  have 
given  occasion  to  the  local  traditions  regarding  the  existence  of  volcanoes  in  North 
Siberia. 

The  Yana,  Eoi.ima,  and  Indioirka  Rivers — The  Arctic  Islands — 
'       '1  New  Siberia. 

The  KhuruQlakh  Hills,  raising  their  snowy,  or  at  least  snow-streaked,  crests  here 
and  there  to  a  height  of  1,300  feet,  separate  the  Lower  Lena  from  the  Yana, 
which  flows  directly  to  the  north,  and  enters  the  Arctic  Ocean  through  a  vast 
delta  over  90  miles  broud  east  and  west.  The  southern  entremity  of  the  KharaC^- 
lakh  Hills  is  connected  by  the  Yerkho-Yansk  range  eastwards  with  the  Stanovoi 
plateau  along  the  northern  edge  of  the  Aldan  valley.  The  route  from  Yakutsk  to 
Nijne-Eolimsk,  on  the  Lower  Eolima,  crosses  this  range  by  a  pass  2,160  feet  high, 
commanded  by  crests  rising  to  an  elevation  of  from  830  to  1,000  feet.  The  road 
to  Yerkho-Yansk,  on  the  Upper  Yana,  also  follows  a  pass  4,660  feet  high,  winding 
through  a  defile  660  feet  deep.  The  Indigirka  and  the  Eolima,  which,  like  the 
Yana,  rise  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Yerkho-Yansk  range,  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  this  river  in  the  length  and  direction  of  their  course,  the  volume 
of  their  stream,  the  rapids  formed  in  their  upper  reaches,  and  the  islands  oi  their 
deltas.  AH  rise  in  the  same  wooded  highlands,  and  flow  northwards  through  the 
level  plain  of  the  tundras ;  but,  although  navigable,  none  of  them  are  frequented 
except  by  the  fishing  craft  of  the  Yakuts,  Yukaghirs,  and  a  few  Russian  settlers. 


"  Navigable  conrae  of  the  Lena  ,        .        .        .        .  2,920 

n  II           Vitim  .        .        i        .        .        .  Si5 

It  I,           Olokma 600 

M  It           Aldan 900 

M  II           Amga 300 

„  „          Maya 800 

»  „           VUOi 728 

Total  .       . 6,086  MUea. 


■«B«rt 


mVEBS— lUE  ABCTIO  ISLANDS— NEW  HIUEUIA. 


B  wutorwoy 

ply  oxooodn 
iHh  no  loM 
i  by  fertile 
ndn  of  tho 
joppcr,  and 
in  yet  boon 
akcH,  saline 
I  riao  along 
png  to  the 
along  the 
;r  000  miles 
forest  fire«, 
icnces  have 
)e8  in  North 


AND8 — 

1,  crests  here 
1  the  Yana, 
ough  a  vast 
the  Kharaft- 
the  Stanovoi 
1  Yakutsk  to 
50  feet  high, 
t.     The  road 
igh,  winding 
lich,  like  the 
ir  a  striking 
the  volume 
Einds  oi  their 
through  the 
re  frequented 
asian  settlers. 


The  most  abundant  in  animal  life  is  tho   Knllnia,  which,  like  the  two  Any(^i 
joining  its  ount  Imnk  in  u  eommon  delta,  tei>mN  with  HmIu<h  of  vurioiiH  kiiids. 

A  few  of  the  iHlunds  off  tho  neighl)uuring  ('oust  have  In'on  known  from  tiint) 
immemorial  to  tho  natives,  and  by  them  p«)inte<i  out  to  the  early  UiiHNian  explorers. 
Huch  are  tho  •'  IJour  iHlundH,"  north  of  tho  Koltma  ostuury,  otiiiupied  during  tho 
lust  century  by  numerouH  winter  HMhing  huts.  The  so-callod  "  Four  I'illars,"  one 
of  this  group,  forms  u  conspicuous  landmark  with  its  four  detached  basalt  columns, 
almost  as  regular  as  if  they  had  boon  carved  by  tho  hand  of  man.  The  sailors  of 
tho  Nordenskjold  expedition  took  them  for  lighthouses  erected  by  tho  Russian 
Government  for  tho  guidance  of  explorers  in  tho  polar  waters.  Another  of  the 
Bear  Islands  abounds  in  tho  remains  of  mammoths  to  such  an  extent  that  when 
seen  from  the  southern  mainland  it  soomed  composed  entirely  of  the  tusks  of  those 

Fig.  i'03.— AuciiirBLAOu  or  Niw  Hiniuu.  '         ^ 

BoUa  1 : 4,110,000. 


.flMilM. 


UilM. 


pachydermata.  Some  of  the  larger  polar  islands  said  to  have  been  discovered  in 
the  last  century,  or  even  more  recently,  would  also  seem  to  have  been  visited  by 
the  natives.  Thus  the  so-called  "Near"  or  "First"  Island  of  the  Lyakhov 
Archipelago  (New  Siberia)  cannot  have  been  completely  unknown,  as  the  magni- 
ficent basalt  columns  forming  the  Eiselyak  headland  and  Moimt  Keptagai,  several 
hundred  yards  high,  are  only  45  miles  from  Cape  Svyatoi,  and  are  consequently,  in 
clear  weather,  always  visible  to  the  piercing  gaze  of  the  Tunguses  and  Yukaghirs. 
The  wild  reindeer,  as  well  as  the  white  bear  and  other  animals,  including  even  the 
smaller  rodents,  visit  it  across  the  ico  from  the  mainland,  and  the  hunters  had  only 
to  follow  in  their  wake  to  discover  "  Near  Island."  From  this  point  to  "  Second 
Island "  the  passage  is  also  very  easy ;  but  the  "  Third,"  or  Kotyelniy  Ostrov, 
besides  several  others  lying  farther  west,  must  have  remained  long  unknown, 
although  in  one  of  them  a  Russian  g^'ave  was  discovered  in  1811.    Hedenstrom 


^mm 


t' 


MO 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


!■-, 


here  foxind  a  Yukaghir  sleigh  and  a  stone  knife,  pointing  to  a  remote  period,  for 
the  Yukaghirs  have  long  used  iron  knives,  which  they  procure  from  the  Russians. 
Kotyeluiy  Ostrov  is  a  very  large  island,  with  an  area  estimated  by  Anjou  at  8,000, 
and  by  Hedenstrom  at  no  less  than  24,000  square  miles.  It  is  generally  connected 
by  a  barrier  of  reefs  and  extensive  sand-banks  with  the  island  of  Faddeyev 
(ThaddoDUs],  lying  farther  east,  with  an  intervening  channel  660  feet  wide,  through 

.^      ...  Fig.  203.— Routes  op  Anjou  and  Wbanobll. 

Soale  1  :  666,000. 


72- 


72 


: « 


I    


(mJtetiifulMud        ^ 


.lSOUfla& 


which  the  tides  rush  to  and  fro  with  great  velocity.     During  stormy  weather  the 
connecting  sand-bank  is  washed  by  the  waves. 

The  most  recently  discovered,  or  rather  rediscovered,  land  in  these  waters  is 
the  island  known  as  New  Siberia,  a  name  frequently  applied  to  the  whole  group 
of  islands  on  the  north  coast  between  the  mouths  of  the  Lena  and  Indigirka.  It 
was  first  sighted  by  the  trader  Sirovatsky  in  1806,  and  was  carefully  explored 
in  1809-10  by  Hedenstrom,  Sannikov,  and  Kojevin.  It  was  again  visited  in 
1820 — 3  during  the  Wrangell  expedition,  and  since  then  hunters  have  never 
ceased  to  pass  the  winter  there  in  the  huts  built  for  the  purpose  by  Sannikov. 
Like  the  neighbouring  islands.  New  Siberia  is  tolerably  rich  in  animal  species, 
thanks  to  the  bridge  of  ice  by  which  it  is  yearly  connected  with  the  mainland. 


L 


!■  II  iiiilii 


e  period,  for 
he  Russians, 
jou  at  8,000, 
ly  connected 
)f  Faddeyev 
iride,  through 


72 


Z'"^^ 


w 


les 


I7S» 


y  weather  the 

these  waters  is 
le  whole  group 
Indigirka.  It 
(fully  explored 
fain  visited  in 
rs  have  never 
)  by  Sannikov. 
Einimal  species, 
.  the  mainland. 


mVEBS— THE  AKCTIC  ISLANDS— NEW  SIBERIA.  801 

Its  fauna   comprises    the  white  bear,  reindeer,  Arctic  fox,  glutton,  some  small 


rodents,  and  numerous  species  of  birds.    Here  the  hunters  also  find  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals,  mammoth  and  rhinoceros  ivoiy,  buffalo  horns,  horse  hoofs,  and 


mdkMnHc 


iS«ifeSi™«iw£aJi( 


wMJatiillaC' 


892 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


t 


Hedenstrdm  picked  up  an  axe  made  of  a  mammoth's  tusk.  The  beach  is  strewn 
with  the  stems  of  the  larch  and  poplar  stranded  bgokthe  waves,  but  the  great 
curiosity  of  the  island  is  a  row  of  hills  fringing  the  south  coast  for  a  distance  of 
over  3  miles,  whose  sandstone  and  gravel  formations  contain  considerable  masses 
of  carbonised  timber,  referred  by  some  to  the  Jurassic  epoch,  but  regarded  by  others 
merely  as  drift-wood  of  recent  date.  Although  these  "  Wood  Hills  "  are  only  from 
100  to  200  feet  above  sea-level,  the  mirage  sometimes  renders  them  visible  from  the 
Siberian  coast,  168  miles  o£F. 

During  his  nimierous  exploring  expeditions  east  of  New  Siberia,  Wrangell  had 
his  mind  steadily  fixed  on  a  northern  land  of  which  the  natives  had  spoken,  and 
towards  which  he  saw  the  birds  of  passage  directing  their  flight.  A  chart  also, 
preserved  amongst  the  foreign  archives  of  Moscow,  figured  an  island  in  these 
northern  latitudes.  During  his  three  trips  across  the  Siberian  ice  he  was  arrested 
by  a  polinia,  or  "  clearing,"  such  as  all  other  Arctic  navigators  have  found,  and 
which  have  caused  the  name  of  Polynia  to  be  given  to  the  open  sea  met  by  Hayes 
in  the  American  polar  seas  north  of  Smith  Sound.  The  ice  at  the  edge  of  the 
polinia  was  too  weak  to  carry  sleighs  farther  north,  and  the  sea  was  distinctly  felt 
surging  in  long  billows  underneath.  Wrangell's  explorations  only  ended  in  a 
negative  result,  or  in  the  conclusion  that  the  sought-for  land  could  have  no  exist- 
ence. Nevertheless  it  has  been  found  in  the  very  place  where  its  outlines  had 
been  drawn  by  Wrangell  on  the  reports  of  the  natives.  The  large  island,  which 
has  been  named  "  Wrangell  Land "  in  posthumous  honour  of  the  illustrious 
navigator,  rises  high  above  the  water  to  the  north  of  the  Chukchi  country,  near  the 
northern  entrance  to  Bering  Strait.  Discovered  for  the  first  time  by  Kellett  in 
1849,  and  sighted  by  the  whaio  fisher  Long  in  1867,  this  land  is  still  only  faintly 
traced  on  the  charts.  How  far  it  may  stretch  northwards  is  still  undetermined, 
nor  is  it  known  whether  it  forms  part  of  the  land  again  seen  by  Eellett  in 
1867.  Mount  Long,  at  its  southernmost  extremity,  has  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet, 
and  its  regular  conic  form  has  caused  it  to  be  classed  with  the  extinct  volcanoes. 
Nordenskjold  and  Palander  were  prevented  by  the  ice  from  visiting  these  islands. 

The  whole  space  stretching  north  of  New  Siberia  and  Wrangell  Land,  and 
between  Franz- Joseph  Land  and  the  American  polar  archipelagos,  remains  to  be 
explored,  nor  is  it  yet  known  whether  it  is  partly  occupied  by  any  northern  exten- 
sion of  Greenland,  as  Petermann  supposed,  or  whether  these  waters  encircle  islands 
or  archipelagos  alone.  In  any  case  no  erratic  boulders  are  found  on  the  northern 
seaboard  of  Siberia,  from  which  Nordenskjold  concludes  that  there  are  no  exten- 
sive lands  in  the  Siberian  polar  seas,  or  rather  that  the  icebergs  carry  scarcely  any 
rocky  detritus  with  them,  as  indeed  has  hitherto  been  admitted  by  most  geographers. 
North-west  of  the  Taimir  peninsula  the  Norwegpum  navigator  Johannsen  discovered, 
in  1878,  an  island  to  which  he  gave  the  fully  justified  name  of  Ensomheden,  or  "  Lone 
Land/'  This  dreary  ice-bound  land  has  an  area  of  about  80  square  miles,  terminating 
westwards  with  high  cliffs,  above  which  rises  a  peak  510  feet  high.  The  sands  of 
the  low-lying  east  shore  are  strewn  with  drift- wood  stranded  here  by  the  current. 
This  island  was  probably  sighted  by  Laptyev  in  1741. 


THE  YAKUTS,  YTJKAGHIBS,  AND  CHUVANTZES. 


393 


ch  is  strewn 
it  the  great 
i  distance  of 
rable  masses 
Led  by  others 
,re  only  from 
ble  from  the 

rrangell  had 
spoken,  and 
A.  chart  also, 
md  in  these 
was  arrested 
e  foimd,  and 
let  by  Hayes 
I  edge  of  the 
listinctly  felt 
'  ended  in  a 
ave  no  exist- 
outlines  had 
island,  which 
le  illustrious 
itry,  near  the 
by  Kellett  in 
I  only  faintly 
Lndetermined, 
y  Kellett  in 
of  2,500  feet, 
xct  volcanoes, 
hese  islands, 
all  Land,  and 
•emains  to  be 
rthem  exten- 
icircle  islands 
L  the  northern 
are  no  exten- 
T  scarcely  any 
;  geographers, 
en  discovered, 
den,  or  "Lone 
la,  terminating 
The  sands  of 
y  the  current. 


Inhabitants — The  Yakuts,  Yukaohirs,  and  Chuvantzes. 

The  Buriats  are  very  numerous  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  Lena  basin.  Of 
all  the  natives  of  Siberia  they  have  best  preserved  the  forms  of  the  old  commune, 
greatly  to  the  surprise  of  the  Bussian  peasantry,  amongst  whom  the  influence  of 
the  rnir  is  far  less  felt  in  private  life.  The  poorest  Buriat  claims  the  right  of  bed 
and  board  with  the  rich,  and  when  an  animal  goes  to  the  shambles  all  share  alike 
in  the  feast,  only  the  owner  helps  himself  last.  Even  the  iron  ornaments  worn 
by  the  damsels  in  their  hair  are  taken  without  ceremony  from  the  communal  smith, 
who  sells  his  wares  only  to  strangers.  The  com  harvest  is  made  for  the  benefit  of 
all,  and  all  help  themselves  freely  from  the  common  grwaary.  Every  five  or  six 
years  the  Buriats  of  the  district  join  in  a  common  hunting  party.  Chiefs  for  the 
occasion  are  chosen,  and  they  form  groups  of  twenty  or  so  to  beat  the  forest ;  but 
the  produce  is  shared  equally  amongst  all  the  members  of  the  aba. 

But  the  dominant  race  in  the  Lena  basin  are  the  Yakuts,  whose  territory,  at 
least  twice  the  size  of  France,  comprises  a  large  portion  of  the  Middle  Lena  basin, 
the.  banks  of  this  river  along  its  northern  course,  and  the  Arctic  seaboard  between 
the  Ehatanga  Fiord  and  the  Lena  delta.  They  also  dwell  farther  east  on  the  banks 
of  the  Yana,  Indigirka,  and  Eolima,  and  are  found  here  and  there  in  isolated 
groups  himdreds  of  miles  from  their  domain  proper.  Thus  a  few  Yakut  families 
reside  as  far  west  as  the  Yenisei  below  Turukhansk,  and  their  camping  grounds 
are  met  in  the  south-east,  even  in  the  Amur  basin.  Still  these  northern  regions  of 
Siberia  are  not  their  primeval  home.  They  occupied  the  country  about  Lake 
Baikal  when  the  pressure  of  the  Buriats  compelled  them  to  migrate  northwards, 
and  adapt  themselves  to  the  rigours  of  an  Arctic  climate.  Many  Tatar  names  in 
the  Baikal  district  still  recall  their  presence  there.  About  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century  they  had  to  confront  other  enemies,  and  the  Russian  adven- 
turers soon  forced  them  to  continue  their  northern  movement  towards  the  Frozen 
Ocean.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  made  their  appearance  for 
the  first  time  in  the  Taimir  peninsula,  and  during  the  present  century  they  have 
reached  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Eolhna.  During  these  migrations,  which  were 
spread  over  several  hundred  years,  the  Yakuts  had  not  only  to  acclimatize  them- 
selves, but  even  to  modify  their  social  habits.  Formerly  a  race  of  pastors  and 
horsemen,  like  their  Kirghiz  kinsmen,  they  have  also  had  to  become  fishers,  himters, 
and  reindeer  keepers.  A  few  words  in  their  language  serve  to  illustrate  the 
difference  that  exists  between  their  old  and  modem  usages. 

However,  the  present  Yakuts  are  not  a  pure  race,  and  since  their  first  migra* 
tions  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal  they  have  become  largely  intermingled  with 
the  other  peoples  whom  they  met  in  their  new  homes.  They  have  crossed  espe- 
cially with  the  Tunguses,  who  in  many  places  frequent  the  same  hunting  grounds, 
and  with  whom  they  have  constant  trading  relations.  Custom,  and  even  religious 
prescription,  oblige  them  to  choose  their  wives  outside  the  family,  and  in  certain 
cases  even  outside  the  clan.  These  exogamous  habits  have  thus  changed  many 
Yakut  feonilies  to  genuine  Mongolians,  while  in  the  Aldan  highlands  south-east  of 


mmm 


'*MMtHi>.wM  wNuwnijiiliHfiMMip 


894 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


I&. 


Yakutsk  they  have  become  Tunguses  in  features  and  aspect.  Elsewhere  they  have 
been  Russified,  though  the  reverse  process  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence,  the 
Russians  who  marry  Yakut  wives  gradually  becoming  assimilated  to  that  race.  In 
many  camping  grounds  hunters  arc  met  of  Slav  origin,  but  of  Yakut  appearance 
and  habits.     In  this  case  the  Tatar  prevails  over  the  Russian  culture. 

According  to  MiddendorfF  the  full-blood  Yakut  has  an  oval  face,  with  straight 
nose,  slightly  prominent  cheek  bones,  on  the  whole  resembling  a  Kirghiz  much 
more  than  a  Mongolian.  In  height  he  holds  a  middle  position  between  the  Russian 
and  Tungus,*  and  his  costume  scarcely  differs  from  that  of  his  northern  neighbours, 
except  for  a  kind  of  high  head-dress  like  the  kalpak  of  the  Kirghiz  and  Ehivans. 
This  shaggy  covering  is  evidently  modelled  on  that  worn  by  his  ancestors  before 
separating  from  their  southern  kinsmen. 

The  Yakut  language,  which  has  been  studied  by  Bohtlingk,  Vamb^ry,  and 
others,  also  bears  evidence  to  the  relationship  of  this  nation  with  the  different 
peoples  of  TArki  or  Tatar  stock.  The  Frisian  of  North  Hanover  and  the  Transyl- 
vanian  Saxon  would  have  greater  difficulty  in  understanding  each  other  than  woidd 
the  Yakut  of  the  Lena  and  the  Osmauli  of  Anatolia  or  Constantinople.  Doubtless 
the  Tatars  and  Yakuts  might  have  some  trouble  in  holding  converse  together,  but 
a  slight  knowledge  of  the  respective  grammars  would  make  intercourse  easy  enough. 
The  Yakut  geographical  terminology  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  the  Turkestan 
people,  but  the  family  relationship  is  unmistakable,  and  in  many  cases  the  nomen- 
clature is  much  alike  from  the  Bosporus  to  the  Lena  delta.  Ydkutish  is  extremely 
rich  in  terms  denoting  the  various  forms  of  mountains,  forests,  watercourses,  and 
all  the  features  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  great  nimiber  of  almost  synonymous 
expressions  is  even  one  of  the  chief  difficulties  which  the  Russian  finds  in  learning 
this  language.  Nevertheless  many  Russians  and  Tunguses  employ  Yakutish  more 
commonly  than  their  mother  tongue,  and  even  in  Yakutsk,  capital  of  the  Russian 
rule  in  the  Lena  basin,  the  native  speech  was  twenty  years  ago  the  language  of 
conversation  in  the  salons  of  many  Russian  officials.  It  has  no  doubt  adopted 
many  Slav  terms  connected  with  the  bureaucracy  and  modem  technical  arts,  but 
Russian  has  borrowed  even  more  freely  from  Yakutish.  Thus  in  speech  as  well  as 
in  other  respects  the  Yakuts  have  prevailed  over  the  Slavs,  and  cases  are  mentioned 
even  of  the  fanlilies  of  Russian  priests  who  have  become  Tatarized  in  language  and 
usages,  retaining  nothing  of  their  nationality  except  their  Slav  names  and  religious 
practices. 

The  Yakuts  have  been  called  the  "  Jews  of  Siberia."  They  have  a  genius  for 
trade,  and  the  Tungus,  through  his  improvidence,  has  become  their  prey.  The 
Yakut  is  the  real  owner  of  the  Tungus  reindeers,  and  claims  in  advance  the  martens 
trapped  by  the  Tungus  hunter.  But  the  specidative  spirit  of  the  Yakut  gets  the 
bettor  not  only  of  the  natives,  but  even  of  the  Cossacks,  and  several  local  proverbs 
throw  ridicule  on  the  absurd  attempts  of  the  Russian  to  drive  a  bargain  with  the 

^  Mean  height  of  the  Rnuiaiu  at  Yakutak         ......       fi-B  inches. 

„  Yakut*  „  fi-7      „ 

„  Tunguses        „  «•*      ,. 


mi 


THE  YAKUTS,  YUKAOHIES,  AND  CHUVANTZES. 


896 


ere  they  hove 
scurrence,  the 
;hat  race.  In 
it  appearance 

with  straight 
Kirghiz  much 
u  the  Russian 
■n  neighbours, 

and  Khivans. 
icestora  before 

ramb^ry,  and 
the  different 
I  the  Transyl- 
ler  than  would 
le.    Doubtless 
)  together,  but 
io  easy  enough, 
the  Turkestan 
jes  the  nomen- 
h  is  extremely 
tercourses,  and 
it  synonymous 
ids  in  learning 
Yakutish  more 
of  the  Bussian 
he  language  of 
doubt  adopted 
inical  arts,  but 
eech  as  well  as 
are  mentioned 
1  language  and 
s  and  religious 

ye  a  genius  for 
sir  prey.  The 
tee  the  martens 
Yakut  g^ts  the 
I  local  proverbs 
irgain  with  the 

6*0  inches. 

e-7    „ 

6-4      ., 


Yakut.  "  Let  him  be  ever  so  knowing,  he  is  cheated  at  last,"  says  Uvarovskiy. 
Full  of  confidence  in  his  genius,  the  Yakut  finds  no  rival  in  the  art  of  trickery 
until  he  meets  the  Chinese  Dafirians  of  Transbaikalia.  The  latter  are  fully  his  equals 
in  caution,  cunning,  knowledge  of  mankind,  feigned  simplicity,  skill  in  touching  the 
secret  springs  of  vanity,  while  surpassing  him  in  temperance,  love  of  order,  and 
thrift.  In  fact,  the  Yakut,  satisiied  with  the  triumph  of  the  moment,  is  heedless 
of  the  future,  repeating  the  local  saying,  "  Eat  well  and  grow  fat ;  you  can  do  no 
better !  "  While  compelled  to  work  he  will  apply  himself  with  the  same  diligence 
as  the  Jew  or  Chinese,  enduring  hunger  and  toil  vith  the  resignation  of  a  Tungus, 
frightened  by  no  danger,  disheartened  by  no  difficulty.  But  when  the  time  comes 
to  unbend  he  lapses  into  lazy  ways  with  a  sottish  indifference,  indulging  especially 
in  reckless  gambling,  and  risking  the  fruits  of  the  year,  and  even  of  his  life,  on  the 
hazard  of  the  die.  Ruined  by  an  unlucky  throw,  he  again  becomes  the  skilful 
hunter  or  shrewd  dealer,  and  resumes  his  wandering  life  of  toil  and  hardship. 

In  spite  of  his  shortcomings,  the  Yakut  is  the  most  progressive  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Siberia,  thanks  mainly  to  his  remarkable  powers  of  assimilation.  He 
adapts  himself  readily  to  the  surrounding  physical  conditions  and  populations. 
During  the  long  Arctic  nights  he  sleeps  away  the  time  like  the  white  bear  buried 
in  the  snows ;  but  as  long  as  the  summer  sun  shines  above  the  horizon  he  toils 
incessantly.  He  makes  himself  as  comfortable  in  the  Samoyede  tent  as  in  the 
Russian  hut  formed  of  logs  piled  one  above  the  other  in  successive  horizontal  rows. 
Sedentary  or  nomad  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  situation,  he  is  always  ready 
to  turn  to  whatever  work  is  required  of  him.  "With  the  Samoyede  or  Tungus  he 
becomes  a  Samoyede  or  Tungus,  while  still  preserving  in  this  evolution  a  natural 
genius  in  virtue  of  which  he  takes  the  foremost  place  amongst  his  new  associates. 
With  the  Russian  he  also  becomes  a  Russian,  and  accommodat«8  himself  to  bureau- 
cratic routine  and  practices  with  astonishing  facility.  In  the  struggle  for  existence 
this  race  has  not  hitherto  run  any  danger  of  disappearing  before  the  Slav.  In 
many  villages  the  Yakuts  are  the  most  prosperous,  and  owners  of  the  best-kept 
houses,  the  young  Russians  gladly  coming  to  them  in  search  of  wives.  Although 
thousands  have  be'-ome  Russified,  yet  their  numbers  have  more  than  doubled,  if  not 
increased  fourfold,  since  the  begiiming  of  the  century.  At  that  time  they  are  said 
to  have  numbered  only  60,000,  whereas  all  recent  statistics  estimate  them  at  over 
200,000.  Outside  the  towns  they  have  preserved  their  administrative  independence, 
still  living  under  their  toyon,  or  princes,  who  are  supported  by  "  voluntary  contri- 
butions." 

Under  the  rude  climate  of  North  Siberia  the  Yakuts  cannot  everywhere  occupy 
themselves  with  agricultural  pursuits,  but  as  stock-breeders  they  have  succeeded  in 
doing  what  the  Russians  have  not  hitherto  attempted.  They  have  contrived  to 
keep  their  cattle  and  horses  alive  in  their  dwellings  beyond  the  Polar  Circle,  and  do 
not  fear  to  go  in  search  of  fodder  hundreds  of  miles  off.  They  have  even  suc- 
ceeded in  developing  a  special  breed  of  "  milch  mares,"  which  yield  as  much  milk 
as  the  cows,  and  may  be  milked  several  times  a  day.  The  small  breed  of  horses 
they  sell  to  the  gold- washers  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  strength  and  powers  of 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


;■ 


endurance.  The  Yakuts  are  flesli-eaters,  preferring  horse  to  beef,  but  are  very  sparing 
of  their  animals,  never  killing  them  except  on  state  occasions.  As  craftsmen  they 
are  almost  imrivalled,  and  succeed  well  in  all  trades.  Their  manual  skill  enables 
them  with  the  most  primitive  implements  to  make  all  kinds  of  utensils,  and  even  gold 
and  silver  plated  wares  and  jewellery.  They  smelt  the  iron  ores,  and  with  the 
metal  manufacture  better  instruments  than  those  of  the  Russian  dealers.  In  Yakutsk 
all  the  artisans,  carpenters,  joiners,  painters,  even  carvers,  are  Yakuts.  They  make 
samovars  and  rifles,  and  can  imitate  anything,  but  with  an  original  faculty.  One  of 
the  curiosities  of  their  industry  is  a  species  of  basket  made  of  osiers,  with  all  the 
meshes  filled  in  with  clay,  and  then  dipped  in  cold  water  to  g^ve  it  a  transparent 
coating  of  ice.  For  more  than  half  the  year  this  basket  has  thus  the  appearance  of 
a  crystal  vase. 

Most  of  the  Yakuts,  baptized  at  least  in  form,  have  Russian,  Polish,  or  German 
names,  though  so  disguised  as  to  be  unrecognisable.  The  formerly  prevalent 
female  infanticide  has  disappeared,  though  the  old  shamanistic  rites  have  not  yet 
been  quite  abandoned.  The  Yakuts  still  believe  in  witchcraft,  invoke  the  good  and 
conjure  the  evil  spirits.  Great  changes  have  doubtless  taken  place  in  their  habits 
since  the  time  of  Gmelin's  visit  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  their 
religion  has  remained  substantially  the  same.  The  mountain  passes  are  the  scene 
of  the  most  imposing  ceremonies,  and  here  the  shaman  speaks  most  earnestly  to 
the  air  and  water  gods,  to  the  "  little  ancestral  stream,  the  ancient  of  ages,"  to  the 
"  mountain  grandmother,"  to  the  "  dwarfs  sought  on  the  right  in  the  eight  valleys, 
and  who  are  suddenly  found  on  the  left  in  the  nine  mountains."  Then  he  appeals 
to  the  wicked  genius :  "  And  thou,  Shandai,  old  as  the  rocks,  do  not  let  us  be  lag- 
gards, strike  not  our  youth,  do  not  wink  at  us,  do  not  turn  thy  looks  against  us, 
and  hold  thy  tongue !  "  Then  the  shaman  throws  spoonfuls  of  melted  butter  in 
the  air  in  thanksgiving  to  the  gods  and  to  appease  the  demons,  and  he  ties  horse- 
hair round  the  trunks  of  the  trees  or  to  stakes  set  up  on  the  cliffs.  To  all  their 
gods  the  Yakuts  have  given  Russian  names,  especially  that  of  St.  Nicholas,  and  to 
their  demons  those  of  the  Russian  devils,  and  thus  their  pantheon  and  pandemonium 
have  become  enriched.  They  also  speak  of  a  one  God,  universal  father  of  all,  but 
he  is  too  high  and  too  far  off  to  be  worshipped  by  them.  He  it  was  who  made  the 
earth,  at  first  small  and  level,  then  the  evil  spirit  came  and  scratched  the  surface, 
tearing  it  up  like  a  dog,  and  thus  were  formed  the  hills  and  valleys.  The  earth 
constantly  growing  in  size,  the  valleys  became  the  beds  of  rivers  and  seas,  and  "  the 
continents  rose  amid  the  waters." 

The  Dolgana,  a  few  hundred  of  whom  dwell  in  the  forests  and  northern  tundras 
between  the  Pyasina  and  Ehatanga  Rivers,  are  frequently  classed  with  the  Tunguses. 
Yet  their  tjrpe  and  dialect  show  that  they  are  Yakuts,  like  those  of  the  Lena  basin, 
though  diversely  intermingled  with  Tunguses,  Samoyedes,  and  Russians.  Owing 
to  the  intervening  distance  they  have  long  ceased  to  hold  any  intercourse  with  the 
other  Yakuts,  from  whom  small-pox  and  typhus  seem  to  have  formerly  separated 
them. 

"With  the  Yakuts  Gmelin  classes  the  Tukaghira,  whose  tents  are  grouped  in  a 


-i^ 


THE  YAKUTS,  YUKAOIIIES,  AND  CHUVANTZES. 


897 


( very  sparing 
'aftsmen  they 
skill  enables 
md  even  gold 
and  with  the 
In  Yakutsk 
They  make 
alty.  One  of 
with  all  the 
a  transparent 
appearance  of 

h,  or  German 
rly  prevalent 

have  not  yet 

the  good  and 
n  their  habits 
ury,  but  their 

are  the  scene 
t  earnestly  to 
:  ages,"  to  the 

eight  valleys, 
Len  he  appeals 

let  us  be  lag- 
>ks  against  us, 
sited  butter  in 

he  ties  horse- 
To  all  their 
icholas,  and  to 
pandemonium 
;her  of  all,  but 
who  made  the 
ed  the  surface, 
rs.  The  earth 
seas,  and  '*  the 

rthem  tundras 
the  Tunguses. 
he  Lena  basin, 
nans.  Owing 
iourse  with  the 
lerly  separated 

)  grouped  in  a 


few  hamlets  in  the  tundras  watered  by  the  rivers  Yana,  Indigirka,  and  Kolima ; 
but  Billings  and  Middendorff  affiliate  them  to  the  Tunguses,  while  Schiefner 
regards  them  as  constituting  a  distinct  stock  in  the  midst  of  the  Siberian  popula- 
tions. Their  speech  is  radically  different  from  all  other  native  idioms,  but  they  are 
obviously  a  very  mixed  race,  and  even  now  readily  intenningle  with  their  Siberian 

Fig.  206.— Yakutsk. 
Aoooiding  to  Hlddendorff.    Soale  1  : 1{I0,000. 


SUUcM. 


and  Russian  neighbours.  Formerly  numerous  "  as  the  stars  of  a  clear  night,"  they 
are  certainly  disappearing,  and  soon  nothing  will  be  left  of  them  except  their 
barrows  and  the  ruins  of  their  log  forts.  Venyukov  estimates  them  at  about  1,600, 
other  authorities  at  still  less,  and  the  old  language  is  said  now  to  be  spoken  by  no 
more  than  a  dozen  Yukaghirs.  The  Chuvantzes,  another  neighbouring  nation, 
also  very  powerful,  were  reduced  in  1860  to  267  souls. 


808 


I' 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Topography. 


Tho  scanty  population  of  the  Lena  basin  and  northern  tundras  is  almost  every- 
where scattercfl  in  villages  and  hamlets  at  great  distances  from  each  other.  With 
the  exception  of  Yakutsk,  none  of  these  places  bearing  the  name  of  towns  would  be 
regarded  even  as  villages  in  more  thickly  peopled  countries.  Yet  they  often  occupy 
a  considerable  space,  owing  to  their  broad  streets,  largo  squares,  courts,  and  gardens. 
But  except  on  feait  and  market  days  they  are  silent  and  lifeless,  and  almost 
disappear  altogether,  or  become  blended  in  the  surrounding  scenery,  when  groimd, 
plants,  and  ^louses  are  alike  burie<l  in  snow. 

Verkho-Lemk,  whoso  name  indicates  its  position  on  the  Upper  Lena,  is  one  of 
those  administrative  villages  which  have  taken  the  name  of  town.  Inhabited  by  a 
few  hundred  Russians,  and  surroiinded  by  Buriat  and  Tungus  encampments,  it  is 
important  only  as  the  first  trading  station  between  Irkutsk  and  Yakutsk,  at  the 
head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Lena.  Kireusk,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kirenga  and 
Lena,  also  enjoys  some  commercial  advantage  from  its  position  near  the  portage 
connecting  the  Lena  with  tho  Nijnyaya  Tunguska  basin.  Olokmimk,  which  in  the 
moraine  deposits  of  the  district  possesses  the  richest  auriferous  fields  in  all  Siberia, 
is  even  a  smaller  place  than  the  two  preceding  "  towns."  Yet  it  stands  at  the  issue 
of  the  long  valley  of  the  Olokma,  which  leads  by  the  shortest  route  from  Yakutsk 
to  the  northern  bend  of  the  Amur.  The  distance  from  this  group  of  eighty  huts 
to  Yakutsk,  the  nearest  town,  is  374  miles,  and  throughout  this  long  waterway 
there  are  nothing  but  fishing  hamlets  and  inns  frequented  by  the  boatmen. 

Yakutsk,  the  "  city  of  the  Yakuts,"  well  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Lena, 
at  the  point  where  it  approaches  nearest  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  not  far  from  tho 
Aldan  and  VilAi  junctions,  has  grown  into  a  real  town,  especially  if  account  be 
taken  of  the  hard  struggle  man  has  hero  to  make  with  the  climate.  Doubtless  the 
two  more  populous  towns  of  Archangel  and  Trondhjem  lie  nearer  to  the  pole,  but 
the  cold  is  far  less  intense,  nor  is  the  ground  constantly  frozen  in  their  districts. 
With  the  exception  of  Verkho-Yansk,  Yakutsk  is  the  coldest  town  in  the  world,* 
with  a  mean  temperature  about  the  same  as  on  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc.  Yet  6,000 
people  are  permuiently  settled  here,  and  thousands  of  hunters  and  traders  are 
temporarily  attracted  to  the  place  by  its  fair,  at  which  exchanges  in  peltries  and 
provisions  are  effected  to  the  yearly  value  of  over  1,000,000  roubles.  Many  of  tho 
residents,  however,  such  as  soldiers,  officials,  and  exiles,  remain  here  against  their 


*  Up  to  tho  present  time  Yakutsk,  in  North-east  Siberia,  has  been  cited  as  the  place  of  our  earth 
where  the  winter  is  coldest,  while  the  minima  observed  during  Arctic  expeditions  are  believed  to  be  the 
lowest  known.  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  is  true.  Jn  Maak's  book,  '*  Olekminski  Okrug,"  I  find 
many  data  which  prove  that  the  coldest  winter  as  well  as  tho  lowest  well-authenticated  minima  were 
observed  at  Verkho-Yansk,  to  the  north-east  of  Yakutsk.  I  give  below  the  minima  and  mean  at  some  places 
cited  by  Maak : — 

Minima  (Fohi.)-         Mean. 

Serdze-Kamen  (Nordenskjold) —60-3  f 

Yakutsk  (Maak) -77-3  12-2 

Wiljuisk  (Maak) -76-3  f 

Werkhojansk  (Maak) -810  43 

A.  Woeikof  in  A'alme,  March  10th,  1881,  p.  487. 


Jli.-t.tiJM L 


vMtnni 


Imost  overy- 


thcr.  With 
vna  would  be 
often  occupy 
and  gardens, 
and  almost 
t^hen  ground, 

Bna,  is  one  of 
ihabited  by  a 
pments,  it  is 
kutsk,  at  the 
Eironga  and 

the  portage 
which  in  the 
n  all  Siberia, 
8  at  the  issue 
Tom  Yakutsk 

eighty  huts 
ng  waterway 
inien. 

I  of  the  Lena, 
;  far  from  the 
if  account  be 
Doubtless  the 
the  pole,  but 
;heir  districts. 
in  the  world,* 
3.  Yet  5,000 
d  traders  arc 
1  peltries  and 
Many  of  tho 
against  their 

lace  of  our  earth 
lelieved  to  be  the 
d  Okrug,"  I  find 
ted  minima  were 
3an  at  gome  places 

Mean. 
f 
12-2 
f 

4-3 
),  1881,  p.  487. 


BEaiNO  PENINSULA,  BASIN  OP  THE  ANADIB,  AND  KAMCHATKA.      809 

will.  During  the  reig^  of  Nicholas  this  was  one  of  the  chief  placcH  of  baniHhmont 
for  political  oifonders,  but  since  then  religious  criminals  have  Ixjcn  nioHtly  interned 
licro. 

Vilftisk,  the  chief  place  in  tho  groat  valley  of  the  Vilfti,  to  whicih  tho  famous 
political  economist  Chemichevsky  was  banished;  Vcrkho-Yamk,  on  tho  Yunu; 
Hredne-KoliiDHk,  on  the  Eolima;  and  iV//«<'-Ab////MA-,  foundotl  in  1044,  on  tho  sumo 
river,  are  also  officially  classed  as  towns.  But  Biiliin,  port  of  tho  Lower  Lena,  has 
not  yet  been  promoted  to  this  rank,  while  the  Oovemmont  has  deprived  of  tho  title 
Jigamk,  on  the  Lena,  midway  between  Yakutsk  and  Bulun. 


VI.— BERING  PENINSULA,  BASIN  OF  THE  ANADIR,  AND 

KAMCHATKA. 

North-east  Siberia  and  tho  Kamchatka  peninsula  lie  in  some  respects  beyond  the 
Asiatic  mainland.  These  lands  are  turned  towards  America,  and  some  of  their 
inlets  are  even  better  known  to,  and  more  frequented  by,  American  than  by  Russian 
craft.  Various  points  of  the  coast  about  Bering  Strait  bear  English  names,  given 
to  them  by  the  New  England  and  Califomian  whalers.  Some  of  the  local  tribes 
seem  also  to  be  connected  rather  with  the  American  than  tho  Asiatic  aborigines. 
Notwithstanding  its  political  subjection  to  Russia,  this  region  has  remained  more 
foreign  to  the  Slav  world  than  any  other  part  of  Siberia. 

The  crest  of  the  continental  "  backbone  "  is  connected  only  by  irregular  ridges 
and  ill-defined  plateaux  with  the  highlands  of  the  Chukchi  and  Kamchadale 
territories.  The  range  which  best  presents  the  aspect  of  a  regular  chain  runs  east 
and  west  to  the  south  of  the  Polar  Circle,  separating  the  northern  affluents  of  the 
Anadir  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  apparently  rising  in  some  places  to  an  altitude 
of  6,000  feet.  The  hilly  plateau  comprised  between  the  two  border  ranges  of 
Stanovoi  and  Verkho- Yansk  may,  in  a  general  way,  be  said  to  terminate  west  of  the 
Anadir  basin  in  a  sort  of  elongated  ridge  with  a  mean  elevation  of  2,000  feet,  and 
with  peaks  about  3,000  feet  high.  This  is  the  extreme  link  in  the  continental 
orographic  system,  beyond  which  the  heights  begin  to  assiwie  an  isolated  character. 
The  fiords  indenting  th9  eastern  pprtion  of  Bering  peninsula  may  be  regarded  as 
tht>  remains  of  straits  formerly  separating  the  islands  from  the  mainland.  Thus 
the  Bering  peninsula,  properly  so  called,  is  divided  into  two  secondary  peninsulas, 
rooted  to  the  continent  at  a  point  only  60  miles  broad.  But  the  relief  of  the 
whole  of  this  peninsular  region  is  extremely  irregular.  The  Serdze-Kamen,  the  last 
headland  on  the  coast  facing  northwards,  is  over  1,000  feet  high,  while  East  Cape, 
at  the  northern  entrance  of  Bering  Strait,  rises  to  an  elevation  of  2,350  feet.  The 
Chukotskoi  Nos,  projecting  into  the  Pacific  over  against  St.  Lawrence  Island,  has  an 
altitude  of  2,760  feet,  and  other  headlands  are  stiU  higher,  culminating  with  Mount 
Makachinga,  8,900  feet,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  Etelkuyum  Bay,  north  side 
of  the  Gulf  of  Anadir.  This  is  the  loftiest  eminence  in  the  Old  or  New  World 
under  the  Polar  Circle. 


mmit 


400 


ASUTIO  RUSSIA. 


The  mountains  connecting  the  Kumchutku  peninsula  with  the  mainland  also 
form  a  distinct  orographic  system.  Thoir  general  direction  seems  to  run  parallel 
with  the  last  spurs  of  the  Htanovoi ;  that  is  to  say,  south-west  and  north-eust.  Thus 
the  range  beginning  on  the  west  coast  in  the  broadest  part  of  the  peninsula  skirts 
the  coast  of  the  Boring  Sea  us  far  us  the  entrance  of  the  Oulf  of  Anadir.  Still  this 
range  should  bo  regarded  mainly  ua  the  border  chain  of  a  hilly  plateau  forming  a 


c: ' 


Fig.  206  — VoLCANOM  AT  Cam  Potohotkoii,  Sovth  of  Atacha  Bay. 
Aooording  to  the  EngUih  Admiraltjr  Chart,    Bm1«  1 :  57lk,000. 


^^/^~ 


eMilra. 


western  continuation  of  that  of  the  Upper  Anadir,  and  in  many  places  presenting 
the  aspect  of  a  veritable  steppe.  Here  are  the  simimer  pasture  lands  of  the 
numerous  reindeer  herds  belonging  to  the  Eoriaks.  In  the  Kamchatka  peninsula 
itself  the  western  highlands  commanding  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  are  more  elevated 
than  those  of  the  east  side  washed  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  But  these  granite, 
porphyry,  and  palaeozoic  schistose  crests,  forming  the  ancient  backbone  of  the 
peninsula,  have  been  joined  by  more  recent  volcanic  formations,  trachytes,  basalts, 


•  —    — ■wwiiimiii 


BERINO  PENINSUT.A,  BASIN  OF  THE  ANADIR.  AND  KAMCHATKA.      401 


lainland  also 
run  purallol 
)-cuHt.  Thus 
linsula  Hkirta 
r.  Still  this 
lu  forming  a 


368  presenting 
lands  of  the 
tka  peninsula 
more  elevated 
these  granite, 
kbone  of  the 
hytes,  basalts, 


lavas,  and  scorito,  rining  to  a  fur  greater  elovatii)n  than  tho  other  mountains. 
Thfso  modem  cones  have  indented  the  east  coast  with  capes  and  inlets  by  the  lava 
streams  they  have  discharged  into  the  sea.  Hence,  while  the  coast-line  of  the 
peninsula  facing  westwards  is  remarkably  uniform,  the  opposite  side  is  variiMl  with 
numerous  boys  and  creeks.  One  of  these  inlets  near  the  southern  extremity  of 
Kamchatka,  the  famous  Bay  of  Avaoha,  ranks  with  those  of  Ilio  do  Janeiro  and 
San  Francisco  as  one  of  the  "  best  harbours  in  the  world." 

The  Kamchatka  volcanoes  form  a  northern  continuation  of  the  curved  chain  of 
the  Kurile  Archipelago,  whose  convex  side,  like  the  similarly  disposed  chains  of 
the  Philippines,  Liu-Khieu,  Japan,  and  the  Aleutian  group,  is  turned  towards  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  east  coast  of  Kamchatka  two  arcs  of  a 
circle  converge  at  a  point  where  are  situated  the  highest  and  most  active  volcanoes 
of  the  peninsula.  Nearly  forty  mountains  in  Kamchatka  are  of  volcanic  origin,  as 
is  evident  from  their  conic  form,  the  craters  on  their  crests  or  flanks,  the  lava 
streams  that  have  been  discharged  from  their  crevasses.  But  of  these  not  more 
than  twelve  still  vomit  scoriaD,  ashes,  and  vapours.*  They  culminate  with  Mount 
Kly&chevskoi,  which  rises  near  the  sea,  immediately  south  of  the  large  valley 
traversed  by  the  river  Kamchatka.  Several  rows  of  terraces  and  secondary 
summits  cluster  round  its  base,  which  is  no  less  than  200  miles  in  circumference. 
The  crest,  which  is  fissured  in  every  direction,  constantly  emits  smoke  and  ashes, 
sometimes  as  often  as  two  or  three  times  a  year,  and  dense  volumes  of  dust  have 
occasionally  been  wafted  180  miles  over  the  land.  An  eruption  mentioned  by 
Krasheninnikov  lasted  four  years,  from  1727  to  1731,  and  that  of  1737,  which  was 
far  more  violent,  discharged  vast  lava  streams,  melting  the  glaciers  and  sweeping 
avalanches  of  ice  and  water  into  the  surroimding  valleys.  Another  disturbance 
took  place  in  1854 ;  but  these  events,  however  grand  in  themselves,  being  witnessed 
only  by  a  few  natives  or  Russian  officials,  awaken  but  little  attention  in  the  West. 

Kamchatka  and  the  neighbouring  seas  are  often  agitated  by  violent  earthquakes. 
In  1737  a  shock  is  said  to  have  raised  the  waves  to  a  height  of  200  (?)  feet,  flood- 
ing the  coast,  sweeping  away  the  tents  of  the  natives,  and  laying  bare  the  bed  of 
the  sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  lying  beyond  the  focus  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  curve  of  the  Kuriles  with  that  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  seems  to  have 
suffered  much  less  than  the  southern  districts  from  these  convidsions.  But  there 
are  numerous  hot  springs,  both  here  and  in  the  Bering  peninsula,  where  they  form 
little  rivulets  in  the  centre  of  the  isthmus. 

The  Anadir  is  the  only  river  of  North-east  Siberia  comparable  in  the  extent  of 
its  drainage  and  the  length  of  its  course  with  the  larger  streams  of  West  Europe. 
But  flowing  partly  under  the  Polar  Circle  near  the  verge  of  forest  vegetation,  the 


*  Elevation  of  the  Eamohatka  Tolcaiioea : — 

ThA. 

Klyflchevskoi  (sctiTe) 1S,«10 

Eor>'akonkiy      „ 11,120 

Uahkin  (extinct) 10,890 

Bhevelynch  (aotive)    . 10,446 

Kroaota  (extinct) 9,860 


Feet. 

Kreatov  (extinct) 8,770 

JupanoT  (active) 8,410 

Avacha        „  8,210 

Great  Tolbacha  (active) 7,730 

Viluohinakiy  , 6,990 


i«aii* 


iiPi^ 


H 


409 


ASIATIC  BUSfllA. 


land  truvorwMl  hy  it  i«  mainly  a  nolitudo.  Tho  mnall  fort  of  Anadimk,  orcctwl  at 
tho  iH'jfinniuK  of  tho  «<ight«M'nth  crntiiry  um  a  di>iK)t  for  tho  jH'llry  trndo,  hud  to  bo 
alNindonotl  hy  itn  RuHMiun  ffiirrinon,  uftor  which  it  wiin  hurnt  by  tho  ('hukchiH.  It 
{h  now  roplaccil  by  four  mnull  villuf^'H,  with  a  totui  |M)pulation  of  about  200  houIm, 
ChuvuntzoN,  YukughirH,  und  CoHMuckN,  all  N|K<akinK  HuNitian,  but  all  living  in  a 
half-mivu^  Htat«.  Liko  nioHt  other  rivorH  in  tho  Chukchi  and  Kunichadulo 
tcrritorioH,  the  Anadir  ulN)und8  in  finh  at  tho  timo  of  )uf(h  water  to  nuch  un  extent 
that  it  MoouiH  ono  livinfi^  maHM.  When  tho  shoalH  of  wdnion  oocond  the  utrcamn,  they 
drive  tho  water  before  them  liko  a  moving  wall,  and  they  are  packed  ho  cloHoly 
toother  that  they  may  bo  taken  by  the  hand.  At  times  tho  water  oven  ceases  to  Iw 
potable,  owing  to  tho  intolerable  stonoh  and  tosto  imparted  to  it  from  millions  of 
animals  in  decomimsition. 

Tho  river  Kamchatka,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  peninsula,  is  less  than  half 
tho  length  of  the  Anadir.  But  flowing  much  further  south  through  naturally 
fertile  plains,  still  more  enriched  by  volcanic  debris,  it  waters  some  cultivated 
tracts,  und  nearly  twenty  Eamchudule  and  Russian  villages  have  sprung  up  along 
its  bunks.  This  is  the  true  Bolchatja  Ryeka,  or  "  Greot  River"  of  Euniohutku, 
ulthough  this  title  hus  been  g^von  by  the  Russiuu  settlers  tu  unothor  stream,  which 
flows  west  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  near  the  extremity  of  the  peuinsula. 

Bering  Strait  and  Sea. 

The  seas  which  bathe  the  shores  of  the  north-eastern  peninsulas  of  Siberia  are 
not  deep.  If  tho  coast  is  here  broken  into  fragments  by  fiords,  struggling,  so  to 
Huy,  to  become  straits,  the  bed  of  tho  sea  is,  on  the  other  band,  so  near  the  surface 
that  it  may  be  regarded  as  almost  forming  part  of  the  mainland.  The  shallows 
skirting  the  northern  seaboard  of  Siberia,  from  the  Taimir  headlands  to  Wrongell 
Land,  are  continued  to  the  extremity  of  Bering  peninsula,  and  beyond  the  strait 
along  the  coast  of  North  America.  The  Chidcchis  themselves  are  quite  aware  that 
the  two  continents  are  connected  by  submarine  banks,  even  asserting  that  they  ivere 
formerly  joined  by  an  isthmus.  Two  native  himters  related  to  Neumann  how  the 
land  subsided  during  a  terrific  fight  between  a  warrior  and  a  white  bear.  The 
greatest  depth  reached  by  the  plummet  between  the  two  extreme  peninsulas  of  the 
Old  and  New  World  is  less  than  32  fathoms,  while  the  mean  result  of  the  soundings 
in  all  the  Asiatic  and  American  waters  comprised  between  the  strait,  St.  Lawrence 
Island,  and  the  Yukon  delta  falls  short  of  22  fathoms.  The  true  ocean,  with  its 
profound  abysses,  begins,  on  the  one  hand,  north  of  Wrangell  Land ;  on  the  other, 
off  the  Kamchatka  coast,  between  the  peninsula  and  the  Aleutian  Islands,  where  a 
depression  occurs  of  over  270  fathoms.  Still  farther  south,  off  the  Japanese  coast, 
the  sounding-line  plunges  into  the  greatest  ascertained  depth  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  Here  it  registers  27,860  fathoms,  whereas  in  the  almost  land-locked  basin 
of  tho  Sea  of  Okhotsk  it  nowhere  shows  more  than  350  fathoms. 

Although  a  mere  scratch  on  the  earth's  surface,  Bering  Strait  has  acquired  a 
paramount  interest  in  the  history  of  discovery.     Yet  the  first  voyage  of  Dyejnyev 


.J  Miiiji.  JiDuun  -uaa^rHi.  ...^ 


^mmmmm»m0i 


BERING  STBAIT  AND  SEA. 


orcctod  at 
[>,  hud  to  Im) 
lukchiH.  It 
t  200  m)u1n, 

living  iit  a 
Kuiiiohudulo 
oh  un  extent 
troamn,  they 
cd  Ml  ch)Hely 
I  ceases  to  tw 

millions  of 

DBS  than  half 
gh  naturally 
le  cultivated 
ng  up  along 
Kaniuhatku, 
ream,  which 


{  Siberia  are 
ggling,  so  to 
r  the  surface 
rhe  shallows 
to  Wrangell 
•nd  the  strait 
»  aware  that 
»at  they  i^ere 
urn  how  the 
B  bear.  The 
isulas  of  the 
be  soundings 
it.  Lawrence 
ean,  with  its 
r)n  the  other, 
ids,  where  a 
panese  coast, 
rface  of  the 
locked  basin 

IS  acquired  a 
of  Dyejnyev 


mmm 


l«»ng  rriimiiKMl  forgotten,  and  <'lghty  yoarn  pn^mHl  iM'foro  now  iittrniptH  wore  nuido 
in  thiH  direction  under  the  iidviee  of  LeilmitTi.  Hering  now  (MiiiMted  tlie  |M'ninMulu 
named  from  him,  fnmi  the  (lulf  of  Anudir  to  the  H(>rdt/e-Kiunen,  and  in  1741  iigitin 
viNittnl  th(<Me  wutei-N  for  the  pur|M)m)  of  exploring  the  American  Mcultoard.  Ihit  on 
hiH  return  he  wan  4ti)iwreukeil,  and  iHtriHhedtm  the  largcNt  iNland  of  the  group  from 
him  naiiKKl  the  ('wmniduder'M  Archi|K)lugo.  liiM  grave  may  Mtill  \w  wrn  on  Hering 
Island,  a  long  ridgt^'  n{  high  luvn  rockH,  evidently  forming  the  wcHtern  huttrcNH  of 
the  curved  bridge  of  tJie  Aloutiuu  ihain,  thrown  by  the  Alanku  volcanocM  acnmNthn 
water  ti>  the  gr<  :>>  burning  iiMmntain  of  KlydchevHkoi,  in  Kamcliatka,  CcMtk  uIho 
nnvigute<i  the  Horing  Seu,  and  Hurv(  ywl  all  the  northern  entrance  of  the  Mtrait,  but 
without  pouotratiug  to  Wrungell  Lund.     Thc^  waters  wore  soon  after  visited  by 

Fig,  207.— BritiNfl  Rba. 


0  to  480 
VaUioiiM. 


480  town 
Fathoms. 


980  to  1,440 
Fatboou. 


1,440  to  1,010 
Fathonu. 

-  aoDMilM. 


l,eSO  Fatbomt 
and  npwatdi. 


Liitke,  Eotzebue,  and  other  illustrious  explorers,  and  later  on  as  many  as  four 
hundred  whalers  have  assembled  in  these  seas.  Lastly,  MacClure,  after  traverning 
Bering  Strait,  completed  in  1850  the  circumnavigation  of  America,  and  in  1879 
Nordenskjold  doubled  East  Cape,  thus  showing  that  by  the  aid  of  steam  the  long- 
sought-for  "  North-East  Passage  "  is  practicable. 

Forming  the  central  gap  in  the  vast,  semicircle  stretching  for  a  distance  of  24,000 
miles,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Cape  Horn,  Bering  Strait  is  naturally  one  of  the 
most  important  oceanic  regions  in  regulating  the  winds  and  currents.  The  winds 
arrested  on  the  Asiatic  and  American  continents  by  plateaux  and  mountain  raug-^s 
find  a  free  passage  through  the  strait.  The  masses  of  hot  air  resting  on  the  Pacific, 
and  the  cold  atmospheric  currents  from  the  pole,  here  move  in  opposite  directions, 
contending  for  the  upper  hand.      Opposite  currents  are  produced,  which,  owing 


404 


ASTATIC  RUSSIA. 


to  their  different  density,  become  regularly  superimposed,  like  the  draughts  felt 
on  opening  the  doors  between  two  rooms  of  different  temperature.  During  the 
winter  of  1879,  passed  by  him  near  the  northern  entrance  of  Bering  Strait, 
Nordenskjold  ascertained  that  a  glacial  wind  from  the  north-west  set  steadily 
along  the  surface  of  the  water  from  the  Frozen  Ocean  to  the  Pacific,  while 

;      ;?   J;    V.;;;Y  Fig.  208.— Bbrino  Stkait. 

Aooording  to  Bore.    Soale  1  : 1,200,000. 


^ 


0  to  10  Fathoms. 


10  to  in. 


90  to  ao.         30  Fithonw  and  npinurda. 
ISl 


higher  up  the  clouds  drifting  incessantly  northwards  p^ved  the  existence  of 
an  opposite  atmospheric  current.  In  the  same  way  two  oceanic  streams  here 
meet,  though  they  are  imable  freely  to  develop  in  the  confined  and  shallow 
space  separating  the  two  continents.  The  mass  of  tropical  waters  flowing  from  the 
South  Seas  to  the  North  Pacific  sets  steadily  from  the  Japanese  waters  towards 
Bering  Sea,  through  the  numerous  openings  between  the  Aleutian  Islands.    But 


■MWt 


#- 


BEBING  STRAIT  AND  SEA. 


400 


iraugbts  felt 
During  the 

ering  Strait, 
set  steadily 

acific,  while 


being  arrested  by  the  submarine  banks  connecting  Asia  and  America,  this  stream  is 
almost  entirely  again  deflected  southwards  along  the  North  American  seaboard. 
The  cold  waters  from  the  Frozen  Ocean  are  also  collected  at  the  northern  entrance 
of  the  strait,  where,  in  consequence  of  the  rotation  of  the  globe,  they  deviate  towards 
the  right,  following  mainly  the  Asiatic  coast  above  the  trough  of  deeper  waters 
passing  between  Bering  peninsula  and  St.  I'awrence  Island.     In  another  direction 


70- 


} 


mida. 


existence  of 
streams  here 
and  shallow 
viag  from  the 
aters  towards 
[slands.    But 


mtm 


Fig.  209. — CUHBBNTS  OF  THI  BiBINO  WaTBHS. 
Bokle  1:8,800,000. 


Black  Flow  ftom  north  to  MmUi. 


Btrcam  flowinv  northwarda. 
aoOMilea. 


some  of  the  tepid  water  impelled  towards  the  Aleutian  Archipelago  by  the  Euro-sivo, 
or  "  Black  Stream  "  of  the  Japanese,  flows  northwards  through  the  strait.  Thus 
Onatzevich  detected  a  smaU  current  of  relatively  warm  water  nmning  from  East 
Cape  to  the  Serdtze-Eamen.  Hence,  during  the  short  summer  which  breaks  up 
the  crust  between  the  two  worlds,  long  lines  of  floating  ice  are  seen  drifting  south- 
wards along  the  Asiatic  coast,  whilst  smaller  masses  are  carried  in  the  opposite 
direction  northwards  to  the  American  side.    None  of  these  floes,  however,  deserve 


-,<; 


*"-V«>*C*»*'#*'^»i^**F«<>'^,W«J**«^-«W'i^ 


"  i'i"i'j^!s^«K"^^i'L  fijJT- ,'. 


400 


ASUTIC  EUSSIA. 


the  name  of  icebergs.  The  portion  below  the  Burface  being  on  an  average  seven 
times  thicker  than  the  portion  above  it,  masses  rising  more  than  16  feet  above  sea- 
level  are  nccossurily  arrested  by  the  submarine  banks  before  reaching  the  strait. 
In  the  nearly  land-locked  basins  of  the  Seas  of  Okhotsk  and  Japan  the  waters  flow 
in  a  similar  manner,  every  current  from  the  south  having  its  counter-current  from 
the  north. 

Climate — Fauna  and  Flora. 

The  difference  in  the  climate  is  reflected  in  the  appearance  of  the  vegetation  on 
both  sides  of  the  strait.  While  the  American  coast  is  wooded  to  a  considerabliB 
distance  north  of  Prince  of  Wales  Cape,  nothing  grows  on  the  Asiatic  coast  except 
mosses  and  lichens,  and  in  the  sheltered  nooks  a  few  stunted  shrubs.  Seen  from  a 
distance,  this  coast  seems  quite  bare.  Here  the  treeless  zone  comprises  all  the 
Bering  peninsula,  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Anadir,  and  the  land  as  far  south  as 
the  neck  of  the  Kamchatka  peninsula.  But  this  peninsula  itself,  although  lying 
almost  entirely  bej'ond  the  isothermal  of  freezing  point,  is  very  wooded,  and  even 
supplies  timber  for  the  navy.  Its  flora  includes  most  of  the  Siberian  trees,  larch, 
various  species  of  conifers,  birch,  sorb,  poplar,  and  willow.  In  the  underwood  are 
several  species  of  berries  contributing  to  the  sustenance  of  the  inhabitants,  who  also 
dig  for  roots  and  tubers,  from  some  of  which  they  prepare  intoxicating  drinks.  A 
pecidiar  article  of  diet  is  the  green  bark  of  the  birch  mixed  with  caviar.  In  some 
of  the  fertile  valleys,  especially  in  Kamchatka,  the  hay  often  grows  6  or  6  feet 
high,  and  is  sometimes  mown  three  times  a  year  by  the  Russian  settlers.  But  the 
irepeated  attempts  to  grow  cereals  have  mostly  failed.  Although  the  climate  is 
equable  enough,  thanks  to  the  surrounding  seas,  the  fogs  and  hoar  frosts  coinciding 
with  the  flowering  time  have  nearly  always  killed  the  plants.  Oats  succeed  best, 
and  some  hemp  is  also  cultivated,  though  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  dispense 
with  the  thistle  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  Kamchadale  nets.  Gardening  has 
succeeded  better  than  the  raising  of  crops,  and  the  cabbage,  potato,  beet,  turnip, 
carrot,  and  other  vegetables  introduced  from  Russia  in  the  eighteenth  century  are 
now  cultivated  in  thousands  of  native  gardens.  Yet  all  these  sources  suppl}'  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  food  reqwred  by  the  Kamchadales  and  their  dogs,  without 
which  they  could  scarcely  leave  their  huts  in  winter.  During  the  four  summer 
months  they  have  to  lay  up  their  stock  of  dried  fish  for  the  rest  of  the  year.  Fish 
is  the  regular  winter  food  of  the  dogs,  six  of  which,  forming  the  usual  team  of  a 
sleigh,  will  consume  over  one  hundred  thousand  herrings  in  the  cold  season.  The 
family  has  also  to  be  provided  for,  and  in  hard  times,  when  the  chase  and  fishing  fail 
to  supply  sufficient  store  for  winter,  many  perish  inevitably.  Winter  and  want  are 
synonymous  terms  for  most  of  the  natives. 

The  fauna  of  North-east  Siberia  is  richer  than  that  of  the  Arctic  regions  farther 
west.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  form  of  the  continent,  which,  by  contracting 
towards  Bering  Strait,  brings  the  animals  migrating  from  the  west  in  contact  with 
those  coming  from  the  south.  To  these  have  been  added  some  American  species, 
such  as  birds  and  qitadrupeds  crossing  the  strait  on  the  iqe.    The  most  numerous 


Ml"  '-1-i.l. 


^■f^mmmimmmmmmi 


CLIMATE— FAUNA  AND  FLOEA. 


407 


verage  seven 
at  above  sea- 
g  the  strait, 
waters  flow 
iurrent  from 


egetation  on 

considerable 

coast  except 

Seen  from  a 

irises  all  the 

far  south  as 

hough  lying 

.ed,  and  even 

I  trees,  larch, 

iderwood  are 

nts,  who  also 

;  drinks.    A 

ar.     In  some 

5  or  6  feet 

irs.    But  the 

be  climate  is 

its  coinciding 

succeed  best, 

is  to  dispense 

ardening  has 

beet,  turnip, 

ii  century  are 

SB  supply  but 

logs,  without 

four  summer 

)  year.     Fish 

lal  team  of  a 

season.    The 

id  fishing  fail 

and  want  are 

)gions  farther 
Y  contracting 
contact  with 
rican  species, 
ost  numerous 


mammal  is  the  Alpine  hare,  \^hich  will  even  approach  the  tents  notwithstanding 
the  haU-famished  dogs  prowling  about.  The  bear,  marmot,  weasel,  and  otter  are 
also  common,  and  the  wild  reindeer  roams  in  herds  of  thousands  in  the  hilly  regions 
of  the  Upper  Anadir  basin.  Snakes,  frogs,  and  toads  are  nowhere  met,  but  the 
fauna  includes  the  lizard,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as  an  animal  of  ill  omen,  and 
as  the  spy  of  the  evil  spirits.  When  seen  they  were  always  set  upon  and  cut  to 
pieces  to  prevent  them  from  reporting  on  whom  their  evil  eye  had  fallen. 

Thanks  to  the  relative  advantages  of  its  climate,  Kamchatka  naturally  abounds 
far  more  in  animal  species  than  the  Bering  peninsula  and  the  Anadir  basin.  The 
lenmiings  {^Myodea  torquatim)  and  other  small  rodents  swarm  in  coimtless  millions, 
their  hosts  crossing  rivers,  lakes,  and  even  inlets  of  the  sea  in  straight  lines,  and 
are  decimated  on  the  route  by  shoals  of  voracious  fish.  At  certain  points  travellers 
have  been  arrested  for  hours  while  these  vast  armies  were  marching  past.  Their 
migrations  last  several  months,  covering  distances  of  over  600  miles.  Thus  the 
Kamchatka  lemmings  set  out  in  spring,  and  after  skirting  the  Gulf  of  Penjina, 
north  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  reach  their  summer  camping  g^unds  on  the  west 
coast  about  the  middle  of  July,  and  generally  get  back  to  Kamchatka  in  October. 
However,  the  nug^tions  are  not  regular,  and,  according  to  Bove,  the  lemmings  of 
the  Chukchi  coast  are  sedentary  and  non-gregarious.  The  Kamchadales  are  greatly 
rejoiced  when  the  animals  make  no  preparations  for  quitting  their  winter  quarters 
at  the  usual  time,  anticipating  from  this  symptom  a  good  season  and  abundance  of 
everything.  The  industrious  and  provident  lemmings  store  up  their  supplies  of 
com  and  roots  in  large  underground  depots,  which  they  are  said  to  cover  with 
poisonous  herbs  when  setting  out,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  the  depredations 
of  other  species  of  rodents.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  statement  of  Krasheuiuuikov, 
who,  however,  does  not  vouch  for  its  truth.  In  hard  times  the  Kamchadales  draw 
from  these  storehouses,  but  never  fail  to  replace  what  they  have  taken  with  caviar 
or  fish,  in  order  not  to  drive  these  beneficent  purveyors  to  despair. 

Many  animal  species  have  been  reduced  in  numbers  since  the  Russian  hunters 
have  begun  the  systematic  work  of  extermination  in  these  regions.  The  bearers  of 
valuable  furs,  sables,  ermines,  gluttons,  foxes,  are  now  seldom  met,  and  many  hunt- 
ing stations  have  been  abandoned  since  the  disappearance  of  the  game.  But  in 
Kamchatka  from  6,000  to  9,000  sables  are  yearly  taken  and  exported  to  Russia  by 
American  traders  settled  at  Petropavlosk  and  on  the  Okhotsk  coast.  The  various 
species  of  foxes  were  so  plentiful  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  though  driven 
from  the  Kamchadale  tents  with  blows  of  sticks,  they  would  still  return  to  share 
the  meal  with  the  dogs.  But  now  they  have  become  very  scarce,  and  the  costly 
blue  species  is  said  to  have  been  replaced  by  one  bearing  a  white  fur  of  little  value. 

The  work  of  extermination  has  been  even  more  thorough  in  the  seas,  from  which 
some  species  have  disappeared  altogether.  Till  the  middle  of  the  present  century 
the  whales  were  met  in  most  abundance  in  the  Bering  waters,  which  were  visited  by 
hundreds  of  American  whalers,  especially  from  New  Bedford  and  other  New  Eng- 
land ports.  But  these  waters,  like  those  of  Spitzbergen  and  other  parts  of  the  Atlantic, 
are  now  frequented  only  by  a  few  stray  specimens,  and  none  at  all  arc  said  to  be 


mmm 


-- — " '-"i-r'  i-ii^^r,'-*'^r'-tf»iTT^iii  r     r  imliti 'in  ni  jiui    mii'M  i 


408 


ASIATIC  EUS8IA. 


found  west  of  Serdtze-Kamen.  The  Bea-otters,  whose  fur  is  very  valuable,  are  no 
longer  met  on  the  shores  of  Bering  Island,  where  Steller  and  his  associates  killed 
700  of  these  animals  during  the  eight  months  of  their  residence  there.  The  sea- 
lion  ( Otaria  SMleri),  formidable  in  appearance,  but  really  a  timid  creature,  is  only 
met  here  and  there  on  a  few  isolated  spots,  though  formerly  abounding  in  these 
waters.  The  great  sea-cow  also,  which  bore  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  lamentin 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  which  was  so  called  by  certain  naturalists,  has  been 
completely  exterminated.  Seen  for  the  first  time  by  Steller  in  1741,  the  last 
specimens  are  supposed  to  have  been  killed  about  1780.  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  this  huge  monster,  28  to  30  feet  long  and  weighing  over  3  tons, 
was  abundant  enough  to  supply  food  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  Kamchatka ;  but  its 
range  was  limited  by  the  Commander's  Archipelago,  where  the  bed  of  the  sea  was 
covered  with  forests  of  algae  growing  80  to  100  feet  high,  and  forming  their  chief 
grazing  grounds.  Being  thus  confined  to  a  restricted  area,  the  whole  species  was 
destroyed  in  less  than  half  a  century. 

The  sea-bear  (^Otaria  uraina)  was  also  threatened  with  speedy  extinction,  when 
an  American  Company  owning  the  Pribilov  Islands  obtained  from  the  Russian 
Government  the  exclusive  right  to  hunt  this  animal  in  the  Bering  waters  for  a  tax 
of  two  roubles  for  each  capture.  A  village  of  300  Aleutians  from  Atcha  Island 
has  been  built  by  the  company  on  the  north-west  side  of  Bering  Island,  which  was 
uninhabited  till  then.  Reared  in  herds  almost  Uke  domestic  animals,  and  protected 
from  indiscriminate  slaughter,  the  sea-bears  have  multiplied  prodigioiisly  during 
the  last  twenty  years,  and  whereas  formerly  the  hunt  never  yielded  more  than 
3,200  in  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  and  Commander's  Archipelagos,  from  12,000 
to  13,000  are  now  annually  killed  in  Bering  Island  alone.  These  animals  have  the 
sense  of  property  developed  to  a  remarkable  degree.  Each  head  of  a  family,  con- 
sisting of  from  100  to  150  members,  selects  some  camping  ground  on  the  rocks, 
and  immediately  attacks  the  first  stranger  who  attempts  to  encroach  in  his 
domain.  Spectators  assemble  from  all  quarters,  and  generally  end  by  taking  part 
in  the  fight,  which  thus  often  rages  over  spaces  several  hundred  yards  in  extent. 
The  male  is  very  tender  and  watchfid,  but  also  very  irritable,  and  should  a  female 
let  her  little  one  fall,  he  bangs  bar  against  the  rocks  and  knocks  her  about  immerci- 
fully.    But  the  quarrel  is  soon  over,  and  followed  by  much  mutual  weeping. 

Inhabitants — ^The  Chukchis. 

Being  almost  exclusively  fishers,  hunters,  or  pastors,  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Bering  peninsula,  of  Kamchatka  and  neighbouring  islands,  regulate  their  pursuit 
entirely  according  to  the  climatic  conditions,  almost  everywhere  changp!ng  their 
dress,  diet,  dwellings,  and  camping  grounds  with  the  seasons.  The  Chukchis,  or 
Chailktus — that  is  to  say,  "  Men  "  * — who  are  the  most  numerous  nation  in  north- 
east Siberia,  follow  their  reindeer  herds  over  the  whole  of  the  Bering  peninsula,  the 

*  But  Hooper  ("  Ten  Months  among  the  Tents  of  the  Toski ")  says  that  their  real  name  is  nuki; 
that  is,  •'  Brothers,"  or  "  ConfiBdeiates. 


fsasssfp? 


jwmf- 


•-,.'  Xi^K^'MmS!,:^ 


luable,  are  no 
sociatca  killed 
ire.  The  sea- 
tature,  is  only 
ding  in  these 
>  the  lamentin 
ists,  has  been 
741,  the  last 
middle  of  the 
igover  3  tons, 
latka ;  but  its 
){  the  sea  was 
ng  their  chief 
le  species  was 

inction,  when 
1  the  Russian 
iters  for  a  tax 
Atcha  Island 
id,  which  was 
and  protected 
^oiisly  during 
Bd  more  than 
,  from  12,000 
mals  have  the 
a  family,  con- 
on  the  rocks, 
croauh  in  his 
»y  taking  part 
rds  in  extent, 
lould  a  female 
bout  immerci- 
eeping. 


bitants  of  the 
their  pursuit 
lang^g  their 
I  ChuKchis,  or 
tion  in  north- 
peninsula,  the 

1  nameia  Tiuki; 


-~4t- 


THE  CHUKCHT8. 


409 


Anadir  busin,  and  beyond  the  last  spurs  of  the  Stanovoi,  in  the  tundras  watered  by 
the  rivers  Eolima  and  Indigirka.  The  limits  of  their  territory  south  of  the 
Yukaghir  country  were  fixed  in  1869  by  an  imperial  decree.  But  although  their 
domain  thua  comprises  altogether  about  320,000  square  miles,  it  contains  a  popula- 
tion of  not  more  than  12,000.  Bove,  of  the  Nordenskjold  expedition,  estimates  the 
Chukchis  themselves  at  from  3,000  to  6,000  only ;  but  he  made  no  extensive  incur- 
sions into  the  interior,  and  was  acquainted  with  the  coast  tribes  alone.  lie  traces 
them  originally  to  the  Amur  basin,  while  Neunmnn  brings  them  from  the  northern 
parts  of  the  New  World. 

The  Chukchi  type  is  that  of  the  round-headed  Mongolian,  with  broad,  fiat 
features  and  high  cheek  bones.  The  nose  is  often  so  deeply  embedded  between  the 
puffed  cheeks  that  a  ruler  might  be  placed  across  the  face  without  touching  it. 
The  lips  are  thick,  and  the  black  hair  falling  over  a  low  brow  renders  it  still  lower 
in  appearance  The  Chukchis  have  a  strong  neck,  vigorous  muscles,  fine  and 
delicate  extremities,  and  are  mostly  of  low  size,  though  some  of  tall  stature  are  met. 
They  have,  on  the  whole,  a  decided  physical  resemblance  to  the  American  Eskimo, 
and  by  means  of  these  two  nations  the  transition  is  imperceptibly  effected  between 
the  aborigines  of  the  Old  and  New  World.  From  the  Red  Skins  to  the  Yakuts 
and  Buriats,  constant  interminglings  have  produced  all  the  intermediate  links, 
bringing  the  relationship  closer  and  closer,  although  the  languages  still  present 
fundamental  differences.  Some  of  the  Chukchis  perfectly  resemble  the  Dakotah 
Indians,  while  the  obvious  analogy  of  type  between  them  and  the  Eskimo,  their 
common  usages  and  implements  like  those  of  the  stone  age  in  Europe  and  America, 
have  induced  some  anthropologists  to  suppose  that  these  two  sub- Arctic  peoples  are 
the  survivors  of  a  prehistoric  race,  gradually  driven  northwards  by  pressure  from 
the  south.  Thus  their  ancestors  would  have  to  be  sought  not  in  their  present 
domain,  but  in  the  southern  regions  where  the  vestiges  are  still  found  of  arts  and 
industries  analogous  to  their  own. 

However  this  may  be,  the  present  Chukchis  do  not  look  like  a  people  in  decay, 
but  hold  their  own  well  amongst  the  other  natives  of  the  Siberian  seaboard.  Their 
relations  with  the  Slavs  are  of  too  slight  a  character  to  make  the  Russian  rule  much 
felt,  and  many  of  them  are  even  unaware  of  the  existence  of  the  "  White  Czar," 
who  is  spoken  of  with  such  awe  and  respect  by  the  Mongolians  of  the  Chinese 
frontier.  Owing  to  their  contact  with  the  American  whalers  they  are  better 
acquainted  with  the  United  States  than  with  Russia,  and  many  English  words  have 
been  introduced  into  their  language.  They  pay  the  yataak  in  fox  or  other  skins, 
and  understand  that  this  tax  passes  from  hand  to  hand  to  the  feet  of  a  great 
potentate  enthroned  in  Irkutsk;  but  they  do  not  know  that  this  chief  is  the 
servant  of  one  more  powerful  still. 

The  Chukchi  nation^  is  naturally  divided  into  two  distinct  groups,  the  inland 
and  the  coast  people,  differing  not  only  in  habits  and  pursuits,  but  even  in  speech. 
Those  of  the  tundras,  living  on  the  flesh  and  milk  of  their  reindeer,  are  generally 
more  comfortable  than  the  fishing  tribes,  although  even  amongst  the  latter  great 
disparity  of  fortunes  often  prevails.    According  to  Bove  there  are  still  herds  of 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


from  20,000  to  30,000  bclonf^ing  to  ono  person,  while  Krasheninnikov  speaks  of 
Koriuk  <!liiofH  owners  of  us  inuny  ns  100,000  reindeer.  The  reindeer  pastors  are 
conNtuntly  on  the  move,  migrating  across  the  tundras  for  hundreds  of  miles  between 
the  rivers  Kolima  and  Anadir.  From  these  roaming  habits  they  have  developed  a 
remarkable  talent  for  tracing  charts  of  the  country  on  the  ground.  Many  travellers 
speak  with  admiration  of  these  plans,  by  the  help  of  which  they  have  often  been 
enabled  to  traverse  the  wilderness  with  perfect  confidence.  The  herdsmen  have 
olso  the  faculty  of  gaining  the  attachment  of  their  herds.  They  gononiUy  despise 
the  fishing  tribes,  who  are  more  sedentary,  less  brave  and  careful  of  their  personal 
appearance,  and  also  much  poorer  than  the  reindeer  Chukchis,  from  whom  they 
are  obliged  to  beg  for  hides  to  make  their  tents  and  garments.  The  two  g^eat 
divisions  may  possibly  even  belong  to  distinct  races,  for  they  differ  both  in  typo 
and  speech.  The  fisher  is  more  exposed  to  the  risk  of  hunger  during  winter,  and 
is  compelled  to  be  more  provident  in  laying  in  supplies.  lie  dries  the  fish,  and 
collects  the  sprouts  of  the  dwarf  willow  ond  of  several  other  plants,  which,  after 
being  fermented  and  then  frozen,  supply  him  with  a  winter  salad  ond  soup.  He 
also  digs  for  various  roots  and  tubers,  and  the  old  women  remove  from  the  stomach 
of  the  reindeer  the  still  undigested  green  stuff,  which,  as  with  the  Eskimo,  forms 
one  of  their  most  keenly  relished  dishes.  But  the  staple  of  their  food  is  fish.  The 
smell  of  the  seal  oil  used  for  heating  and  lighting  purposes  contributes  to  render 
life  amongst  them  almost  intolerable  to  Europeans. 

The  Chukchis  were  formerly  a  warlike  and  conquering  people.  They  fought 
valiantly  against  the  Russians,  and  when  they  at  last  consented  to  enter  into  com- 
mercial relations  with  them,  they  presented  their  wares  on  the  point  of  the  spear. 
Even  recently  the  Onkilon  nation,  dwelling  on  the  coast  about  Cape  North,  has  been 
expelled  by  the  Chukchis.  Nordenskjold  saw  an  abandoned  villag^e  belonging  to 
the  vanquished  tribe,  the  survivors  from  which  hod  fled  to  the  south  of  Bering 
Strait,  near  the  Anadir  delta,  and  ore  known  to  most  Russian  writers  under  the 
name  of  Ankoli  or  NamoUo.  They  are  distinguished  by  their  agglutinant 
language  from  the  surrounding  Chukchi  tribes,  who,  according  to  Bove,  speak  a 
dialect  of  Mongolian  orig^.  The  Chukchis  wore  cuirasses  of  whole-skin  or  other 
armour  of  wood  and  ivory  like  that  of  the  Japanese,  but  have  laid  all  this  aside 
with  their  warlike  habits.  At  present  they  are  the  most  peaceful  people  in  the 
world,  devotedly  attached  to  each  other,  full  of  kindly  feeling  and  good-humour 
under  all  their  trials,  and  extremely  gentle  in  their  fomily  relotions.  They  no 
longer  kill  off  the  old  people,  as  formerly  required  by  filial  devotion,  in  order  thus 
to  spare  them  the  inevitable  struggle  with  cold  and  hunger.  According  to 
Onatzevich  most  of  the  old  men  now  make  away  with  themselves  to  relieve  their 
children  from  the  pain  of  having  to  give  the  fatal  blow.  In  1848  Hooper  met  a 
young  man  who  hod  just  dispatched  his  mother  at  her  own  request,  and  whose 
obedience  had  been  approved  by  all. 

Having  become  Christians  and  "civilised"  by  their  intercourse  with  the 
American  whalers,  the  Chukchis  have  given  up  some  of  their  old  rites ;  but  they 
still  bum  their  dead,  or  expose  them  on  platforms  to  bo  devoured  by  the  ravens. 


"im  !P<i|!y>jn!» 


mmmm§j,!?n' 


■SLlLAk 


»  iMimmmmmmi 


mmnimMmm' 


^r 


THE  OHUKCHIS. 


411 


kov  speaks  of 
or  pastors  are 
miles  between 
■c  developed  a 
any  travellers 
ve  often  been 
erdsmen  have 
icrally  despise 
their  personal 
n  whom  they 
'he  two  great 
both  in  typo 
ig  winter,  and 
)  the  fish,  and 
I,  which,  after 
ud  Boup.  He 
n  the  stomach 
Eskimo,  forms 
1  is  fish.  The 
utes  to  render 

They  fought 

ater  into  com- 

;  of  the  spear. 

orth,  has  been 

belonging  to 

ith  of  Bering 

tors  under  the 

r    agglutinant 

Bove,  speak  a 

s-skin  or  other 

all  this  aside 

people  in  the 

good-humour 

>ns.     They  no 

,  in  order  thus 

According  to 

to  relieve  their 

Hooper  met  a 

est,  and  whose 

arse  with  the 
•ites ;  but  they 
by  the  ravens. 


They  also  sacrifice  animals  to  the  genii  of  the  hills,  rivers,  and  hot  springs,  and 
purchase  two  or  more  wives  when  rich  enough  in  reindeer  to  justify  this  exj)enHive 
luxury.  Thanks  to  the  women,  who  set  up  the  tnnts,  drcHs  the  food,  span  the 
reindeer,  the  men  are  able  to  devote  themselves  cxcluHivcly  to  fishing,  hunting,  and 
trade.  But  although  apparently  slaves,  the  women  are  the  real  musters.  The 
children  are  treated  with  great  kindness,  are  earn"  '  about  by  father  and  mother 
alternately,  and  never  allowed  to  suffer  from  cold  or  ..unger.  They  are  so  wrapped 
in  skins  as  to  resemble  a  round  ball  crossed  by  a  bar,  their  outstretchcU  arms  being 
unable  to  hang  down  the  sides  of  their  packing-cases. 

The  Chukchis  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  Tunguses  more  than  by  any 
other  Siberian  people.  The  costume  of  both  is  alike  in  cut  and  ornamental  details, 
and  many  Chukchi  women  are  tattooed  in  Tungus  fashion  with  two  black-blue 
convex  lines  running  from  the  eye  to  the  chin,  and  serving  as  a  stem  for  a  rich 
floriated  design  ramifying  towards  nose  and  mouth.  Amongst  others  the  pattern 
is  reversed,  the  primary  lines  from  temple  to  chin  following  the  anterior  swelling 
of  the  cheek,  with  circles  and  other  curves  branching  to  the  lobe  of  the  ear.  Since 
they  have  been  baptized  some  of  the  men  have  the  chin  painted  with  a  Latin  cross 
in  black,  which  replaces  the  tooth  of  the  sea-horse  thrust  by  their  forefathers 
through  the  cheek,  and  regarded  as  the  most  highly  prized  ornament  by  the 
warriors.  A  rude  representation  of  fighting  or  hunting  exploits  is  also  tattooed  on 
the  breast.  The  search  made  by  Nordenskjold  and  his  associates  amongst  the  old 
kitchen  refuse  of  the  Chukchis  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  ornaments  and  utensils 
of  stone,  bone,  or  fish  and  mammoth  teeth.  The  resemblance  between  most  of  these 
objects  and  those  in  use  amongst  the  Oreenlanders  is  complete,  the  coincidence 
being  too  great  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  like  surroundings.  Hence  they  must  be 
regarded  as  the  result  of  commercial  relations  carried  on  from  tribe  to  tribe  from 
the  Bering  peninsula  through  the  Eskimo  country  to  Ijabrador  and  Greenland.  In 
the  same  way  the  TArki  word  for  boat  or  skiff  has  passed  imder  the  form  of  kayak, 
on  the  one  hand,  from  the  Yakuts  to  the  Chukchis,  and  so  on  to  the  Eskimo  and 
Greenlander ;  on  the  other,  through  the  Osmanli  Turks,  to  the  elegant  caique  of  the 
Bosporus,  whence  it  has  been  transmitted  under  Spanish  influence  to  the  cayuco  of 
the  American  aborigines. 

As  forming  the  mediiun  of  trade  between  Siberia  and  America,  the  Chukchis 
seem  to  have  been  formerly  very  powerful  on  the  coasts  of  Bering  Strait.  They 
held  the  foremost  position  amongst  the  Eskimo  and  other  traders,  who  met  for 
barter  especially  in  one  of  the  Diomede  or  Ovozdeva  group,  in  the  middle  of  the 
strait.  But  the  commercial  supremacy  has  now  passed  to  the  Americans,  who 
have  supplied  the  Chukchis  with  iron  instruments  to  replace  those  of  stone  or  bone, 
and  who  have  brought  them  into  relation  with  the  industrial  world.  American 
implements  and  fishing  gear,  revolvers  and  breech-loaders,  have  already  found  their 
way  to  the  strait,  accompanied,  unfortunately,  by  the  fatal  brandy,  for  a  small  gloss 
of  which  adulterated  stuff  the  Chukchis  will  eagerly  exchange  all  the  produce  of 
the  chase  and  fisheries.  But  when  sober  they  scarcely  yield  to  their  Yakut  neigh- 
bours in  driving  a  bargain. 


-r^ammyr. 


412 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Since  the  almvo  wa8  pas8od  throuf^h  the  press  Mr.  W.  )i.  Dull,  of  the  United 
Stiitos  CouHt  Hurvoy,  has  communicutcd  a  letter  to  the  Proceetlingn  of  the  Royal 
Gfograp/iical  Socu'ti/  for  September,  1H81,  in  which  he  nrgucs  aji^uinst  Lieutenant 
Nordqvist,  of  the  Vcfin  expedition,  that  the  Chukchis  arc  simply  a  branch  of  the 
Koriak  race.  The  Chukchi  peuiuHulu,  ho  writes,  "  is  inhabited  by  two  races  who 
live  in  intimate  commercial  union,  but  who  {mssess  radically  different  languages, 
who  do  not  intermarry,  and  whoso  modes  of  life  are  for  the  most  part  perfectly 
distiiK't.  They  communicuto  with  each  other,  and  with  the  whalers  ond  traders,  by 
means  of  an  ungrummutical  jargon  composed  of  words  of  both  languages,  and  this 
jargon,  being  written  down  by  travellers  as  the  real  language  of  the  people,  has  l)een 
the  main  agent  in  producing  the  present  confusion."  The  two  races  in  question  are 
the  Eskimo  and  the  Koriaks.  The  Eskimo,  settled  exclusively  on  the  coast,  are 
comparatively  recent  arrivals  from  the  opposite  shores  of  America,  and  call  them- 
selves Yuit — that  is,  "  People  " — a  contracted  form  of  the  American  Eskimo  word 
Innuit. '  They  occupy  a  far  more  extensive  strip  of  territory  than  is  usually  sup- 
posed.    "  The  supposition  that  the  Innuit  race  are  only  found  west  and  south  of 

Cape  Chukotski  is  erroneous The  East  Cape  village  is  essentially  an  Innuit 

settlement,  though  it  may  contain  some  Eorak  (Koriak)  residents.  I  suspect  that 
they  extend  much  farther  to  the  westward  on  the  North  Siberian  coast,  but  of  this 
I  have  only  the  evidence  of  intelligent  whalers  and  troders,  fi!{ch  as  Captains  Rad- 
fiold,  Owen,  Smith,  and  Herendeon,  who  have  had  ten  or  liftoen  years'  experience 
with  them,  and  who  all  clearly  recognise  the  racial  distinctions." 

The  rest  of  the  seaboard  and  all  the  interior  are  peopled  with  "  roving  bands 
belonging  to  different  branches  of  the  Eorak,  or  Eoriak  nation,  who  are  distin- 
guished by  different  names,  as  Deer  Koraks,  Dog  Eoraks,  Chukches,  Keindeer 
Men,  Wandering  Chukches,   &c.     They  all  speak   dialects  of  the  Eorak 

TONGUE,  and  chiefly  depend  upon  the  reindeer  f  >i  their  subsistence It  being 

remembered  that  the  Eorak  people  inhabit  the  whole  of  the  interior,  that  some  of 
them  are  almost  always  present  in  the  Innuit  villages  on  commercial  or  other  busi- 
ness, and  accompany  the  parties  of  Innuit  who  board  the  whnlers  and  traders  for 
barter,  that  each  locality  has  both  a  Eorak  and  Innuit  name,  and  that  the  jargon 
of  both  languages  is  the  means  of  commimication,  it  will  be  realised  how  great  the 
difficulty  is  for  a  transient  visitor  to  disentangle. 

"  We  learn  from  Erman  that  the  so-called  '  Chukchis '  in  the  west  of  the  penin- 
Bula  call  themselves  Tsau-chu.  At  Plover  Bay  I  ascertained  that  those  in  that 
vicinity  call  themselves  Taau-t/tt  (plural,  Tmu-ya-at).  According  to  Stimpson, 
those  of  Semavini  Strait  call  themselves  Tsau-  (or  Tbu\  ^«tn,  whence  the  word 
Chukche  might  easily  be  derived.  Those  of  St.  Lawrence  Bay  call  themselves 
Taau-ga ;  and  on  the  north  coast,  according  to  Nordqvist,  they  call  themselves 
'  Chau-chau '  (plural  -ate),  which  I  suspect  to  be  merely  a  rendering  of  the  term 
given  by  Erman."  To  this  it  may  bo  added  that,  according  to  Hooper,*  the  true 
form  of  the  word  is  Tuiiki,  which  means  "  Brothers,"  or  "  Confederates." 

•  "  Ten  Montha  among  the  TenU  of  the  Toaki." 


mp 


SnWBtlBMMM 


ssrmmsam 


THE  KORIAKS  AND  K 


IADALES. 


413 


f  tho  United 
of  the  Royal 
it  Lioutonant 
3ranch  of  tho 
ivo  races  who 
nt  languagcn, 
lurt  porfpctly 
id  tiwlerH,  by 
if^H,  and  thia 
>ple,  baa  l>een 
1  question  are 
the  coast,  are 
id  call  them- 
Eskimo  word 

I  usually  Bup- 
and  south  of 
illy  an  Innuit 
[  suspect  that 
)t,  but  of  this 
'aptains  Rod- 
pa'  exjwrionce 

roving  bands 
bo  are  distin- 
ties,  Reindeer 

THE    KoRAK 

.  .  .  It  being 
that  some  of 
or  other  buai- 
id  traders  for 
at  the  jargon 
low  great  the 

of  the  penin- 
those  in  that 
to  Stimpson. 
ace  the  word 

II  themselves 
U  themselves 
^  of  the  term 
per,*  the  true 


Thk  Koriaka  and  Kam  'r\m>i.iHi. 

Tho  Chukchi  ethnical  domain  seems  to  strclcli  'vond  the>  ait  to  the  Aincricnn 
mainland,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  some  EHkinio  criininuuiii.  <  m-i  m  <l  on  the 
Asiatic  side,  at  least  if  the  Ankali  or  NamoUos  belong,  as  is  goncrnl]}  ^  ikisocI.  N  . 
this  stock.  Tho  Koriaks,  who  dwell  south  of  tho  Anadir  basin,  iilxm  ho  neck  •>  f 
tho  Kamchatka  peninsula,  in  the  Ponjina  valley,  and  on  tho  north-  <;t  coaHi  <«i 
the  8ca  of  Okhotsk,  seem  to  bo  related  to  the  Chukchis,  and  speak  a  'lialcet  clo^ety 
resembling  theirs.  Estimated  at  over  5,000,  they  are  divided,  like  the  Chukchis, 
into  settled  fishing  tribes  and  nomad  reindeer  keepers  and  hunters.  The  southern 
limit  of  their  territory  in  Kamchatka  is  the  village  of  Tigil,  on  tho  river  Syedonka, 
where  they  go  once  a  year  to  barter  with  the  Kamchadales  and  Russians.  Tigil  is 
the  commercial  centre  of  the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula. 

Travellers  do  not  speak  very  highly  of  the  sedentary  Koriaks,  who  live  mostly 
on  the  northern  bays  of  the  Sed  of  Okhotsk.  Ooscendcd  from  ruined  nomads 
deprived  of  their  reindeer  herds,  their  only  resource  is  fishing  and '  trade  with 
foreign  sailors  and  Russian  dealers.  From  the  former  they  have  acquired  drunken 
and  dissipated  habits,  from  the  latter  lying  and  thievish  propensities.  They  are 
eaten  up  by  vice  and  squalor,  and  are  probably  the  most  degraded  of  all  Siberian 
tribes.  But  the  Koriak  nomads,  still  owning  numerous  reindeer  herds,  accustomed 
to  a  free  and  independent  life,  and  with  the  full  consciousness  of  their  equality,  do 
not  yield  to  the  Tunguses  in  intelligence,  uprightness,  natural  dignity,  and  manly 
bearing.  They  recognise  neither  government  nor  outward  laws,  the  owner  of  even 
a  dozen  reindeer  being  a  master  and  "  law  unto  himself."  Tho  families  are  gene- 
rally associated  in  groups  of  sixes  or  nnvens,  forming  small  commonwealths,  in 
which  all  have  an  equal  voice,  and  join  or  leave  at  pleasure.  The  Layon,  as  the 
wealthiest  member  of  the  community  is  usually  called,  is  generally  consulterl  by  the 
rest  on  the  choice  of  a  camping  ground,  or  on  the  best  time  for  breaking  up,  but  he  has 
no  personal  authority.  In  other  respects  the  Koriak  nomads  are  the  most  obliging 
and  hospitable  of  Siberians,  and  in  their  domestic  relations  the  best  of  husbands 
and  fathers.  During  two  years  and  a  half's  residence  amongst  them  Kennan 
never  saw  a  Koriak  nomad  beat  any  of  his  family.  They  also  treat  their  animals 
very  gently,  and  so  attached  are  they  to  their  herds  that  they  will  refuse  to  soil  a 
live  reindeer  to  strangers  at  any  price.  Even  for  their  own  use  they  abstain  from 
killing  them  except  under  severe  pressure,  and  they  are  consequently,  in  a  relative 
sense,  the  largest  owners  of  reindeer  in  Siberia. 

In  their  habits  the  Koriaks  naturally  show  points  of  contact  with  the  Chukchis 
and  Kamchadales,  between  whom  they  live,  and  with  whom  they  have  frequent 
trading  relations.  They  have  also  great  confidence  in  their  shamans,  able  conjurers 
who  perform  the  most  surprising  tricks  in  the  open  air.  The  Koriaks  offer  sacri- 
fices to  the  evil  spirits,  considering  it  useless  to  propitiate  the  favourable  deities. 
The  heads  of  the  victims  are  stuck  on  stones  facing  the  rising  sun.  Like  fhe 
Kamchadales,  they  are  obliged  to  earn  their  wives  by  working  one  or  more  years 
under  the  father-in-law's  roof.     Till  the  wedding-day,  brought  about  by  a  feigned 


imm 


414 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


nlMluctioii,  tho  l)otroth«l  in  guanhnl  by  vigilant  duonnan,  wh<»  drivo  off  the  too 
imjM)rtuimto  suitor  with  tliongH,  whipn,  and  Mtickn.  Tho  ciwtom  ntill  prt^vuiU  of 
killing  tho  ugwl  and  wickly  in  order  to  Hpuro  thoni  protrac^tinl  Hutforingn.  All 
KoriakH  regard  tlwH  kind  of  doath  m  tho  natural  ond  of  their  cxiMtenee,  and  when 
the  tinio  neeniHat  hand  they  prem!ril)c  tho  manner  in  which  thoy  dewire  thin  Muprcmo 
proof  of  filial  affliction  to  Ihj  carrie<l  out.  Homo  prefer  stoning,  while  others  ch«x)no 
the  axe  or  knife.  All  young  Koriakft  practim)  tho  art  of  giving  the  fatal  blow  in 
Hueh  a  way  an  to  inflict  tho  least  puin  on  the  vii^tim.  Immediately  after  death  tho 
body  is  burnt,  no  tliat  the  spirit  may  escupo  into  tho  air.  At  the  time  of  Krashenin- 
nikov's  viHit  infanticide  was  common,  and  of  twins  ono  was  always  sacrifice<l. 

A  number  of  the  Koriaks  have  hitherto  contrived  to  completely  maintain  their 
independence,  and  do  not  oven  jwy  tho  tribute  to  tho  Ilussiau  officials.  No  other 
Hilwrian  iMJople  have  struggled  ho  manfully  to  preserve  their  freedom  from  the  llus- 
sians.  In  their  warfare  with  tho  Cossacks  they  always  proved  tho  most  fonnidable 
of  adversaries,  because  they  had  really  "  made  u  bargain  with  death."  When  they 
found  themselves  surrounded  by  enemies  too  numerous  and  too  well  anned  to  bo 
overcome,  thoy  took  an  oath  to  "  lose  tho  sun,"  slaughtered  their  women  and  chil- 
dren to  save  them  from  slavery  or  torture,  bunit  all  thoy  jwssossod,  then  rushed 
into  tho  midst  of  tho  carnage.  No  (me  thought  of  flying,  all  fighting  to  tho  last, 
and  falling  side  by  side  amidst  heaps  of  tho  slain. 

The  Kamchadalos,  or  Itelmen,  by  tho  Koriaks  called  Koichalo,  probably  owe 
their  Russian  name  to  that  of  the  river  Kamchatka,  which  has  also  become  that  of 
tho  whole  peninsula.  They  are  quite  distinct,  both  from  tho  Chukchis  and 
Koriaks,  and  evidently  belong  to  another  stock,  although  under  like  climatic 
conditions  all  these  peoples  have  adopted  analogous  habits.  They  are  generally 
smaller  than  the  Koriaks,  whom  they  otherwise  resemble  in  their  round,  broad 
features,  prominent  cheek  bones,  small  deep-set  eyes,  flat  nose,  black  hair,  swarthy 
complexion.  Their  language,  which  is  very  guttural,  differs  in  its  syntax  from 
that  of  the  Koriaks,  and  is  composed  of  unchangeable  roots,  whose  senfle  is  modified 
by  prefixes.  But  this  pecidiar  idiom  is  rapidly  disappearing,  like  the  race  itself. 
In  certain  places,  and  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Kamchatka  River,  the  popula- 
tion has  become  almost  thoroughly  Russified,  and  the  old  speech  is  here  no  longer 
current.  Having  become  "  orthodox  "  Christians,  and  diversely  intermingled  by 
marriage  with  the  Russian  settlers,  the  Kamohadales  are  becoming  gradually 
absorbed  in  their  masters,  and  the  national  type  has  even  been  effaced.  The 
Kuriles,  as  those  of  the  south  are  called,  have  not  yet  entirely  lost  their  native 
speech,  and  those  of  the  Penjina  valley  are  the  least  Slavonized  of  the  native  tribes, 
their  language  having  adopted  but  few  Russian  elements. 

The  number  of  still  remaining  full-blood  Kamchadales  is  estimated  at  about 
3,000.  They  are  mostly  of  a  remarkably  gentle  disposition,  and  very  honest, 
except  in  the  villages,  where,  by  dint  of  cheating  them,  the  Russians  have  taught 
them  deceitful  habits.  Their  house  is  open  winter  and  summer  to  all  comers,  they 
never  weary  of  being  usefid,  and  soon  forget  injuries,  preserving  an  astonishing 
equanimity  of  temperament  in  the  midjst  of  much  suffering  and  ill-treatment. 


'Wmsmm 


iiei 


iMiliiil 


TIIK  K0RIAK8  AND  KAMCIIADALES. 


418 


off  the  too 
provuiU  of 
•riiif^H.  All 
»,  imd  when 
liJH  Huprcme 
thors  ohtmHO 
itul  blow  in 
)r  dooth  tho 
KntHheiun> 
ficcd, 

iutuin  their 
No  other 
)m  the  IluH* 
.  fonniduble 
When  they 
tnned  to  be 
on  and  chiU 
then  rusbod 
'  to  tho  luHt, 

robably  owe 
oino  that  of 
lukcbis  and 
ke  climatic 
re  generally 
ound,  brood 
air,  swarthy 
lyntax  from 
)  is  modified 
race  itself, 
the  popula- 
te no  longer 
■mingled  by 
^  gradually 
aced.  The 
their  native 
lotive  tribes, 


Before  tho  arrival  of  the  IluHNiuuN  they  were  their  own  muNterN,  but  the  oppri'MMion 
of  the  HrHt  eonciuerorn  drove  them  to  rvM  in  ll'M  and  1740.  Hinee  then, 
however,  they  have  ubundoued  ull  thoughtri  of  reMiNtance,  iin<l  the  luuiilileNt 
reproHentative  of  authority  {h  now  reeeivinl  with  a  renjM'ct  lM)rd«>riiig  t)n  veneration. 
I'l'e-umiueutly  connervative  in  all  their  wuyH,  they  never  al>undou  a  truck  onoo  laid 


Fi|.  'iio.— AvAciu  B4T. 
§tii»  I  I  tw,ooo^ 


OtoSFatboaM.         6  to  18  Vktbonu.  18  VkthanM  and  «pinui4«. 


ed  at  about 
rery  honest, 
have  taught 
iomers,  they 
astonishing 
1-treatment. 


down  by  their  fathers  until  it  has  been  trodden  into  an  absolutely  impassable  rut. 
There  is  nothing  of  the  heroic  temperament  of  the  Eoriaks  about  them,  and  the 
burden  of  their  plaintive  songs,  which  seem  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  moumfid 
cry  of  certain  sea-birds,  is  not  the  warlike  deeds  of  their  forefathers,  but  the 
humbler  themes  of  love,  labour,  sleighing  trips,  hunting  and  .fishing  expeditions. 
In  their  imitative  dances  they  mimic  the  movements  of  animals  with  wonderful 


ssst 


416 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


skill,  bounding  like  the  reindeer,  trotting  off  like  the  fox,  and  even  plunging  into 
the  water  and  swimming  like  the  seal.  Their  old  religions  practices  have  been 
discontinued,  though  the  report  is  still  occasionally  heard  of  a  dog  sacrificed  here 
and  there  to  the  evil  spirits,  who  scare  away  the  fish  and  the  game.  Many 
ceremonies,  which  were  formerly  religious  acts,  have  gradually  become  dramatic 
entertainments,  and  their  superstitions  are  scarcely  any  longer  to  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  Slav,  Finn,  Manchu,  or  other  inhabitants  of  Siberia. 

But  for  their  dogs,  the  life  of  the  Kamchadales  would  have  to  b  ^  completely 
modified  during  the  eight  winter  months.  These  animals,  which  are  wolfish  in 
appearance,  size,  fur,  and  even  voice,  seek  their  food  in  simimer  along  the  river 
banks  and  in  the  forests.  But  with  the  first  snow-flakes  they  return  faithfully  to 
their  master's  balngan.  In  courage  and  power  of  enduring  hardships  and  hunger 
they  are  surpassed  by  no  other  animal.  They  have  been  known  at  times  to  drag 
the  sleigh  for  forty-eight  hours  at  a  stretch  without  any  food  beyond  the  bits  of 
leather  torn  from  their  harness.  A  team  of  eleven  dogs  will  generally  make  from 
36  to  48  miles  a  day,  yoked  to  a  sleigh  carrying  one  man  and  a  load  of  450  lbs., 
and  some  have  covered  twice  and  even  thrice  the  distance  in  the  same  time. 
During  the  long  winter  months,  when  the  rivers  are  ice-bound  and  the  sea  wrapped 
in  fogs  or  tossed  by  storms,  social  intercourse  between  the  Kamchadale  villages  is 
kept  up  entirely  by  the  dogs.  But  for  them  almost  every  family  group  would  find 
itself  blocked  up  in  its  underground  dwelling  during  that  season. 


Topography. 

In  the  vast  region  comprising  the  Chukchi  and  Kamchatka  peninsulas  no  large 
centres  of  population  have  been  developed.  Nevertheless,  Petropavlovsk,  although 
no  larger  than  a  small  European  town,  had  recently  taken  rank  as  an  important 
stronghold.  Lying  on  the  east  coast  of  the  magnificent  Avacha  Bay,  this  capital 
is  completely  sheltered  from  all  winds,  and  large  vessels  may  lie  at  anchor  close  in 
shore.  In  more  favourable  latitudes,  and  near  populous  lands,  it  might  become  one 
of  the  great  emporiums  of  the  world.  But  since  the  whale  fisheries  of  the 
surrounding  seas  have  lost  their  importance,  and  the  peltry  trade  has  been  mono- 
polijied  by  a  few  dealers,  Petropavlovsk  has  been  greatly  reduced,  its  population 
rapidly  falling  from  about  1,000  to  500.  The  skins  of  the  sea-bear  taken  in  the 
Commander's  Archipelago  are  forwarded  by  the  American  Company  from  this 
port  to  San  Francisco,  where  they  are  dressed  for  the  market.  This  capital  of 
Kamchatka  is  proud  of  its  monimients,  erected  to  the  two  illustrious  navigators, 
Bering  and  La  Perouse,  whose  names  still  survive,  one  in  that  of  the  strait  flowing 
between  the  two  worlds,  the  other  in  that  of  the  channel  connecting  the  Seas  of 
Okhotsk  and  Japan.  The  old  fortifications  of  Petropavlovsk,  now  laid  out  in 
grass-^jlots  and  flower  beds,  recall  the  defeat  of  the  Anglo- French,  who  during 
the  Crimean  war  attacked  this  Kamchadale  village  at  the  extremity  of  the  Old 
World. 


m0 


)lunging  into 
;8  have  been 
icrificed  here 
ame.  Many 
me  dramatic 
listing^shed 

>  completely 
'e  wolfish  in 
ag  the  river 
faithfully  to 
i  and  hunger 
mes  to  drag 
1  the  bits  of 
y  make  from 
of  460  lbs., 
same  time, 
sea  wrapped 
Le  villages  is 
p  would  find 


lias  no  large 
sk,  although 
m  important 
,  this  capital 
hor  close  in 
i  become  one 
eries  of  the 
been  mono- 
s  population 
aken  in  the 
y  from  this 
lis  capital  of 
3  navigators, 
trait  flowing 
the  Seas  of 
laid  out  in 
who  during 
r  of  the  Old 


mmmmmmmmm 


STANOVOI  HIGHLANDS,  AMUB  BASIN,  EUSSIAN  MANCHUKIA.         417 

VII.— STANOVOI  HIGHLANDS,  AMUR  BASIN,  RUSSIAN  MANCHURIA. 

Of  all  the  geograpL  .cal  divisions  of  Siberia,  that  of  the  Amur  basin  and  neighbour- 
ing coast  lands  seems  destined  to  the  greatest  political  future.  Washed  by  the 
Sea  of  Japan,  projecting  southwards  between  China  and  Corea,  and  bordering  on 
China  itself  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  "  Great  Wall "  formerly  raised  as  a 
barrier  against  the  northern  barbarians,  the  valleys  of  the  Amur  and  of  its  southern 
affluents,  together  with  the  coast  of  Russian  Manchuria,  represent  in  the  extreme 
east  the  military  strength  of  a  nation  of  100,000,000  soids.  Here  also  is  the  only 
strip  of  vast  Russian  seaboard  bordering  on  a  sea  which  is  freely  open  for  nearly 
the  whole  year  to  the  oceanic  waters.  The  vessels  sailing  from  the  Manchurian 
ports  have  no  Bosporus  or  Sund  to  pass  through,  nor  are  they  ice-bound,  like 
those  of  Archangel,  for  some  ijight  months  in  the  year.  Although  lying  under  the 
same  parallels  as  the  Provence  and  Catalonian  shores,  the  inner  bays  of  Possiet  and 
Peter  the  Great  are  doubtless  blocked  by  ice  in  the  heart  of  winter.  But  this 
circiunstance  scarcely  impairs  the  aggressive  power  of  their  fleets,  which  in  any 
case  might  winter  in  some  friendly  port  farther  south.  What  Russian  Manchuria 
wants  before  it  can  acquire  the  political  ascendancy  claimed  for  it  by  Russia  is  a 
civilised  population,  enriched  by  agriculture,  trade,  and  industry.  Meanwhile 
these  regions  have  not  increased  in  population  a^  rapidly  as  Russian  patriotism  had 
expected ;  highways  of  communication  are  still  lacking — distance  has  not  yet  been 
overcome.  The  line  connecting  Vladivostok  with  Eronstadt  exists  rather  in  theory 
than  in  reality,  for  the  chain  of  Russian  towns  and  cultivated  lands  intended  one 
day  to  connect  them  is  still  interrupted  by  broad  gaps  throughout  its  eastern 
section.  Nor  is  it  likely  to  be  rapidly  completed,  for  most  of  the  Amur  basin  is 
occupied  with  rugged  highlands,  lakes,  and  swamps,  and  here  there  are  even  many 
tracts  still  altogether  imexplored.  la  Asia  the  Czar  may  still  be  said  to  possess 
little  more  than  the  framework  of  an  empire. 

The  heights,  hills,  mountains,  and  plateaux  limiting  the  Amur  basin  on  the 
north  form  collectively  one  of  those  little-known  regions  which  are  still  vaguely 
figured  on  our  maps  by  the  process  of  connecting  together  the  already  explored 
sections  by  means  of  shadowy  crests  sketched  at  random.  The  winding  range 
traced  from  the  Transbaikal  plateau  to  the  Chukchi  peninsula  for  a  distance  of  over 
2,400  miles  is  in  reality  nothing  more  than  a  "  Great  Divide."  Hence  Middendorff 
proposes  to  call  it  the  Stanovoi  Vodorazdyel,  or  "  Main  Water-parting,"  instead 
of  the  Stanovoi  Khrebet,  or  "Dorsal  Chain,"  as  it  has  hitherto  been  wrongly 
named.  We  know  how  greatly  the  watersheds  may  differ  from  mountain  ranges, 
which  in  many  places  are  crossed  by  them  at  right  angles.  A  slight  protuberance, 
the  mere  shifting  of  a  rock,  the  damming  up  of  a  morass  with  decayed  vegetation, 
or  a  dense  growth  of  reeds  will  at  times  suffice  to  change  the  dividing  line  between 
two  areas  of  drainage,  whereas  the  direction  of  the  main  ranges  is  laid  down  for 
ages  by  the  great  disturbances,  foldings,  fractures,  or  upheavals  that  have  taken 
place  in  past  geological  epochs  on  the  earth's  crust.  These  ranges  themselves  are 
doubtless  modified  from  age  to  age  under  the  action  of  the  various  terrestrial  and 


SS 


418 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


atmospheric  agencies ;  but  their  axis  remains  none  the  less  imchangcd.  It  reveals 
it«elf  by  the  underground  rocks  wherever  the  mountain  has  disappeared ;  it  is  con- 
tinued beneath  the  watercourses  crossing  it  from  side  to  side ;  its  presence  is  even 
conjectured  under  brood  marine  inlets.  According  to  Nycrchinsk,  the  conventional 
frontier  between  China  and  Russian  Siberia  was  intended  to  run  along  the  crest  of 
the  Btanovoi ;  but  this  was  never  anything  more  than  a  fictitious  limit.  Natural 
frontiers  are  not  formed  by  hypsometrical  lines,  but  by  distinct  climatic,  animal, 
and  vegetable  zones.     On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Stanovoi,  as  well  as  in  the 


Fig.  211. — Platbaux  ikND  IIiohlandb  or  Eabt  8iBUtu. 
fSwle  1  :  81,800,000. 


□ 

Lowland* 

above 
(SOOFeet. 


Plaiiuftoiii  LowPlateav,  High  Flutean, 
BOO  to  9Jimto  abore 

1,000  Feet      8,000  Feet.      8,000  Feet. 

•>—— >.^^—  aooiUka. 


Border 
Bengca. 


Aipiaa 


Lena  basin,  the  hillsides  and  the  low-lying  tracts  are  alike  covered  with  conifers, 
mosses,  and  lichens.  Hence  this  properly  forms  part  of  the  reindeer  domain. 
Notwithstanding  the  treaties  the  "Reindeer  Tunguses"  roamed  south  of  the 
Stanovoi  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Amur,  ot  least  4°  beyond  the  conventional 
frontier.  On  the  other  hand,  the  valleys  of  the  Zieya,  Bureya,  and  other  effluents 
of  the  main  stream  offer  vast  pasture  lands  far  more  suited  for  horse-breeding  than 
for  reindeer  herding.  Habits  and  culture  are  here  accordingly  modified.  In  these 
grazing  grounds  live  the  "  Horse  Tunguses,"  a  sedentary  people  averse  to  the  visits 
of  their  nomad  kinsmen,  and  who  formerly  paid  the  tribute  regularly  to  the 


-^ 


THE  STANOVOI  UPLANDS- THE  TABLONOI  EANOE. 


419 


It  reveals 
I ;  it  is  con- 
Bnce  is  even 
conventional 
the  crest  of 
t.  Natural 
itic,  animal, 
1  as  in  the 


th  conifers, 
let  domain, 
luth  of  the 
onventional 
ler  affluents 
)eding  than 
.  In  these 
to  the  visits 
irly  to  the 


Chinese  authorities.  But  the  Chinese  Government  had  set  up  the  frontier  land- 
marks, not  in  the  forests  of  the  Stanovoi  uplands,  but  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
about  the  natural  limits  of  the  prairie  region  between  the  Ilorso  and  Heindccr 
Tuug^ses. 

The  Stanovoi  Uplands — The  Yablonoi  Range. 

The  explorations  of  Middendorff,  Schwartz,  Ustoltzev,  Eropotkin,  and  others 
have  clearly  shown  that  the  Stanovoi  does  not  follow  the  winding  course  given  to 
it  by  the  early  travellers.  The  highland  masses  forming  the  "  backbone  "  of  East 
Siberia  consist  rather  of  a  broad  tableland  intersected  by  ridges  running  parallel 
in  some  places,  in  others  at  slightly  converging  angles.  The  whole  of  the  Mongo- 
lian plateau,  from  the  Eoso-gol  to  the  Great  Eingan,  forms  the  common  base  above 
which  rise  the  various  crests  conventionally  grouped  on  the  maps  as  more  or  less 
winding  mountain  ranges.  These  uplands  run  mainly  towards  the  north-east,  in 
which  direction  they  gradually  contract.  The  rivers,  also,  which  rise  between  the 
various  ridges  of  the  plateau  rim  at  first  in  the  same  general  direction  from  the 
south-west  to  the  north-east,  or  from  the  north-east  to  the  south-west,  and  then 
make  their  way  through  the  mountain  gorges  either  towards  the  Lena  and  Amur, 
or  else  directly  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  The  chains  rising  east  of 
the  Stanovoi  transversely  to  the  Amur,  and  still  farther  east  along  the  Pacific 
seaboard,  belong  to  the  same  orog^raphic  system,  and  follow  the  same  general  north- 
eastei'ly  direction. 

The  highland  region  stretching  south  of  Lake  Baikal  is  limited  towards  the 
Chinese  frontier  by  the  highest  section  of  the  Stanovoi,  known  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Dafiria  as  the  Tablonocoi  Khrebet,  or  "  Apple  Mountains,"  probably  from  their 
crab-apple  groves.  They  form  a  continuation  of  the  Eentei  of  the  Mongolians, 
but  are  in  reality  'merely  the  edge  of  a  plateau,  and  present  the  appearance  of 
mountains  only  on  their  east  side,  above  the  Ingoda  and  Chilka.  The  western  route, 
connecting  Lake  Baikal  with  Chita,  rises  to  the  summit  of  the  Tablonovoi  by  an  easy 
ascent,  along  which  a  railway  might  be  constructed,  and  which  terminates  east- 
wards in  lakes  and  swamps.  The  upper  portion  of  the  frontier  range  consists  of 
granitic  and  palaeozoic  rocks  covered  with  conifers,  and  strewn  on  their  summit 
with  chaotic  masses  of  granite  boulders.  The  rain,  which  falls  abundantly  on  the 
summits,  immediately  disappears  between  these  blocks,  flowing  under  the  rocks  and 
the  roots  of  the  trees  to  the  foot  of  the  hills,  where  the  imderground  rivulets 
reappear  and  expand  into  broad  morasses,  rendering  the  approach  to  the  uplands 
very  difficult  for  travellers.  These  Tablonovoi  crests  are  developed  with  great 
uniformity,  nowhere  presenting  the  romantic  aspect  of  limestone  ranges.  Their 
vegetation  is  also  equally  monotonous,  the  sombre  foliage  of  the  pine  forests  being 
varied  only  by  the  lighter  tints  of  the  birch. 

The  Sokhondo,  or  Chokhondo  range,  rising  south  of  the  Tablonovoi,  near  the 
Mongolian  frontier,  is  commanded  by  the  culminating  point  of  the  whole  system. 
This  granite  mass  raises  its  double-crested  summit  above  a  terrace  strewn  with 
huge  boulders,  and  containing  two  lakes  in  which  are  collected  the  melting  snows. 


■m 


420 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


In  summer  a  few  patches  of  snow  still  lodge  on  the  upper  slopes  of  the  Sokhondo ; 
but  the  loftiest  peak,  although  12,000  feet  high,  does  not  reach  the  snow-line. 
None  even  of  the  northernmost  Stanovoi  crests  are  covered  throughout  the 
summer,  although  the  Sokhondo  receives  a  great  quantity  of  snow  in  winter,  and 
is  nearly  always  enveloped  in  mists.  The  Tunguses  and  Buriats  regard  it  as  a 
formidable  divinity,  doubtless  because  of  its  generally  cloud-capped  and  threatening 
aspect.     Few  of  their  hunters  even  venture  io  approach  its  stormy  slopes. 

The  Da6rian  Plateau. 

The  range  beginning  with  the  Sokhondo  nms,  like  the  Yablonovoi,  north-east- 
wards to  the  plateau  of  the  Yitim,  while  the  chains  follow  the  same  direction 
towards  the  confluence  of  the  Shilka  and  Argun.  The  Adon-cholon,  one  of  these 
chains,  which  rises  from  the  foggy  plains  as  if  from  the  midst  of  the  deep,  is 
limited  at  its  southern  base  by  a  region  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  fragment  of 
the  Gobi  in  Russian  territory.  This  is  the  plateau  known  to  the  Slav  colonists  as 
the  "  Da(lrian  Steppes  :  "  not  that  they  bear  any  resemblance  to  the  lowland  plains 
of  the  Dnieper  and  Aralo-Caspian  basin,  but  because  of  their  barren  slopes  and 
brackish  waters.  They  were  formerly  crossed  from  the  Stanovoi  to  the  Khingan 
by  an  earthen  rampart,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible  here  and  there.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  raised  by  Jenghis  Ehan  to  protect  the  settled  populations  from 
the  incursions  of  the  nomads.  This  steppe  region,  which  has  a  mean  elevation  of 
from  2,000  to  3,000  feet,  is  separated  from  the  river  Onon,  the  main  branch  of  the 
Shilka,  by  vast  pine  forests,  which  arrest  the  moist  winds.  Hence  the  steppe  itself 
is  extremely  dry,  in  many  places  lacking  sufiicie;i.t  moisture  to  support  the  peonies, 
aconites,  and  lilies  which  impart  such  a  charm  to  the  Nyerchinsk  steppe.  In  some 
districts  water  occurs  only  at  intervals  of  9  or  10  miles,  and  all  the  lakes  on  the 
plateau  are  brackish,  with  here  and  there  incrustations  of  salt  or  magnesia,  which 
looks  like  recently  fallen  snow  around  their  shores.  The  Torei,  one  of  these  basins, 
is  usually  figured  on  the  maps  as  a  double  lake  with  an  intervening  strip  of  land. 
But  the  larger  of  these  two  reservoirs,  although  some  400  square  miles  in  extent, 
is  frequently  dry,  as  when  visited  by  Pallas  in  1772,  and  again  by  Radde  in  1856. 
An  old  channel  connecting  the  two  lakes,  and  the  water-marks  still  visible  round 
the  shores  of  the  numerous  islands,  are  evidence  of  the  far  greater  abundance  of 
water  in  this  basin  in  former  times.  At  present  the  Dzun-tarei,  the  smaller  of  the 
two  reservoirs,  which  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  salt  and  surrounded  by  a  growth 
of  reddish  plants,  is  much  reduced  in  size,  while  the  Barun-tard,  the  larger  of  the 
two,  is  merely  a  collection  of  stagnant  pools,  beds  of  salt,  and  vast  reedy  tracts, 
whence  the  Mongolian  name  of  the  Russian  station  Ehulussutai  (Ulussutai),  or 
"  Reed  Town." 

The  surface  of  the  Da(^rian  steppes  is  in  several  places  thickly  strewn  with 
small  pebbles  of  white  quartz,  jaspar,  or  agate,  coming  from  the  disintegration  of 
the  neighbouring  rocks.  Still  there  is  a  scant  growth  of  grass  sufficient  to  attract 
flocks  of  a  few  species  of  gregarious  animals.    This  is  the  only  part  of  Daiiria 


PdHH 


HMK 


mmm 


Sokhondo ; 

snow-lino, 
ighout  the 
winter,  and 
ard  it  as  a 
threatening 


north-east- 
le  direction 
me  of  these 
the  deep,  is 
Fragment  of 
colonists  as 
rland  plains 

slopes  and 
be  Ehingau 
here.  It  is 
lations  from 
elevation  of 
■anch  of  the 
jteppe  itself 
the  peonies, 
i.  In  some 
akes  on  the 
lesia,  which 
hese  basins, 
rip  of  land. 
)s  in  extent, 
de  in  1856. 
isible  round 
)undance  of 
laller  of  the 
)y  a  growth 
irger  of  the 
eedy  tracts, 

ussutai),  or 

strewn  with 

tegration  of 

t  to  attract 

of  DaClria 


TFE  DAtTEIAN  PLATEAU. 


421 


where  the  antelope  guituroaa  is  met,  and  this  country  is  also  visited  by  the  tiger, 
and  by  numerous  herds  of  the  jaggetai,  or  wild  horse,  no  doubt  allied  to  the  Equus 
Prjetahky,  a  new  species  recently  discovered  and  killed  by  hunters  sent  from 
Zaisan.*  The  Cossacks  have  hitherto  failed  to  tame  these  magnificent  animals,  as 
the  Chinese  of  the  Hoang-ho  have  done.  But  tlie  natives  eagerly  hunt  them  for 
their  flesh  and  for  their  skin,  and  especially  their  tails,  which  are  sold  to  the  Mon- 
golians, and  by  them  used  as  a  universal  remedy  for  all  the  diseases  to  which  their 
domestic  animals  are  subject.  Wild  beasts  are  constantly  migrating  northwards 
across  the  Da(^rian  steppes,  which  accounts  for  the  quantities  of  game  here  annually 
met  by  the  hunter.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Amur  analogous  movements  take 
place,  also  caused  by  the  changes  of  climate.  The  wild  goats  are  always  able  to 
foresee  severe  winters,  and  especially  heavy  falls  of  snow,  when  they  migrate  in 
great  numbers  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur.  In  1867,  when  the  forests  of 
Bureya  were  suddenly  buried  under  large  quantities  of  snow,  they  passed  into 
Manchuria  at  a  time  when  the  Amur  was  already  full  of  floating  ice.  Taking 
refuge  on  these  floes,  the  animals,  exhausted  by  fatigue,  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  stanitzas.  From  the  skins  of  these  wild  goats  are  made  the 
dakha,  or  pelisses,  imiversally  worn  in  Siberia,  always  with  the  hairy  side  out,  as  a 
protection  against  the  cold,  and  especially  the  wind. 

The  Daftrian  ranges  skirting  the  desert  are  destitute  of  vegetation  on  their 
southern  slopes,  in  this  respect  resembling  the  Altai,  the  Tian-shan,  and  even  some 
regions  of  the  Caucasus.  The  moisture  necessary  for  forest  vegetation  is  m*  'ntained 
better  on  the  shaded  than  on  the  sunny  sid(  of  these  ranges.  The  fires  kindled  by 
the  graziers  in  the  spring  of  the  year  are  also  much  more  destructive  on  the  escarp- 
ments facing  southwards,  where  the  dry  grasses  and  brushwood  bum  to  the  top 
unhindered  by  the  snows.  But  north  of  Bafiria  and  the  Shilka  ravine  the  Stanovoi 
crests  are  equally  wooded  on  both  sides.  Here  the  humidity  is  everywhere  suffi- 
cient to  support  almost  impenetrable  forests,  thanks  to  the  fens  and  quagmires, 
the  remains  of  old  lakes  which  formerly  washed  the  foot  of  these  moimtains.  But 
above  the  forest  zone  there  rise  greyish  g^nite  crests,  furrowed  here  and  there  by 
deep  fissures.  These  are  the  bare  ridges  which  have  caused  the  Cossacks  to  apply 
the  name  of  Qoltzi,  or  "  Naked  Rocks,"  to  the  Stanovoi  and  all  the  East  Siberian 
highlands. 

North  of  the  Amur  the  chief  sections  of  the  Stanovoi  rise  between  the  Zyeya 
and  Aldan  basins.  Here  several  peaks  are  over  2,300  feet  high,  although  none  of 
them  attain  the  elevation  of  the  Sokhondo.  Copious  streams  and  rivers  flow  from 
their  flanks  towards  the  Amur,  the  Lena,  and  various  direct  affluents  of  the  Pacific. 
Beyond  the  marshy  plateau  separating  the  Aldan  and  Ud  basins,  the  ridg^,  which  is 
much  steeper  on  the  side  facing  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  than  on  that  turned  landwards, 
takes  the  name  of  Aldan  or  Jugjur,  but  none  of  iU  crests  are  much  more  than 
3,250  feet.    Tet,  notwithstanding  this  slight  elevation,  this  section  of  the  main 

*  The  tknll  and  ikin  of  one  of  thete  animali,  now  in  the  St.  Fetenbnrg  Academy  of  Boienoea,  have  been 
examined  by  M.  Poliakoff,  who,  in  a  memoir  pnblished  in  Match,  1881,  by  the  St.  Petenburg  Qeo- 
gnphioal  Society,  dieonaMa  the  idalioni  of  thia  new  apecica  to  the  domeatic  hoiae. 


''''"'^"•"^':-';'^''i^'£d^^^'K''^>'^i?*^'f*tt*^:'^-i^:y'  ^"^''^"■W'^rr'' 


422 


ASUTIO  BUSSU. 


range  is  one  of  the  ricbest  in  geological  formationa,  granites,  gneiss,  and  porphyries 
being  here  covered  with  old  schists,  und  in  some  places  even  by  Jurassic  rocks. 
Towards  the  north,  where  it  approaches  the  recent  Verkho-.Yunsk  formations,  the 
Aldun  range  aboimds  in  coal-fields,  while  basalts  and  trachytes  occur  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  over  against  the  volcanic  peninsula  of  Kamchatka. 
The  lead,  iron,  gold,  and  silver  ores  that  have  here  been  discovered  could  not  fail 
to  develop  a  large  mining  industry  but  for  the  severity  of  the  climate. 

West  of  Okhotsk  and  north  of  the  depression,  followed  by  the  route  from 
Yakutsk  to  the  coast,  is  situated  Mount  Kapitan,  so  called  by  the  Tunguses  cither 
in  honour  of  some  Russian  captain,  or  possibly  as  the  "  Captain  "  of  all  this  high- 
land region.  It  marks  the  northern  limits  of  the  larch,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
zone  of  lichens  and  reindeer  moss.  Yet  there  are  no  glaciers,  and  the  crests  are 
oven  completely  iree  of  snow,  although  these  Stanovoi  Moimtains  overlook  valleys 
which  are  entirely  filled  with  permanent  ice.  This  remarkable  contrast  between 
the  uplands  and  lowlands  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the  great  difference  in 
atmospheric  pressure,  snow  and  rain  fall,  and  direction  of  the  winds  prevailing  in 
Europe  and  Asia.  The  snows  swept  by  the  winds  from  neighbouring  heights  are 
banked  up  at  the  foot  of  the  "  Captain  "  in  crevasses  seldom  lit  up  by  the  sun, 
where  they  are  gradually  converted  into  extensive  ice-fields.  Even  the  streams 
and  rivulets  of  the  neighbouring  valleys  freeze  as  they  flow  over  their  crystalline 
surface.  These  low-lying  ice-covered  tracts  are  the  natural  resort  of  the  reindeer, 
which  here  find  a  refuge  from  the  mosquitoes. 

East  of  the  Stanovoi  another  chain  rising  in  Manchu  terntory,  and  variously 
named  by  Chinese,  Mongolians,  Golds,  and  Russians,  runs  south-west  and  south- 
east, terminating  south  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  in  headlands  indented  by  deep  inlets, 
and  continued  seawards  by  the  Shantar  Archipelago.  This  Da(is8-alin  range  has 
received  from  Middendorff  the  name  of  the  Bureya  Mountains,  from  the  large 
affluent  of  the  Amur  which  flows  westwards  parallel  with  the  ridge.  The  Russians 
usually  call  it  the  "Little  Ehingan."  The  forests  covering  its  slopes  belong  to  a 
different  vegetable  domain  from  that  of  the  rest  of  Siberia.  The  oak,  unknown  in. 
the  Lena  and  Yenesei  valleys,  prevails  in  many  parts  of  the  Bureya  highlands,  and 
on  the  whole  deciduous  trees  are  more  common  than  the  evergreen  conifers.  Here 
also  begins  the  domain  of  the  tiger,  which  haunts  the  thickets,  and  is  known  to  the 
natives  as  the  "  lordly  beast." 

All  the  region  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Usuri  and  Lower  Amur  is  occupied 
as  far  as  the  coast  by  hills  and  mountains,  usually  known  collectively  as  the 
"  Manchu  Highlands."  It  forms  a  plateau  divided  into  innumerable  sections,  and  ' 
rising  eastwards  to  a  coast  range,  which  presents  its  steepest  sides  to  the  Sea  of 
Japan.  Like  the  Aldan  lidge,  which  it  resembles  in  its  elevation,  bare  crests,  wooded 
slopes,  and  general  north-easterly  direction,  the  Manchu  or  Sikhota-alin  system  is 
crossed  by  but  few  pa{>se8,  while  the  swamps  and  forests  of  the  western  slopes 
g^reatly  impede  the  communications  between  the  IJsuri  valley  and  the  sea-coast. 
But  in  the  south  a  large  depression,  in  which  the  rain-waters  are  collected,  enables 
the  great  Lake  Ehanka  to  communicate  with  the  Sai'f  (in  coast  stream,  north  of  the 


^ 


THE  AMUB  RIVEE  SYSTEM. 


4S8 


.  porphyriei 
rusaic  rocks, 
nations,  the 
i  the  neigh- 
Kamchatka, 
uld  not  fail 

route  from 
guses  either 
il  this  high- 
ning  of  the 
le  crests  are 
look  valleys 
ast  between 
lifference  in 
revailing  in 
heights  are 
by  the  sun, 
the  streams 
r  crystalline 
he  reindeer, 

id  variously 
and  south- 
deep  inlets, 
n  range  has 
n  the  large 
le  Russians 
belong  to  a 
mknown  in 
:hlauds,  and 
lers.  Here 
Down  to  the 

is  occupied 
vely  as  the 
eotions,  and 

the  Sea  of 
ests,  wooded 
in  system  is 
tstem  slopes 
le  sea-coast, 
ted,  enables 
lorth  of  the 


Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great.  The  Sikhota-ulin  has  often  been  rcproscntcd  as  partially 
of  volcanic  origin,  and  basalt  streamN  have  been  described  an  having  flowed  from 
the  assumed  craters  of  the  range  down  to  the  Struit  of  Tatary,  hero  forming  steep 
headlands  from  400  to  600  feet  above  the  sea.  Rut  the  volcanoes  supposed  to 
have  been  seen  near  Costiies  Bay  seem  to  bo  nothing  but  sedentary  sandstone 
rocks.* 

The  Amvr  River  Svhtem 

Of  the  four  great  Siberian  rivers  the  Amur,  although  draining  the  smallest 
area,  promises  one  day  to  become  the  most  important  water  highway.  In  this 
respect,  however,  it  is  still  far  inferior  to  the  rivers  uf  the  Ob  basin,  where  all  the 
riverain  towns  already  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  a  regular  and 
frequent  steam  service.  While  the  Ob,  Yenesei,  and  Lena  flow  south  and  north 
across  the  line  of  migration  from  east  to  west,  and  discharge  their  waters  into  the 
Frozen  Ocean,  the  Amur  winds  mainly  west  and  east,  in  the  direction  of  the  great 
historic  routes,  and  disembogues  in  a  sea  open  to  navigation  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.  Few  other  rivers  have  to  traverse  a  greater  number  of  rocky  barriers  in 
their  gradual  descent  seawards.  Rising  on  the  Daiirian  plateau,  it  has  first  to  pierce 
the  eastern  escarpments  of  this  region  in  order  to  reach  the  plains  of  its  middle 
course,  which  ara  still  about  2,000  feet  above  sea-lovel.  It  then  flows  through  a  gap 
in  the  Little  Ehingan  rang^  down  to  the  lower  plains  separated  by  the  Sikhota-alin 
hills  from  the  sea.  Even  after  forcing  its  way  through  this  barrier  to  the  ocean  it 
is  still  confronted  by  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  dividing  its  channel  into  two  branches, 
one  of  which  flows  round  the  north  end  of  the  island,  while  the  other  penetrates  south- 
wards into  the  Gulf  of  Tatary.  Equal  in  volume  to  the  three  other  great  rivers 
of  North  Siberia,  the  Amur  at  all  times  occupied  a  position  of  paramount  impor- 
tance as  an  historic  highway.  It  was  the  route  followed  by  the  Mongolians, 
Manchus,  and  all  migrating  peoples  from  the  east  of  Asia,  and  it  has  now  become 
the  continuation  of  the  South  Siberian  overland  route,  pursued  in  an  opposite 
direction  by  the  Russian  conquerors  and  colonists.  The  lower  course  of  the  Amur 
thus  completes  the  natural  highway,  which  begins  some  6,000  miles  farther  west, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  The  regions  traversed  by  it  have  the  further  advantage 
of  lying  in  a  more  temperate  climate  than  the  rest  of  Siberia.  Some  of  its  southern 
affluents  even  rise  in  the  Chinese  Empire  under  the  40th  parallel,  and  consequently 
much  nearer  to  the  equator  than  to  the  pole. 

More  than  half  of  the  Amur  basin  being  comprised  in  the  still  imperfectly 

explored  regions  of  Mongolia  and  Manchuria,  it  is  impossible  to  form  a  correct 

estimate  of  the  area  of  the  lands  draining  through  this  channel  to  the  Pacific. 

They  are  roughly  estimated  at  from  800,000  to  820,000  square  miles,  or  about  four 

times  the  surface  of  France.    If  the  Eerulen,  or  Eurulun,  be  included  in  this 

*  Chief  elevatioiia  of  the  Stanovoi,  Bureyn,  and  Manohn  highlands : — 

Feet.  TMt. 

Sokhondo  (Msoording  to  Radde) .    .    ,    .     8,170      Kapitan  FkM 4,175 

StanoToi,  between  the  Aldan  and  Zyeya  .    6,810       L«gar-a<kl  (Bnreya  range) 3,32ft 

Mean  height  of  the  Aldan  ridge.     .     .    ,    2,915       Mean  height  of  the  Silchota-alin     .    .     .  2,016 

Mount  Kiipi:  an 4,200      Mount  Oaloya,  its  higheit  peak .    .    .    .  5,690 


;  '■: 


424 


ASIATIC  BU88IA. 


baflin,  to  which,  however,  it  belongs  intermittently,  the  Amur,  from  its  farthest 
Hourco  to  the  im,  will  have  a  totol  length  of  3,000  miles.  The  Kurulun  riues  on 
the  southern  h1oi)c»'  of  the  Kcntoi  Muuntuins,  a  Mongolian  continuation  of  the 
"  Apple  "  range,  and  after  skirting  on  the  north  one  of  the  terraces  of  the  Gobi 
(lest'rt,  discharges  '?'to  the  Dalai.  This  "  Holy  Sea  " — for  such  is  the  meaning  of 
the  word — also  receives  the  Ursdn,  an  emissary  of  Lake  Biiir-nor.  But  these 
affluents  from  the  desert  contribute  but  a  small  quantity  of  water,  most  of  which  is 
lost  by  evaporation  in  the  lacustrine  reservoir.  Ilento  the  turbid  and  sluggish 
Dalai-gol,  the  outlet  of  the  lake,  is  a  narrow  stream,  which,  however,  is  soon 
enlarged  by  the  rapid  Khailar,  the  true  head-stream  of  the  Argun.  During  the 
spring  freshets  of  this  torrent,  which  rises  in  the  upper  valleys  of  the  Great 
Khin^lMttdttiK"'  '^  portion  of  its  waters  flows  back  to  the  Dalai-gol,  and  through  it 
to  I^akc  Dalai,  whence  large  shoals  of  flsh  penetrate  through  the  Argun  into 
Russian  territory.  Thus,  although  the  "  Holy  Sea  "  is  situated  in  Mongolia,  the 
Russian  'ishcrs  indirectly  benefit  by  the  abundance  of  its  animal  life,  of  which  the 
Mongoliuns  themselves  make  no  use. 

After  its  junction  with  the  Dalai-gol  the  Khailar  takes  the  name  of  Argun,  and 
flows  north-east  parallel  with  the  various  Stanovoi  ridges,  and  along  the  political 
frontier  of  China  and  Russia  to  its  confluence  with  the  Shilka.  The  latter  river 
lies  mostly  within  Russian  territory,  although  the  Onon,  which,  with  the  Ing^oda, 
is  itH  chief  aflluent,  rises  in  Mongolia,  and  enters  Russian  DaAria  after  skirting  the 
southern  base  of  the  Sokhondo.  The  united  Argun  and  Shilka  form  the  Amur 
[)roper,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  say  which  should  be  regarded  as  the  main  head-stream. 
The  Argun  has  the  lor'^er  course,  while  the  Shilka,  flowing  through  a  moister 
region,  has  probably  a  larger  volume,  and  its  waters  are  less  charged  with  sedi- 
mentary matter.  Historically  also  the  Shilka  is  the  more  important  of  the  two,  for 
on  it  the  Cossacks  embarked  in  their  repeated  attempts  to  obtain  a  footing  on  the 
banks  of  the  Amur,  or  maintain  their  settlement  in  this  valley  previous  to  its  final 
conquest  by  Muraviov  in  1853.  In  the  south  the  Mongols,  ever  in  the  saddle,  take 
the  road  across  the  ringing  steppe,  while  the  Russians  ascend  and  descend  the  water 
highways,  and  the  Shilka,  navigable  throughout  its  lower  course,  offered  them  a 
direct  route  eastwards  beyond  the  Ehingan  Mountains.  The  Tunguses  of  the 
Shilka  also  apply  this  .lame  to  all  the  lower  stream  below  the  confluence  of  the 
Argtm.  The  name  Amur  itself  is  of  unknown  origin,  being  derived  by  some  from 
the  Giliak  words  Ya-mur — that  is,  "  Great  River  " — ^while  ^thers  regard  it  as  a 
modification  of  Mamu,  the  name  current  amongst  the  natives  along  its  lower  course. 
Others,  again,  suppose  that  the  first  Russian  invaders,  encamped  at  Albazin  on  the 
little  river  Emuri,  gradually  extended  the  name  of  Emur  or  Amur  to  the  whole 
region,  and  to  the  river  watered  by  it.  However  this  may  be,  each  of  the  nations 
settled  in  its  valley  gives  it  a  different  name.  For  the  Golds  it  is  the  Mango ;  for 
the  Yakuts  the  Kara-turan,  or  "  Black  River ;  "  for  the  Manchus  the  Sakhalin-ula, 
or  "  Blackwater ; "  for  the  Chinese  the  Helong-kiang,  or  '/  River  of  the  Black 
Dragon,"  doubtless  in  reference  to  the  dark  colour  of  its  waters. 

At  the  Stryelka  ferry,  where  the  two  head-streams  meet,  the  Amur  is  already 


mmsgrnmimm 


THE  SUNOABI  AND  U8UEI  RIVERS. 


425 


its  farthest 
lun  riHeii  on 
tion  of  the 
f  the  Gobi 
meaning  of 
But  these 
of  which  is 
nd  sluggish 
for,  is  soon 
During  the 
I  the  Great 
[  through  it 
Argun  into 
ongolia,  the 
if  which  the 

Argun,  and 
the  political 
s  latter  river 
the  Ingoda, 
skirting  the 
n  the  Amur 
bead-stream, 
h  a  moister 
i  with  sedi- 
the  two,  for 
)ting  on  the 
18  to  its  final 
saddle,  take 
ad  the  water 
jred  them  a 
puses  of  the 
lence  of  the 
y  some  from 
ipard  it  as  a 
ower  course. 
)azin  on  the 
0  the  whole 
the  nations 
Mango;  for 
akhalin-ula, 
the  Black 

T  is  already 


from  20  to  24  feet  deep,  with  a  breadth  of  nearly  540  yards.  Narrowing  between 
the  spurs  of  the  Grout  Khingun  and  the  Hide  ridges  of  the  Stuiiovoi,  it  trends 
eastwards  through  a  series  of  defiloH,  beyond  which  it  flows  to  the  Houth-oust  along 
the  base  of  the  volcanic  Ilkuri-ulin  range.  Lower  down  oxtensivo  pluiits,  comjmrod 
by  Middondorff  to  the  pruiries  of  the  New  World,  stretch  along  both  its  bunks,  but 
especially  on  the  left  between  the  Zyeya  and  Buityu  affluents.  But  inNtnud  of 
being  covered  with  grasses,  they  are  clotbeil  for  vust  distances  with  thickets  of 
dwarf  ouks,  hazels,  and  other  bushy  growths.  Like  the  American  prairies,  they 
yield  excellent  crops  wherever  cleared. 

Like  those  of  the  other  great  Siberian  rivers,  the  right  bank  of  the  Amur  has 
normally  a  higher  mean  elevation  than  the  left.  After  receiving  the  Bureya  the 
Amur  pierces  the  Little  Khingan  range  through  a  defile  100  miles  long,  and 
grander  than  that  of  the  Rhine  between  Bingen  and  Coblentz,  though  lacking  the 
charm  imparted  by  riverain  towns,  cultivated  slopes,  and  craggy  heights  covered 
with  ruined  or  restored  castles.  No  regular  highway  has  yet  been  laid  down 
through  this  ravine,  where  the  beaten  path  is  under  water  during  the  floods. 
Hence  horsemen  wishing  to  cross  the  Bureya  range  are  obliged  to  turn  aside  from 
the  Amur  and  make  their  way  through  the  forest",  in  order  to  avoid  the  headlands, 
often  several  hundred  yawls  high,  projecting  into  the  deep  waters  of  the  river. 
Beyond  the  defile,  which  runs  north  and  south,  the  Amur  ag^in  turns  eastwards, 
and  then  north-eastwards,  thus  following  the  impulse  given  to  it  by  the  great 
Sungari  or  Euen-tong  affluent,  which  the  Chinese  regard  as  the  main  stream.  Like 
the  Ob-Irtish,  the  Yenisei- Angara  and  the  Argun-Shilka,  or  Amur,  the  Sungari  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  rivers  nearly  equal  in  volume,  the  Upper  Sungari 
and  the  Nonyi. 

The  Sungari  and  Usuri  Rivrrs. 

The  Simgari  is  really  the  main  branch  of  this  fluvial  system,  if  not  in  length 
and  volume,  at  least  in  the  direction  of  its  valley,  which  runs  parallel  to  the 
Ehingon,  the  Manchu  Mountains,  and  generally  to  the  axis  of  all  North-east  Asia. 
At  the  confluence  the  turbid  waters  of  the  Sungpari,  now  of  a  greenish,  now  of  a 
milky  hue,  occupy  about  two-thirds  of  the  common  bed.  Above  the  confluence  the 
Amur  and  its  tributaries  are  subject  to  great  vicissitudes,  and  fall  rapidly  in 
Bununer,  a  circumstance  which  shows  tiiat  t^.;  highlands  of  the  upper  basin  are  not 
elevated  enough  to  bear  any  larg^  qimiitities  of  perpetiud  snow.  The  streams  from 
the  melting  snow-fields  are  insufficiejit  to  maintain  the  normal  level  of  the  river 
during  the  dry  season,  so  that  at  this  time  the  navigation  is  much  endangered  by 
the  rapids.  The  mountains  enclosing  the  Sungari  basin  are  not  sufficiently  known 
to  estimate  the  importance  of  the  contributions  from  their  melting  snows.  But  it 
is  probable  that  the  Shan-alin,  or  "  White  Mountains,"  forming  the  eastern  limit 
of  the  basin,  reach  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  as  is  indeed  indicated  by  their  name, 
and  thus  contribute  to  increase  the  annual  inundations.  But  the  floodings  of  the 
Sungari  and  other  East  Siberian  streams  are  due  mainly  to  the  rains  brought  by 
the  summer  monsoons,  which  blow  from  the  north-east  towards  the  Mongolian 


iWBJi-  «■ 


M 


426 


ASIATIC  BUSSU. 


plutoaux.  Hclow  tho  confluence  tho  Amur  then  aMumo*  the  aspect  of  an  inland 
80U.  Itn  iHlunilM  (iiNipi)Ottr,  and  all  itH  runiifiuationit  fur  u  diHtunco  of  10  or  12  miles 
are  blondod  in  u  Hin^lu  Htreum.  VilluguH  ure  Hwept  away,  with  the  very  bunks  on 
which  th(<y  nUnA,  and  whole  forests  ure  upr(M)tcd  und  curried  along  with  the 
current.     Hinco  tho  colonisation  of  the  Lower  Amur  by  tho  Ilussiuus  it  bus  boon 


found  necessary  frequently  to  shift  the  sites  of  the  stanitzos  to  higher  ground,  less 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  stream. 

Nevertheless  the  question  of  a  more  systematic  settlement  of  the  Amur  regions, 
chiefly  by  communities  of  Slav  origin,  is  now  engag^g  the  serious  attention  of  the 
authorities.  Since  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  with  China,  settling  the  Eidja 
frontier,  the  Amur  basin  has  naturally  acquired  fresh  importance,  and  the  Russian 
Government,  it  is  expected,  will  soon  bring  forward  a  comprehensive  scheme  of 
colonisation  in  a  country  which  holds  out  far  brighter  prospects  to  the  peasantry 
than  many  of  the  bleak  and  arid  steppe  lands  of  European  Russia.    Projects  havo 


THE  8UN0AB1  AND  ITStJRl  BIVERS. 


427 


if  ail  inland 

or  12  milot 

ry  banka  on 

ig  with  the 

it  bus  boon 


•  Vs. 

1 

ground,  lesd 

mur  regions, 
sntion  of  the 
g  the  Eulja 
the  Bussiim 
re  scheme  of 
he  peasantry 
'rojocts  havo 


already  boon  didcuMod  and  partly  adopted,  which  arc  culouluttHl  to  ouc()uri.gu  whole- 
sale  immigration  by  the  promine  of  |)ecuniary  aid  and  free  gruntn  of  good  land 
along  the  fertile  bunlcH  of  the  Amur  and  its  numorouH  tributarivM. 

Flowing  entirely  within  Chinese  territory,  the  Hunguri  InilongH  hiHtorically  nnd 
socially  to  a  very  ditferent  world  from  that  of  the  Amur.  Wliilo  the  latter  HowchI 
till  recently  beyond  the  domain  of  cultured  natiouH,  und  until  the  llusHian  conquest 
Wis  navigated  only  by  the  boats  of  the  Tungusos  and  Golds,  the  Hungari  waters  u 
basin  studded  with  numerous  cities,  traversed  in  various  dirt>ctionN  by  regular 
highways  of  communication,  and  covered  with  extensive  cultivated  tracts.  The 
basin  of  the  Amur  proper  throughout  its  course  is  little  more  than  an  unex- 
plored wilderness,  while  dense  populations  are  crowded  in  the  districts  above  Hian- 
sin,  on  the  Middle  Hungari.  Although  forming  part  of  the  same  hydrographio 
basin,  the  valleys  of  the  Amur  and  Sungari  have  diilerent  and  oven  hostile  centres 
of  attraction.  On  the  Amur  the  current  of  migration  and  trade  flows  west  and 
east  from  Irkutsk  to  Ehabarovka  and  the  I'acific  seaboard,  whereas  the  teeming 
populations  of  the  Sungari  turn  southwards  towards  Mukden,  I'ekin,  und  the 
Yellow  Sea.  There  is  littlo  communication  between  the  Chinese  Sungari  and  the 
Russian  possessions,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  Maximovich,  Usoltzev,  Kro- 
potkin,  and  Ehilkovskiy  penetrated  from  that  river  into  the  Celestial  Empire. 

But  the  Usuri,  which  next  to  the  Sungari  is  the  chief  affluent  of  the  Lower 
Amur,  belongs  henceforth  to  the  Russian  world.  Chosen  in  1860  os  the  limit 
between  the  two  empires,  this  river  flows  south-west  and  north-east  between  the 
two  parallel  crests  of  the  Shan-alin  and  Sikhota-alin,  and  its  valley  bus  become  the 
military  and  trade  route  leading  from  the  Amur  to  the  southern  ports  of  Russian 
Manchuria.  The  Usuri  takes  this  name  only  in  its  middle  course  below  all  the 
upper  tributaries.  One  of  these,  the  Sungucha,  flows  from  Hn  "  inland  sea,"  for 
such  is  the  meaning  of  the  Chinese  word  Ehan-kai  (Han-hai),  which  has  been 
modified  by  the  Russians  to  Ehanka,  or  Ehinka.  This  great  lake,  whoso  mean  area 
exceeds  1,200  square  miles,  must,  notwithstanding  its  name,  be  regarded  as  merely 
a  permanent  flooding,  for  its  depth  seems  nowhere  to  be  more  than  32  feet,  while 
in  many  places  there  are  scarcely  12  inches  of  water  at  half  a  mile  from  the  shore. 
But  during  the  summer  monsoons,  which  bring  such  a  quantity  of  moisture  to  the 
Lower  Amur  region,  the  Ehanka  overflows  far  and  wide,  flooding  the  surroimding 
low-lying  tracts,  and  for  the  time  becoming  a  veritable  "  inland  sea."  In  its 
normal  state  it  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  "  Great "  and  the  "  Little  "  Lake, 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  perfectly  regular  strip  of  sand,  which  is  rounded  off 
towards  the  north  in  such  a  way  us  to  form  an  exact  continuation  of  the  curve  of 
the  shore  running  east  and  west.  This  geometrical  formation,  which  resembles  so 
many  others  of  analogous  form  on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  is  a  rare  phenomenon  in 
inland  basins  of  small  extent,  which  are  mostly  sheltered  from  the  winds,  while  the 
winds  themselves  seldom  blow  regularly  from  the  same  quarter.  But  Lake  Ehanka 
is  completely  exposed  to  the  southern  winds,  which  prevail  during  a  g^reat  part  of 
the  year.  Thus  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  basin  a  regular  swell  setting  north- 
wards, and  developing  the  curved  outline  of  the  shore.    Lake  Ehanka  abounds  in 


m 


428 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


fish.  During  the  early  years  of  the  Russian  occupation  the  TJsuri  also  was  rich  in 
every  sort  of  fish,  especially  carp,  sterlet,  and  salmon.  In  fording  the  channels  by 
which  it  communicates  with  the  lake,  travellers  took  them  with  the  hand  by  the 
dozen,  and  in  some  places  they  were  so  numerous  that  the  dull  murmur  of  their  fins 
WPS  heard  from  the  shore. 

The  Lower  Amur  and  its  Delta. 

After  receiving  the  TJsuri  the  Amur  flows  altogether  in  Bussian  territory.  It 
is  still  joined  on  both  sides  by  important  tributaries,  which,  however,  seem  to  add 
iiitio  to  its  volume.  Ramifying  into  various  branches  enclosing  grassy  islands,  it 
winds  along  its  broad  valley,  at  intervals  impinging  against  the  foot  of  the  hills 
which  skirt  its  right  bank.     Its  course  is  fringed  by  lakes  and  extensive  miu-shes, 

Fig.  213.— Isthmus  of  Eizi. 
Scale  1 :  900,00a 


0  to  10  Fathoms. 


10  Fatlioiiia  and  npwardi. 
— ^^— -  84  Miles. 


especially  on  its  left  side,  and  these  serve  to  receive  its  overflow  during  the  floods. 
The  Kizi,  one  of  these  lakes,  occupies  east  of  the  river  a  great  part  of  a  transverse 
depression  which  runs  in  the  direction  of  the  Gulf  of  Castries.  Heie  the  valley  of 
the  Lower  Amur  resembles  in  its  form  that  of  the  Lower  Danube,  which  runs 
towards  the  Isthmus  of  Kustenje,  as  if  to  fall  directly  into  the  Black  Sea,  but  which, 
nevertheless,  takes  a  siidden  bend  at  right  angles  to  the  west,  and  then  to  the  north 
round  the  peninsula  of  the  Dobruja.  In  the  same  way  the  Amur,  although  half 
filling  the  Isthmus  of  Kizi  by  a  lateral  discharge,  deflects  its  main  channel  north- 
wards to  a  point  where  it  at  laot  finds  an  opening  to  the  Pacific.  Lake  Kizi  itself 
is  only  2  feet  deep  in  winter  at  low  water,  rising  during  the  summer  floods  to 
nearly  10  feet.  A  low  ridge  10  miles  broad  separates  the  lake  from  the  coaat ;  but 
the  native  canoes  are  able  to  utilise  the  small  river  Taba  flowing  from  this  ridge, 
whereby  the  portage  between  the  two  slopes  is  reduced  to  little  over  a  mile.    Since 


mm 


THE  LOWER  AMUE  AND  ITS  DELTA. 


429 


0  was  rich  in 

i  channels  hy 

hand  by  the 

r  of  their  fins 


territory.  It 
,  seem  to  add 
Bsy  islands,  it 
it  of  the  hills 
isive  marshes, 


1857  the  engineer  Bomanov  has  been  surveying  this  portage  with  a  view  to  the 
construction  of  a  railway  30  miles  long,  by  which  travellers  would  be  enabled  to 
avoid  a  detour  of  300  miles  by  the  dangerous  mouth  of  the  Amur.  But  such  an 
undertaking  will  be  of  little  use  so  long  as  the  local  Russian  settlements  remain  in 
their  present  undeveloped  state.  In  1878  there  was  not  oven  a  good  carriage  road 
across  the  isthmus. 

After  being  deflected  northwards  the  Amur  still  communicates  right  and  left 
with  several  lakes,  which  recall  an  epoch  when  the  river  sought  a  more  direct 
outlet  seawards.  In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Amur  is,  so  to  say,  still  incomplete. 
Its  waters  forma  labyrinth  of  swift  currents,  sluggish  channels  and  lakes,  constituting 
a  sort  of  debatable  ground  between  the  river  and  the  sea.  Here  the  large  river 
Amgun,  flowing  from  the  Bureya  Moim tains,  joins  it  in  a  sort  of  inner  delta,  whero 

Fi^.  214. — MnvTHB  OF  TRB  Amuh. 

AfleanUqg  to  the  Admiraly  Chut,  1868. 

Soale  1 :  740,000. 


OtoSiFatboms. 


ag  the  floods. 

a  transverse 

the  valley  of 

which  runs 

a,  but  which, 

to  the  north 

Ithough  half 

lannel  north- 

ce  Kizi  itself 

ner  floods  to 

le  coast ;  but 

m  this  ridge, 

mile.    Since 


S|  Fathonut  and  upwaids. 
ISHJlm. 


the  currents  are  displaced  with  every  freshet,  thus  incessantly  changing  the  fonn 
of  the  islands  and  sand-banks.  Near  the  Giliak  village  of  Tir,  over  against  this 
delta  of  the  .Amgun,  there  stands  a  cliff  on  the  right  bank,  on  which  have  been 
erected  throe  columns  of  marble,  porphyry,  and  granite,  covered  with  Mongolian 
inscriptions.  They  mark  the  limits  of  the  empire  under  the  Yoan  dynasty,  when 
China  was  subject  to  the  Mongolians,  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  and.  during 
the  fourteenth  century.  On  Remozov's  chart,  published  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, a  town  is  indicated  at  this  spot  as  marking  the  limits  of  Alexander  the  Great's 
conquests,  who  "  buried  his  arms  and  left  a  tower  here."  Such  was  at  that  time 
the  tradition  of  the  Cossacks.  In  any  case  the  cliff  of  T!r  is  well  situated  as  the 
frontier  landmark  of  an  empire,  for  immediately  below  it  the  Amur  bends  towards 
the  north-east,  and  then  eastwards,  in  search  of  the  gap  through  which  it  discharges 


.j!fliiiL>i"m 


■■•N 


mm 


L  forms  the 


THE  MANCHURIAN  SEABOABD. 


481 


I  is  occupied 
I  with  every 


storm,  and  through  which  the  pilots  thread  their  way  sounding-lino  in  hand.  These 
difBcidties  at  the  entrance,  combined  with  the  annual  frosts  which  close  the  mouth 
of  the  Amur  for  six  months,  are  the  groat  obstacles  to  trade,  and  partly  neutralise 
the  advantages  presented  by  the  river  and  its  affluents,  which  have  a  total  navigable 
woterwoy  estimated  ot  upwards  of  6,000  miles.  In  the  lacustrine  labyrinth  of  the 
lower  course,  which  is  still  but  little  known,  the  navigation  is  extremely  dangerous 
in  rough  weather.  In  a  single  storm  over  forty  Russian  craft  laden  with  com  were 
wrecked,  and  most  of  the  supplies  for  Nikolayevsk  and  the  posts  on  the  Usuri 
swallowed  up. 

The  Manchuriax  Seaboard. 

North  of  the  Amur  lagoon  a  few  streams,  rising  in  the  hilly  region  bounded 
north-west  by  the  Stanovoi  and  south-east  by  the  continuation  of  the  Bureya 
Moimtains,  flow  to  the  fiords  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Facing  these  inlets  are  the 
numerous  islands  of  the  mountainous  Shantar  Archipelago.  In  another  climate,  or 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  well-peopled  coast  lands,  these  islands  would  have  a  great 
commercial  and  strategic  importance,  as  sheltering  the  inner  bays  and  their  innu- 
merable creeks.  But  amid  the  cold  fogs  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  all  these  excellent 
havens  are  utilised  only  by  a  few  local  fishermen.  On  the  more  favoured  southern 
seaboard  stretching  south  of  the  Amur  the  Russians  must  seek  for  harbours  capable 
of  entering  into  commercial  relations  with  the  whole  world.  This  is  the  secret  of 
the  diplomatic  activity  displayed  by.  them  to  obtain  in  1868  a  joint  right  with  the 
Chinese  to  all  the  coast  region  between  the  Amur  and  Corea,  and  then  to  acquire 
its  exclusive  possession  in  1860. 

Even  the  rocky  seaboard  facing  Sakhalin  possesses  a  few  good  ports,  which 
might  have  a  certain  commercial  utility  were  the  surrounding  regions  colonised, 
and  easy  means  of  communication  opened  up  across  the  coast  range  and  forests. 
Thus  the  Bay  of  Castries,  first  visited  by  LaP^rouse  in  1787,  and  so  named  by  him, 
might  accommodate  a  large  number  of  vessels  of  light  draught.  Its  position  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Amur  must  sooner  or  later  render  it  an  important  place. 
Farther  south,  Stark  Bay,  the  Imperial  Port,  the  Gulf  of  Plastun,  and  those  of 
Vladimir  and  Olga,  follow  successively  along  the  coast,  which  the  Chinese  and  Rus- 
sian traders  have  already  learnt  to  frequent,  notwithstanding  the  fogs  and  storms 
prevailing  in  this  dangerous  Sea  of  Japan.  Here  the  staple  export  is  the  "  sea- 
cabbage,"  a  species  of  seaweed  forwarded  to  China  and  Japan,  where  it  forms  an 
article  of  food  for  the  poor,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue. 

The  Vladimir  and  Olga  coasts  have  been  compared  to  those  of  Finland,  owing 
to  their  indentations,  the  granite  reefs  surrounding  them,  and  the  evident  traces 
of  upheaval  that  have  here  been  observed.  The  old  beach  may  still  be  seen  at 
various  elevations  above  the  present  sea-level.  But  whether  or  not  it  lies  within 
the  zone  of  slow  upheaval,  the  portion  of  the  coast  bending  due  west  to  the  neck 
of  the  Corean  peninsula  presents  the  aspect  of  those  Finland  or  Scandinavian  shores, 
which  are  cut  up  and  indented  with  endless  g^fs,  bays,  and  creaks,  and  varied 
with  innumerable  groups  of  islands,  islets,  and  reefs.     One  of  these  inlets,  120 


_k^i,   H 


"""■Mi 


im-:^- 


48S 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


miles  broad  east  and  west,  forms  the  gulf  named  after  Queen  Victoria  by  tbe 
English,  but  which  the  Russians  have  dedicated  to  Peter  the  Oreat.  It  forms 
quite  an  inhind  sea,  in  which  the  conquerors  had  an  embarrassing  choice  of  sites 
for  a  good  naval  and  trading  station.  In  the  east  lies  America  Bay,  which  receives 
the  waters  of  the  Su-chan,  a  navigable  river  whose  two  branches  form  the  two 
convenient  ports  of  Wrangell  and  Nukhodka.  In  the  centre  are  the  Gulfs  of  Usuri 
and  Amur  ( UsurUkiy  and  Amurakiy),  between  which  projects  the  peninsula  on 
which  stands  Vladivostok.  Lastly,  in  the  west  are  the  winding  bays  of  Possiet, 
better  defended  even  than  the  harbour  of  Toulon  by  rocky  peninsulas,  tongues  of 


Fig.  210.— Bat  op  Castbiu. 
Soale  1  :  IST.OOO. 


0  to  18  Feet. 


16  to  S8  Feet. 


n  to  04  Feet.   M  Feet  end  apmuds. 
aUOee. 


land,  and  strips  of  sand  curved  like  the  claws  of  a  crab.  This  military  station, 
with  its  guns  always  turned  southwards,  forms  the  present  limit  of  the  Russian 
Empire  towards  China  and  Japan. 


Climate  of  Manchuria. 

Even  in  the  southernmost  part  of  Russian  Manchuria,  the  Mrinter  climate  is  very 
severe.  Although  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great  is  never  frozen  at  a  certain  distance 
from  the  shore,  all  the  creeks  penetrating  inland  are  ice-bound  from  December  to 
March,  and  for  Qver  one  hundred  days  the  port  of  Vladivostok  is  blocked.    At  this 


•ria  by  the 
It  forms 
ice  of  sites 
ich  receives 
m  the  two 
Ifs  of  Usuri 
tninsula  on 
of  Possiet, 
tongues  of 


ry  station, 
e  Russian 


ite  is  very 

a.  distance 

cember  to 

At  this 


mmmm 


VICTORIA    BAY    OR   GULF  OF 


i : — r — 


NEW -YORK,  D.  APPL; 


MMMMMK 


mtmm 


BAY    OR   GULF  OF     PETER   THE  GREAT. 


^^j^aoftn^^TTX 


SOftSiktP       UtMoiktt         l3Om$O0tmt     MOOAttSitrind 

Seal«.li3e6.000. 

i : 1 ■ ik« 


NEW  -yO-RK.  D.  APPLETON  8c  C9 


1 

1 

•; 

}mmitaim:«i^->immim^-''^i^mi9i^ffifif?iimm9mmfi^^  -^i 


"^mmmmmmmmmmmmfimm 


wmmummmmm 


CUMATE  OP  MANOIIUKIA. 


488 


place  the  annual  tomperaturo  is  more  than  17°  lower  than  under  the  some  parallel 
in  West  Europe.*  For  five  months  Lake  Khnnka  is  covered  with  ice,  which  at 
times  acquires  a  thickness  of  over  3  feet.  In  the  Amur  buHin  the  glass  not  unf re- 
quently  falls  to  38*^  Fuhr.,  and  at  the  Nyerchinsk  works  it  has  fuUcn  even  as  lf)w  as 
46°  Fahr.     On  the  other  hand,  the  summer  heats  are  almost  tropical,  even  on  the 

Fig.  'x... — Harbour  or  Oloa. 
Bode  1  i  166,000. 


0  to  16  net.  16  to  sa  Fmt.       SS  Feet  and  npfwud*. 


sea-coast  the  temperature  rising,  as  at  the  port  of  Olga,  to  96°  or  97°  Fahr.  Although 
bordering  on  the  Pacific,  this  part  of  Siberia  is  still  included  in  the  continental 
olimate,  a  circumstance  due  to  the  mean  direction  of  the  atmospheric  and  marine 

*  Mean  tomperature  of  VlMlivoetok  (43°  Oo'  north  latitude),  40^  Fahr. ;  of  Maneillei  ^43'  17'  60"  north 
latitude),  58°  Fahr. 


4^ 


3!PiEai*i»*""i«P«^ 


484 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


curronts.  Tlio  wnrm  wators  of  tho  Piieific  Ocean  flowing  along  the  on«t  count  of 
JajMiu  are  doHcctiKl  to  tho  iinrth-ciiNt,  thuN  avoiding  Hakhaliu  and  tho  Kurilo 
TNhindH,  and  returning  southwardH  along  tho  Hhores  of  Vancouver,  Oregon,  and 
California,  Henco  tho  Asiatic  neulMMird  M  deprivj-d  of  tho  infliK'neo  of  the  wuriii 
currents  from  tho  south,  whilo  tho  ico  accuniuluting  iu  winter  in  tho  8ca  of 
Okhotnk  and  Oulf  of  Tutary  tends  to  lower  tho  tenii)oraturo  of  tho  maritinio 
regions  lliroughout  tho  season.  In  winter  also  the  prevailing  winds  blow  from  tho 
north,  in  summer  from  tho  south,  so  that  tho  nonnal  temjjcroturo  of  both  seasons 
bt<comes  intensified,  producing  those  oxtromos  of  heut  and  cold  which  uro  evory- 
whero  characteristic  of  the  true  continental  climuto.  Tho  chief  contrast  between 
the  inland  regions  of  tho  Upper  Amur  basin  and  tho  cn'\8t  districts  of  tho  Lower 
Anuir  and  Manchuria  rises  from  tho  action  of  tho  Centiai  Asiatic  plateaux  and  of 
tho  I'acifio  waters  on  tho  atmospheric  currents.  In  tho  UpiK?r  Amur  region  tho 
north-west  polar  winds  and  tho  south-west  trado  winds  prevail  regiUarly  ii»  winter 
and  summer  respectively,  whereas  the  atmospheric  currents  of  tho  oastorn  seaboard 
blow  from  tlie  north-west  and  south-east  during  tho  corresixmding  seasons.  Wo 
know  what  vast  quantities  of  moisturo  aro  brought  by  these  south-easterly 
monsoons  to  tho  Amur  basin,  and  to  the  shores  of  tho  Aryan  and  Okhotsk.  During 
their  ijrevalenco  tho  storm-tossed  waters  of  tho  Soa  of  Okhotsk  aro  wrapped  in 
dense  fogs,  through  which  tho  solar  rays  seldom  penetrate. 

But  while  tho  climate  of  East  Siberia  is  thus  distinguished  by  its  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold,  of  dryness  and  humidity,  it  has  at  least  tho  advantage  of  a  great 
regularity  in  its  annual  changes,  and  is  entirely  froo  from  those  sudden  transitions 
of  temporAturo  which  are  observed  in  West  Siberia.  Tho  dry  colds  of  winter,  tho 
moist  summer  heats,  prevail  throughout  those  seasons  without  any  violent  change. 
In  February,  the  driest  month  in  the  year,  tho  snow  or  rain  fall  at  Nyerchinskiy 
Zavod  is  Bfty-eight  times  less  than  the  rainfall  of  tho  wet  season.  At  Vladivostok 
tho  differouco  between  the  winter  snows  and  summer  rains  is  even  still  greater,  the 
former  being  about  eight  hundred  and  forty  times  less  than  the  latter.  In  1858, 
Venyukov  experienced  forty-five  days  of  incessant  rains  in  the  Usuri  valley.  In 
this  district,  and  along  the  south  bank  of  .tho  Amur,  these  annual  downpours  rot 
tho  crops  of  tho  Cossacks,  who  have  not  yot  learnt  to  imitate  the  Chinese  iu  adapt- 
ing their  agricultural  system  to  the  climatic  conditions. 


Manchurian  Fauna  and  Flora. 

With  tho  phenomena  of  the  peculiar  East  Siberian  climate  naturally  correspond 
certain  s^Kicial  features  of  its  flora  and  fauna.  Tho  forests  of  the  Amur  basin  are 
not  uniformly  composed  of  the  sumo  species  of  conifers,  like  the  taiga  of  the  regions 
draining  to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  There  is  a  great  diversity  of  forms,  but  little  variety 
in  their  distribution,  pines,  firs,  cedars,  and  larches  mingling  freely,  not  only  with 
tho  Russian  birch,  but  also  with  such  deciduous  plants  as  tlie  oak,  elm,  hombeum, 
ash,  maple,  linden,  as^wn  ;  and  amongst  these  forest  trees  there  are  some  which 
grow  to  a  height  of  100  feet,  with  stems  nearly  4  feet  thick.     In  the  southern 


■mmm 


MANCIIUBIAN  FAUNA  AND  FLORA. 


495 


cant  co(iMt  of 

(1  tho  Kurilo 
',  Oregon,  und 
}  of  tho  warm 
n    tho  Sou   uf 

tho  nmritiino 

blow  from  tho 

both  HouHons 

ich  uro  ovory- 

itrast  botwoon 

of  tho  Lower 
itouux  and  of 
lur  roffion  tho 
iirly  ill  wintor 
(torn  aoubourd 
BoasoiiH.  Wo 
south-oantorly 
atsk.    During 

0  wrapped  in 

1  extremes  of 
fo  of  a  grout 
oil  tranHitioua 
)f  winter,  tho 
iolont  change. 
Nyerchinskiy 
t  Vludivostok 
11  greater,  the 
or.  In  1858, 
■i  valley.  In 
lownpours  rot 
lese  in  adapt- 


partH  of  tho  llHuri  plaiuH,  and  on  the  nlopoH  of  thu  Hikhota-iilin,  tho  leufy  H|M<<;i(>N 
prevail  over  the  i-vcrgrcon  coniforH.  In  tho  foroHtn  of  tho  Amur  tho  wihl  vino 
twinoH  itH  tendrilH  round  tho  i>inc8,  and  brings  itH  fruit  to  niutiirity,  ulthough  tho 
domoHtic  vino  hu«  not  yet  l)oon  protitubiy  cultivutud.  On  the  Up|M'r  I'Nuri  tho 
ChinoHO  have  plan tutiouH  of  tlu-  ginseng  (/V«rtJ'  giiiHonif),  that  vultiiil)li'  plant  whoHo 
root,  "a  Hpifitie  against  all  di^torderH,"  fetches  its  weight  in  gold.  The  walnut, 
poach,  and  wild  jioar  interlace  their  brunches  in  the  wcmmIs,  und  the  attempts 
already  made  at  horticulture  round  ubout  tho  villuges  show  that  the  Usuri  region 
might  become  one  of  the  finest  fruit-growing  countries  in  the  world.  Altogether 
the  Horu  of  the  Amur  upproacbos  thut  of  ('hina,  and  oven  of  Indo-Chiua,  while 

Fig.  218.— HiHiiAOBoui  Vbohation  on  tub  ItLANM  or  THi  Amur. 


^ 

^^^^Hi^^^^l 

>A 

p.: 

■r->  •■;■  .  •;<?- ,  T,:, , 

'    /    ■    V     ■' 

^        ■     ■  ,  • 

-V' 

if 

J' 
> 

•     - 

i 

•        - 

lly  correspond 

lur  basin  are 

)f  the  regions 

little  variety 

aot  only  with 

n,  hombeum, 

some  which 

the  southern 


many  of  its  species  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  vegetation  of  the  Old  and 
New  World.  But  the  pride  of  East  Siberia  are  tho  thickets  of  herbaceous  plants 
growing  in  the  alluvial  lands,  along  the  banks  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Amur  and 
its  great  tributaries.  Here  the  umbellifers,  mugwort,  reeds,  and  various  species  of 
cereals  intertwine  to  a  height  of  10  feet  their  stalks,  bloom,  and  fruits,  and  are 
often  still  further  interlaced  by  the  manifold  coils  of  tall  croeperei.  There  ure 
many  densely  covered  tracts  impenetrable  except  with  the  axe  in  hand,  and  those 
who  venture  into  these  thickets  have  usually  to  follow  the  tracks  opened  through 
them  by  tho  wild  beasts,  for  the  wild  boar,  doer,  and  wild  goat  fuid  a  better 
cover  in  those  tall  grasses  even  than  in  the  forest  itself.  The  woodlands  of  the 
Usuri  are  also  haunted  by  the  tigor,  fierce  as  the  royal  beast  of  the  Bengal  jungles, 


■WIP^ 


MBMMI 


smr- 


A8IATK;  RUSSIA. 


und  hi'  Is  horo  aHMM-iutinl  with  tho  panther,  In^nr,  and  Hublo.  TIiuh  uro  tho  noiith^ m 
ty|icH  intvnninglod  witli  thoHu  uf  thu  north  iu  tho  rich  animal  kiugiluni  uf  thin 
ro^ion,  which  is  ulliod  ut  unco  tu  thow)  of  Hiboriu  and  uf  China. 

iNiiAniTAirrH — Tiik  Qoi.m  axd  oniEn  Tunouh  Tribkh. 

Etliiiicully  npoakinff,  tho  Amur  is  still  a  Tungun  river.  Apart  from  the 
civilisud  ('hinoMo  und  llustNiann,  all  tho  riverain  iM)pulution,  from  the  Argun  and 
Hhilka  (lonHuonco  to  tho  IJNuri  junction,  conniHtH  of  Tungus  ulumontn.  Hut  tho 
Lower  Amur  an<l  count  regions  belong  to  tho  Uiliuks,  a  people  of  u  ditforent  race, 
allicil  to  thu  KuriloH  und  Kumchadules. 

Thu  TungUNcs  of  the  Amur  are  divided  into  several  dintinot  tribes,  some  of 
whicli  muintuin  few  relations,  except  of  a  hostile  character,  with  each  other.  The 
liUinuts,  who  occupy  tho  west  coast  of  the  8ca  of  Okhotsk,  are  for  the  others  simply 
thu  "  People  of  the  Sea."  Tho  Oroches,  or  Orochons,  who  had  dwindled  to  about 
2((U  in  1875,  form  a  few  family  groups  on  the  bunks  of  tho  Shilka  and  Upper 
Amur.  From  tho  Munogrs,  their  eastorn  neighbours,  they  are  distinguished  only 
by  the  traditional  custom  of  using  the  reindeer  as  mounts.  Doth  tho  Orochos  and 
Manegrs,  although  mostly  baptized,  none  the  less  preserve  their  shamans  und 
domestic  idols,  as  well  as  tho  teeth  and  claws  of  unimals  used  as  amulets.  Hitherto 
the  (Jhinese  have  had  greater  influence  over  thom  than  tho  Russians.  Their  dress 
and  ornaments  are  evidently  copied  from  southern  models,  while  their  features  are 
clearly  the  result  of  uUiuuces  between  the  Tungus  women  and  Chinese  colonists. 
This  process  of  assimilation,  which  is  gradually  transforming  the  native  tribes,  in 
seen,  especially  on  the  right  or  Chinese  bunk  of  the  Amur,  in  thu  neighbourhood 
of  tho  town  of  A'igiin,  which  is  the  civilising  centre  of  the  whole  country.  Tlie 
Da6rB,  descendants  of  nomads  of  like  name,  who  formerly  lived  farther  west  in  the 
present  Daftria,  have  become  sedentary  and  ag^cultural.  Most  of  their  houses 
are  built  in  the  Chinese  style,  with  vegetable  gardens,  orchards,  well-tilled  fields, 
and  their  religious  rites  are  chiefly  boirowed  from  the  Buddhist  syHtems.  They 
regard  as  inferiors  the  Birars — that  is,  the  "  River  "  Tung^ses — horse  and  cattle 
brueders,  who  still  dwell  north  of  the  Amur,  over  against  the  Duilr  settlements. 

The  Qolds,  another  Tungus  people,  residing  chiefly  ou  the  right  bank  of  the 
Amur,  and  along  the  Sungari  and  Usuri  Rivers,  also  occupy  a  few  villages  on  the 
left  or  Russian  side,  between  the  ford  of  the  Usuri  and  the  junction  of  the  Oorin. 
They  are  a  timid  race,  who  generally  shrink  from  all  contact  with  the  Chinese, 
Munchus,  and  Russians.  Yet  they  have  already  borrowed  some  of  the  usages  of 
their  civilised  neighbours,  and,  like  the  Chinese,  shave  the  hair,  leaving  nothing  but 
a  "  pigtail "  on  tho  top  of  the  head.  The  Golds  live  almost  exclusively  on  the  fish 
which  abounds  in  the  streams  of  their  territory.  They  are  excellent  boatmen,  and  live 
on  tho  water  as  on  the  land.  When  the  river  is  rough  they  use  large  vessels  with 
square  bows,  and  in  calm  weather  light  craft  made  of  birch  bark.  They  never  till  the 
soil,  and  have  but  few  vegetables,  but  occasionally  barter  their  sable  furs  with  the 
Manchus  for  rice  and  honey.      They  are  very  fond  of  animals,  and  surround  their 


mm^mmmi 


ho  noiith^m 
jm  uf  tliio 


from  tbo 
A.rgun  and 
.  But  tho 
ijront  raoo, 

OH,  some  of 
thor.  Tho 
jorH  Mimply 
Dd  to  ubout 
tind  Upper 
UHlied  only 
rochos  und 
inians  and 

Hitherto 
rheir  droHs 
mtures  nre 
Q  colonists. 
3  tribes,  is 
hbourhood 
itry.  Tho 
vest  in  the 
cir  houses 
lied  fields, 
tns.  They 
and  cattle 
!ments. 
nk  of  the 
[es  on  the 
the  Qorin. 

Chinese, 
usages  of 
>thing  but 
m  the  fish, 
n,  and  live 
issols  with 
rer  till  the 
with  the 
>und  their 


g6u>  TTPB8  AND  COSTITIIIS. 


•^mmmtmmmmmmmmm 


mtmrn^p 


--''-riwiiiiiiiifiTiUnniiii 


iMiMlliHiliii 


t1" 


■■|P^iimiiiiiiilW>i^— 


I  ),    I    Willljitfi|lf.lil'l>"i 


»«^i"ii(! Mil  I  ii>  i|        I'"" 


^ 


r 


f^^p^mmmmmm 


#■" 


THE  TAZi,  MANDZI,  GILIAKS,  AND  EUSSIANS. 


487 


'h-9 


mmmm 


dwellings  with  multitudes  of  dogs  and  swine,  which  live,  like  themselves,  on  a  fish 
diet.  They  also  keep  menageries  of  hears,  wolves,  and  foxes,  as  well  as  aviaries 
of  geese,  wild  duck,  and  eagles.  Various  religious  superstitions  associated  with  the 
last-mentioned  birds  of  prey  have  even  earned  for  them  the  title  of  "  Eaglets," 
conferred  on  this  tribe  by  the  Manchus.  In  the  peninsular  region,  comprised 
between  the  Sungari,  Amur,  and  Usuri,  the  tiger  makes  frequent  visits  to  their 
villages,  nor  do  they  always  venture  to  resist  the  "  lord,"  who,  they  suppose, 
represents  a  royal  tribe,  ruled  over  by  the  "  Spirit  of  the  Mountains,"  the  Shan- 
shen  of  the  Manchurian  Chinese.  A  traveller  relates  that  during  the  winter  of 
1857-8  a  tiger  came  every  night  for  his  meal,  consisting  of  two  dogs,  which  the 
Golds  tied  up  to  a  tree  outside  the  village.  But  when  they  had  no  more  victims 
for  their  terrible  visitor,  they  were  making  preparations  to  sacrifice  their  own 
children,  when  some  Cossacks  happening  to  pass  that  way  rescued  them  from  their 
impoiiiunate  guest. 

North  of  the  Golds  are  other  Tungus  tribes,  the  Manguns,  Samagirs,  Ngatkons, 
Nigidals,  and  others  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Amur  and  Amgun.  The 
Manguns  resemble  the  Golds  in  speech,  religion,  habits,  and  fondness  for  caged 
eagles  and  other  animals.  But  they  are  more  cultured,  thanks  to  the  influence  of 
the  Manchus,  now  succeeded  by  that  of  the  Russians.  The  little  houses  erected 
by  them  on  the  graves  of  the  dead  are  adorned  with  curious  carvings  in  exquisite 
taste.  The  Nigidals,  who  dwell  quite  apart  on  a  tributary  of  the  Amgun,  seem  to 
be  descended  from  a  people  who  were  formerly  far  more  civilised  than  at  present. 
The  men  of  this  tribe  are  perhaps  the  most  honest  and  trustworthy  of  the  noble 
Timgus  race.  In  order  to  keep  aloof  as  far  as  possible  from  the  Yakut,  Russian, 
and  Manchu  traders,  they  have  been  obliged  to  withdraw  to  regions  of  difl&cult 
access.  Possessing  a  large  quantity  of  precious  objects  and  of  textile  fabrics 
embroidered  in  the  Chinese  taste,  and  testifying  to  the  influence  formerly  exerted 
over  them  by  that  race,  they  refuse  to  part  with  these  highly  valued  articles,  with 
which  they  are  accustomed  to  array  the  bride  and  their  dead. 

The  stone  age  still  survived  till  quite  recently  in  this  region,  and  even  much 
farther  south  on  the  Manchurian  seaboard,  where  it  was  continued  down  to  the 
beginning  of  the  present  era.  Some  of  the  Usuri  tribes  were  accustomed  to  send 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  arrows  to  the  Ooreans,  doubtless  in  consequence  of  the 
excellent  quality  of  the  stone  supplied  by  their  quarries  for  the  manufacture  of  arms. 

The  Tazi,  Mandzi,  Giliaks,  and  Russians. 

The  Tunguses  of  the  coast  between  the  Amur  and  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the  Great, 
branches  of  the  Oroches  and  Golds,  are  by  the  Chinese  called  Yu-pi-ta-tz' ;  that  is, 
"  Fish-skin-clad  People,"  a  name  which  the  Russians  have  shortened  to  Tazi.  Those 
who  have  preserved  the  old  fashions  still  wear  garments  of  salmon  skin,  adorned 
with  very  elegant  designs.  But  in  the  hills  and  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sikhota- 
alin  the  Tazi  no  longer  deserve  their  Chinese  appellat''on,  for  they  now  dress 
like  the  other  Tunguses,  either  in  the  skins  of  animals  or  in  Russian  and  Chinese 


mmmmg^ssm 


M^S»S3 


488 


ASUTIO  EUSSIA. 


M  I 


clothes.  The  Tazi  are  honest  and  upright,  and,  like  most  of  the  Tunguses,  very 
hospitable.  But  they  have  not  succeeded  in  preserving  their  independence,  having 
for  the  most  part  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Mandzi.  These  Mandzi,  or  Mant-zi', 
are  Chinese  immigrants  who  have  in  an  economic  sense  become  the  masters  of  the 
land,  and  who  till  recently  had  a  separate  government,  which,  to  the  great  relief  of 
the  people,  has  now  been  abolished.  The  chiefs  claimed  the  privilege  of  inflicting 
barbarous  punishments  on  their  subjects,  cropping  their  ears  or  even  burying  them 
olive  for  real  or  imaginary  offences.  They  have  no  doubt  taught  the  Tazi  a  good 
method  of  agricxdture,  but  they  take  care  to  profit  by  them  as  money-lenders  and 
traders.  They  are  also  the  owners  of  the  mines  and  the  outfitters  of  the  fishing- 
smacks,  and  in  their  interest  the  sands  of  the  streams  are  washed  for  gold,  and  the 
"  sea-cabbage  "  and  trepang  collected  for  export.  The  Tazi  are  required  by  usage 
to  obtain  their  marriage  licenses  from  the  Mandzi  trader,  who  sells  at  a  high  figure 
the  oflUcial  yellow  paper.  He  also  presides  at  burials,  and  "  for  a  consideration  " 
embellishes  the  Tazi  dwelling  with  tapestries  representing  the  god  Buddha. 
Crushed  by  this  oppressive  system,  the  Tazi  are  rapidly  diminishing.  In  1874 
they  had  been  reduced  to  250  souls,  and,  as  the  Mandzi  all  take  native  wives,  the 
Tazi  will  have  probably  ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  nationality  in  a  single  genera- 
tion. All  the  Tunguses  of  South-east  Siberia  are  variously  estimated  at  from 
10,000  to  13,000. 

Travellers  and  Government  officials  calculated  that  in  1873  there  were  from 
3,000  to  upwards  of  7,000  Chinese  on  the  Russian  seaboard.  But  this  element  is 
rapidly  increasing,  and  tens,  if  not  himdreds  of  thousands,  of  "  Celestials  "  would 
flock  to  thiB  region  under  a  free  system  of  migration.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
the  country  was  occupied  by  numerous  colonies  of  Chinese,  who  possessed  towns 
and  forts  in  many  places.  But  in  1605 — 7  they  were  five  times  attacked  by  the 
Manchus,  who  burnt  their  cities  and  villages,  slaughtered  most  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  carried  off  the  rest  into  slavery.  There  remained  but  a  few  fugitives  hidden  in 
the  woods  and  marshes,  afterwards  joined  by  fresh  immigrants  attracted  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  ginseng  and  tho  gold-washings.  It  is  the  descendants  of  these 
Chinese  intruders  who  at  present  occupy  the  country  under  the  name  of  Mandzi — 
that  is,  "  Free  Men  " — although  Palladius  regards  this  name  as  a  term  of  reproach 
given  by  the  Chinese  to  their  expatriated  feUow-countrymen.  The  Mandzi  call 
themselves  Pao-tui-tz' ;  that  is,  "  Walkers,"  or  "  Runners."  In  1861,  after  the 
cession  of  the  maritime  region  to  Russia,  the  Chinese  Government  forbade  its  subjects 
to  migrate  with  their  wives  and  fam.  ies  to  this  region.  The  richest  amongst  those 
already  settled  lu>ro  returned  to  China;  the  poor  alone  remained,  and  were  after- 
wards joined  by  vagrants  and  brigands  from  Manchuria.  Such  are  the  chief  elements 
of  the  Chinese  population  in  the  maritime  province.  Some  Corean  immigrants 
have  also  found  refuge  in  Russian  territory,  notwithstanding  the  sentence  of  death 
issued  against  them.  In  1868  thej'  already  numbered  over  1,400,  all  industrious 
husbandmen.  But  the  inundations  of  the  following  year  having  driven  multitudes 
of  victims  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Russia,  the  Corean  immigration  was  temporarily 
interdicted.     Some  of  the  fugitives  were  even  sent  back,  and  beheaded  on  their 


THE  TAZl,  MANDZI,  GILIAKS,  AND  RUSSIANS. 


489 


ung^uses,  very 
denco,  having 
i,  or  Mant-zi', 
losters  of  the 
jreat  relief  of 
)  of  inflicting 
burying  them 
e  Tazi  a  good 
jr-lenders  and 
I  the  fishing- 
^Id,  and  the 
red  by  usage 
a  high  figure 
nsideration  " 
^od   Buddha, 
g.     In  1874 
ve  wives,  the 
nglo  genera- 
ted at  from 

•e  were  from 
is  element  is 
tials  "  would 
3nth  century 
lessed  towns 
eked  by  the 
inhabitants, 
es  hidden  in 
icted  by  the 
nts  of  these 
)f  Maudzi — 
of  reproach 
Mandzi  call 
I,  after  the 
!  its  subjects 
longst  those 
were  af  ter- 
ief  elements 
immigrants 
ce  of  death 
industrious 
multitudes 
©mporarily 
sd  on  their 


return,  while  others  were  banished  to  the  ports  on  the  Giilf  of  Tatary  and  to  the 
banks  of  the  Amur.  In  1873  the  Coreans  settled  in  the  maritime  province  nimi- 
bered  altogether  about  3,500,  over  half  of  whom  had  allowed  themselves  to.  be 
baptized. 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  the  inhabitants  of  the  Lower  Amur  were  the 
Gi!'  ■i.^t.  or  Eil^,  kinsmen  of  those  living  in  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  and  allied  to 
thosf"  laysterious  Ainos  who  are  the  subject  of  so  much  discussion  amongst  ethno- 
logists. They  lack  the  open  and  bright  expression  of  most  of  the  Tungus  tribes, 
and  their  small  eyes  sparkle  with  a  dull  glitter.  They  have  a  flat  nose,  thick  lips, 
prominent  cheek  bones,  black  hair,  and  tolerably  fidl  beard.  Dwelling  farther 
from  the  Manchus  than  do  the  Tunguses  of  the  Amur,  they  are  also  far  more  savage, 
although  amongst  them  are  found  blacksmiths,  mechanics,  and  even  skilful  carvers. 
The  travellers  who  have  come  in  contact  with  them  are  not  eloquent  in  their  praise, 
describing  them  as  false,  thievish,  and  vindictive.  But  the  Giliaks  have  at  least 
a  highly  developed  sense  of  freedom,  recognising  no  masters,  and  governing  them- 
selves according  to  usage  alone.  Tradition  regulates  their  feasts,  marriages,  funerals, 
and  ceremonies  observed  when  setting  out  for  the  chase  and  on  other  important 
occasions.  The  betrothed,  purchased  by  her  father-in-law  in  her  fourth  or  fifth 
yeor,  is  brought  up  with  her  future  husband  till  her  majority.  In  some  commu- 
nities the  dead  are  burnt ;  in  others  the  coffins  are  suspended  to  the  trees,  or  placed 
on  platforms  near  their  cabins.  The  soul  of  the  departed  takes  refuge  in  the  body 
of  his  favourite  dog,  which  is  consequently  fattened  up  and  immolated  on  the  grave 
of  Its  master. 

Fire  is  held  in  no  less  respect  by  the  Giliaks  than  by  the  Tajiks  of  the  Pamir. 
No  consideration  in  the  world  would  induce  them  to  remove  the  live  coal  from  one 
hut  to  another,  for  the  fire  once  kindled  must  never  leave  the  hearth  which  it  has 
consecrated.  The  l-ohr,  or  bear,  representing  the  £ur,  or  lord  of  the  heavens,  is 
one  of  their  chief  divinities,  whom,  however,  circumstances  occasionally  compel 
them  to  devour.  They  trap  it  in  winter  in  its  lair,  and,  after  securing  it  with  a 
leather  noose,  drag  it  along  with  shouts  and  cries  intended  to  stupefy  their  half- 
awakened  but  still  formidable  victim.  It  is  then  kept  in  confinement,  nourished 
and  fattened  on  fish,  and  at  last  slain  on  its  feast-day,  after  a  fight  in  which  the 
assembled  miiltitude  attack  it  .without  arms.  With  this  may  be  compared  what 
Miss  Isabella  Bird  tells  us  regarding  a  similar  practice  amongst  the  Ainos  of  Yezo : 
"The  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  this  rude  mythology  is  the '  worship '  of  the  bear, 
the  Yezo  bear  being  one  of  the  finest  of  his  species.  But  it  is  impossible  to  under- 
stand the  feelings  by  which  it  is  prompted,  for  they  worship  it  after  their  fashion, 
and.  set  up  its  head  in  their  villages,  yet  they  trap  it,  kill  it,  eat  it,  and  sell  its  skin. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  this  wild  beast  inspires  more  of  the  feeling  which  prompts 
worship  than  the  inanimate  forces  of  nature,  and  the  Ainos  may  be  distinguished 
as  bear- worshippers,  and  their  greatest  religious  festival,  or  Saturnalia,  as  the  Festival 
of  the  Bear.  Gentle  and  peaceful  as  they  are,  they  have  a  great  admiration  for 
fierceness  and  courage,  and  the  bear,  which  is  the  strongest,  fiercest,  and  most 
courageous  animal  known  to  them,  has  probably  in  all  ages  inspired  them  with 


mmmm 


■MP 


MMMN 


440 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


(  I 


veneration.  Some  of  their  rude  chants  are  in  praise  of  the  bear,  and  their  highest, 
eulogy  on  a  man  is  to  compare  him  to  a  bear."  *  Like  the  Golds,  the  Oiliaks  keep 
eagles  in  cages,  giving  them  the  same  food  as  the  bears.  But  they  do  not  hunt  the 
wolf,  to  which  they  ascribe  baneful  influences. 

Golds  and  Giliaks,  Oroches  and  Manegrs,  are  all  alike  destined  to  disappear 
before  the  RuHsians.  No  doubt  colonisation,  properly  so  called,  is  proceeding  very 
slowly,  and  many  settlements,  unfavourably  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  marshes 
or  thickets  too  difficult  to  be  cleared,  have  had  to  be  abandoned.  Nevertheless  the 
military  posts,  fishing  stations,  and  provision  depots  afford  solid  rallying-points  to 
the  Slav  populations.  The  seaports  and  reclaimed  lands  are  so  many  "  New  Rus- 
sias,"  which  are  inch  by  inch  absorbing  all  the  sun'ounding  region.  The  prairies 
of  the  Amur  and  the  southern  districts  watered  by  the  Usuri  are  amongst  the 
countries  where  the  Russian  element  is  increasing  and  flourishing,  while  the  Cos- 
sacks, stationed  on  the  Lower  Usuri  in  colonies  at  intervals  of  from  15  to  20  miles, 
have  fallen  into  the  most  abject  poverty.  They  have  neither  com  nor  cattle,  and 
in  1867  every  "  soul "  had  less  than  an  acre  of  land  under  cultivation.  Some  Fin- 
nish families,  which  had  received  grants  of  lands  from  the  Government  on  the 
Upper  Usuri,  have  been  obliged  to  abandon  them  and  take  refuge  in  Vladivostok. 
A  few  Bohemians  had  also  offered  to  colonise  the  Usuri  valley  and  the  Manchurian 
maritime  districts,  but  on  condition  of  enjoying  free  municipal  institutions.  How- 
ever, the  Russian  Government  rejected  these  offers  as  too  dangerous,  and,  speaking 
generally,  the  colonies  of  the  Amur  basin  must  so  far  be  pronounced  a  failure.  In 
order  at  any  cost  to  occupy  the  whole  "  line  "  from  Transbaikalia  to  Vladivostok  in 
two  vears,  military  posts  had  been  founded  at  regular  intervals,  but  all  the  sites 
thus  chosen  did  not  prove  suitable  for  agricultural  settlements.  As  a  rule,  the 
colonies  flourish  in  proportion  as  they  are  more  freely  developed  and  removed  from 
the  meddlesome  interference  of  the  authorities.  A  large  number  of  the  Russian 
villages  in  the  Amur  basin  have  been  named  after  the  travellers  who  have  distin- 
gruished  themselves  by  their  explorations  in  Siberia. 


^   The  Eamenshiki. 

Recently,  also,  some  of  the  "  Old  Believers "  have  found  their  way  from  the 
Altai'  highlands  to  the  Amur  basin.  An  interesting  account  of  these  little-known 
Siberian  "  Eamenshiki "  has  been  communicated  by  M.  Printz  to  Mr.  E.  D.  Morgan, 
and  by  him  published  in  his  English  edition  of  Prjevalsky's  "  Journey  to  the  Lob- 
Nor."  After  the  year  1747,  when  the  Government  took  over  from  Demidoff  the 
Altai  mines,  many  new  settlements  were  founded  in  the  mountains,  and  a  chain  of 
forts  was  erected  to  protect  the  works  from  ihe  inroads  of  the  Zungarian  Ealmuks. 
But  many  of  the  miners  and  settlers  from  various  quarters  soon  crossed  the  frontier, 
so  that  in  1764  a  second  line  had  to  be  formed  towards  the  south-east.  In  order  to 
secure  themselves  from  the  Tatars  and  Ealmuks  the  new  settlers  foimded  their  first 
stations  in  the  impenetrable  forests  of  Euznetsk,  where  the  Old  Believers  made  for 

*  "  Unbeaten  Traotd  in  Japun,"  ii.  p.  73. 


_Z" "11'  "in — 


-«r' 


THE  KAMENSHIEI. 


441 


.  their  highest 
)  Giliaks  keep 
)  not  hunt  the 

[  to  disappear 

oceeding  very 

od  of  marshes 

vertheless  the 

^ing-points  to 

Y  "  New  Ru8- 

The  prairies 

amongst  the 

rhile  the  Cos- 

5  to  20  miles, 

or  cattle,  and 

Some  Fin- 

iment  on  the 

Vladivostok. 

3  Manchurian 

tions.    How- 

md,  speaking 

I  failure.     In 

Todivostok  in 

i  all  the  sites 

.8  a  rule,  the 

emoved  from 

the  Russian 

have  distin- 


ay  from  the 

little-known 

D.  Morgan, 

to  the  Lob- 

)emidoff  the 

d  a  chain  of 

in  Ealmuks. 

the  frontier. 

In  order  to 

sd  their  first 

rs  made  for 


themselves  caves  (skiti)  and  hermitages,  which  later  on  became  villages,  subject  to 
taxation  and  liable  to  furnish  hands  for  the  mines.  To  escape  from  these  exactions 
the  settlers  again  moved  farther  towards  the  Chinese  frontier,  where  they  were 
joined  by  others  who  belonged  to  no  particular  sect;  but  were  mostly  runaway 
miners  and  others  anxious  to  avoid  labour  and  taxation. 

To  this  day  there  are  ravines  in  the  Altai  called  "  Eamen  "  (rock),  and  their 
inhabitants  are  spoken  of  as  living  "  in  the  rock,"  or  "  beyond  the  rock,"  whence 
their  name  of  Kametuhiki,  or  "  Rock  People."  The  first  Eamenshiki  lived  for  a 
time  in  the  secluded  Bukhtarma  hills,  where  their  holiness  and  humility,  real  or 
feigned,  soon  began  to  attract  the  other  inhabitants  towards  them.  Many  of  the 
serfs  were  also  iaduced  to  join  them,  obtaining  leave  to  go  on  hunting  expeditions, 
and  then  staying  away  altogether.  They  lived  peaceably  together,  observing  strictly 
the  rites  of  their  religion,  tilling  the  land,  and  enriching  themselves  by  the  sale  of 
costly  furs.  In  the  hunting  districts  they  passed  the  uinter  in  rude  huts,  occupied 
exclusively  in  trapping  fur-belaring  animals.  The  huts  were  often  completely 
buried  in  snow-drifts  several  yards  deep,  with  a  small  opening  for  the  entrance. 
The  only  signs  of  life  in  these  snowy  wastes  and  dense  forests  were  the  stack  of 
fire-wood,  the  black  bath,  and  the  sairaf  or  larder,  supported  on  four  trees,  and  about 
15  feet  from  the  ground.  They  also  visited  the  Narim,  a  tributary  of  the  Irtish, 
where  they  caught  the  sturgeon  and  sterlet,  which  they  dried  or  jerked  in  the  sun. 

The  Government,  although  aware  of  the  colony  of  "  outlaws "  in  the  Bukh- 
tarma district,  was  unable  to  take  effectual  measures  against  them,  owing  to  the 
inaccessible  nature  of  the  country.  But  in  1791  they  voluntarily  submitted  and 
received  the  imperial  pardon,  and  were  then  made  liable  to  a  small  poll-tax,  changed 
later  on  to  a  tribute  in  kind.  In  the  early  stage  of  their  existence  their  lives  were 
patriarchal  in  the  extreme,  and  being  cut  off  from  the  world,  and  imited  by  a  com- 
mon lot,  they  formed  a  religious  brotherhood,  living  together  in  peace  and  har- 
mony. Disputes  were  referred  to  the  "  Best  Men,"  those  who  possessed  the  general 
confidence,  and  were  disting^shed  for  their  moral  qualities.  But  after  they  were 
joined  by  outcasts  and  runaways  of  all  sorts,  every  kind  of  imbridled  license 
broke  out  amongst  them.  Robbery,  rape,  and  murder  became  rife,  and  the  prepon- 
derance of  the  men  over  the  other  sex  led  to  much  discord  and  vice.  Some  of  their 
number,  caught  red-handed,  were  condemned  in  1788  to  an  extraordinary  punish- 
ment :  two  of  the  criminals  were  boimd  to  small  rafts  and  set  adrift  in  the  rapid 
Bukhtarma  River,  each  with  a  pole  to  save  himself  from  drowning,  and  a  loaf  of  bread 
for  food.     One  was  drowned,  and  the  other  washed  to  the  bank  and  pardoned. 

After  their  submission  to  the  authorities  in  1791  they  abandoned  their 
"  rocks,"  and  removed  to  places  suited  for  tillage,  stock-breeding,  and  industrial 
pursuits.  When  visited  in  1863  by  Printz,  they  were  a  thriving  community,  with 
numerous  herds  and  flocks,  and  much  land  under  tillage.  They  are  daring  hunters, 
and  have  been  known  single-handed  to  attack  and  dispatch  the  bear,  armed  only 
with  an  axe.  They  claim  to  belong  to  the  old  priestless  sect — Whence  have  no 
"popes  "  of  their  own.  Nothing  but  necessity  drives  them  to  the  Orthodox  Church 
before  marriage,  wh^i  they  are  obliged  to  sign,  a.  written  engagement  never  to 
29 


mKPM"" 


■•• 


442 


ASIATIC  EUSSU. 


rotiuTi  to  the  "  ruskol."  This,  however,  they  do  not  observe,  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  obtained  on  compulsion,  nor  do  they  over  bring  their  children  to  bo  baptized,  or 
comply  with  any  of  the  observances  of  the  orthodox  faith. 

The  volost,  a  district  of  Bukhturma,  bus  a  present  population  of  1,438,  living  in 
eight  villages  in  an  extremely  fertile  district.  In  18G6  a  party  of  sixty  left  the 
community  in  search  of  the  "promised  land"  of  which  their  traditions  speak. 
But  after  two  years  of  fruitless  wanderings  on  the  llusso-Chinese  border  nearly  all 
returned  to  their  homes.  Since  then  another  party  was  met  by  Prjevalsky  on 
the  desolato  shores  of  Lob-nor,  and  others  are  now  migrating  to  the  more  inviting 
region  of  the  Amur  basin. 

Topography. 

The  few  Russian  towns  scattered  over  the  country  of  the  Tunguses  and  Giliaks 
on  the  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  Gulf  of  Tatury,  and  Sea  of  Japan  are  still 
in  their  infancy.  Scarcely  more  than  two  or  three  of  them  would  be  regarded  as 
anything  more  than  simple  villages,  were  they  suddenly  transix)rted  to  the  populous 
regions  of  European  Russia.  Still  they  derive  a  certain  historic  importance  from 
their  very  position  us  the  advanced  outposts  of  the  empire  on  the  Facilio  seaboard 
over  against  the  New  World. 

The  town  of  Okftotd;  which  gives  its  name  to  the  great  land-locked  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  has  never  had  more  than  a  few  himdred  inhabitants.  Yet  its  incon- 
venient harbour,  situated  on  a  lagoon  at  the  junction  of  the  Okhota,  and  Kiikhtuya, 
enjoys  a  certain  amount  of  trade.  Previous  to  the  year  1807,  when  a  ship  was 
sent  directly  from  Russia  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Uopo  to  Okhotsk,  all  the  pro- 
visions and  other  supplies  for  the  Russian  fleet  in  the  Pacific  had  to  be  forwarded 
overland  from  Yakutsk.  The  Government  and  the  trading  company  of  Russian 
America  employed  every  year  13,000  horses  in  this  carrying  trade  over  the  Aldan 
Mountains.  In  1844  the  "  American  "  fishing  and  peltry  company  removed  its 
factories  and  docks  from  Okhotsk  to  the  port  of  Apan,  more  favourably  situated  on 
the  same  coast,  and  3°  farther  south,  in  a  less  severe,  though  not  a  less  humid  and 
boisterous  climate.  Udskoj/  Oatrog,  one  of  the  oldest  Cossack  stations  in  this  region, 
and  situated  near  the  south-west  comer  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  also  ranks  as  a  town, 
though  consisting  only  of  a  few  dozen  houses.  Other  so-called  "  towns  "  are  0^'iga, 
or  CHjiginnk,  and  Penjina,  or  Penjinak,  mere  groups  of  huts,  standing  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  each  on  one  of  the  inlets  terminating 
this  inland  sea. 

The  Russian  towns  of  the  Amur  bosin,  although  founded  long  after  Okhotsk, 
have  nevertheless  outstripped  the  ancient  city,  which  at  one  time  enjoyed  a 
monopoly  of  the  Russian  trade  on  the  Pacific.  Chita,  capital  of  Transbaikalia,  has 
the  administrative  importance  imparted  to  it  by  its  rank  and  position  as  a  central 
station  on  the  route  between  Lake  Baikal  and  the  Amur.  But  the  Ingoda,  which 
below  Chita  plunges  into  a  deep  gorge,  is  navigable  only  during  the  spring  floods, 
when  it  sends  do^vn  the  flotilla  of  l)oats  laden  with  com,  salt,  preser\'ed  meat,  and 
manufactured  goods  for  all  the  settlements  in  the  Amur  basin  as  far  as  Niko- 


ground  that  it 
bo  baptized,  or 

,438,  living  in 
!  sixty  loft  the 
iditions  speak. 
>rdor  nearly  all 
Prjevolsky  on 
)  more  inviting 


)C8  and  Giliaks 
Japan  arc  still 
be  regarded  as 
X)  the  populous 
portance  from 
aciiio  seaboard 

locked  Sea  of 
STot  its  incon- 
md  £ukhtuya, 
Bn  a  ship  was 
jk,  all  the  pro- 
)  be  forwarded 
ny  of  Russian 
tver  the  Aldan 
y  removed  its 
>ly  situated  on 
ess  humid  and 
in  this  region, 
nks  as  a  town, 
18  "  are  Gifiga, 
mding  at  the 
ts  terminating 


ifter  Okhotsk, 
ne  enjoyed  a 
isbaikalia,  has 
n  as  a  central 
[ngoda,  which 
spring  floods, 
rod  meat,  and 
far  as  Niko- 


i 
i 


»iV\m    ■  "III   «^"ll* n||jii    I    I     ,    ,,,„   1,1^^,. 


II    I  lill..li>«p|h|ll«MMp> 


........■-...:.-..  ...::^..^Sl:3'iiB 


IIP 


'r^-mmnmilillllm 


TorooRArnr. 


^m^ 


loyovsk.  Tho  boats  used  in  this  sorvico  are  built  iu  tho  vust  fc.rosts  Htrctching 
olong  tho  river  above  Chitu.  Nycchimk  no  longer  slunds  on  the  banks  of  a 
navigable  river,  tho  inundations  of  1812  having  caused  it  to  be  removed  to  tho 
north  of  tho  Nyercha,  over  2  miles  from  tho  Shilka,  which,  though  fonned  by  tho 
junction  of  the  Onon  and  Ingoda,  is  accessible  only  to  light  craft.  Tho  true  head 
of  the  navigation  is  some  90  miles  farther  down  at  Stretemk,  a  flourishing  village 
which  possesses  some  warehouses  and  workshops.  Hero  most  of  tho  Russian  boats 
on  tho  Amur  put  up  for  tho  winter.  Nyerchinsk  is  a  trading-place,  which  has 
iMXJorae  the  emporium  for  tho  whole  region,  whoso  future  prosperity  and  impor- 
tance are  insured  by  its  numerous  argentiferous  load,  quicksilver,  copper,  iron,  tin, 
and  zinc  mines,  its  gold-washings,  precious  stones,  coal-fields,  and  mineral  waters. 
Historically  tho  nomo  of  Nyerchinsk  recalls  the  treaty  Wi-xt  was  here  concluded  in 
1689  between  Russia  and  China  to  the  advantage  of  tho  latter  power.  It  also 
recalls  the  sufferings  of  the  numerous  political  exiles  condemned  to  work  in  the 
neighbouring  mines.  Tho  chief  penal  settlement  of  the  district  is  situated  at  tho 
gold-washings  of  Kara,  on  tho  Shilka,  some  60  miles  below  Stretcnsk.  Over  2,000 
persons,  including  a  certain  number  of  political  convicts,  are  here  condemned  to 
hard  labour.  These  gold-woshings,  like  all  those  of  tho  Argun  and  Shilka  valleys, 
are  often  known  by  the  name  of  NycrehwHkiye  Prmki*  ond  the  term  Nyerchinsk 
is  also  current  in  the  meteorological  works  of  Nyerchimkiy  Zaeod,  a  silver 
foundry,  situated  175  miles  oast  of  the  town  on  o  smoU  affluent  of  tho  Argun. 
Here  were  made  the  important  observations  which  have  supplied  the  principal  dato 
for  the  study  of  tho  climate  of  East  Siberia.  It  is  a  pleasant  little  place,  surrounded 
by  metolliirgic  establishments. 

Since  the  first  incursions  of  the  Russians  the  banks  of  the  Amur  already  boast 
of  their  ruined  cities.  Such  is  Albazin,  founded  in  1651  by  tho  Cossack  chief 
Ehabarov,  and  which  tho  Chinese  armies  had  to  besiege  and  capture  three  times 
before  the  Russians  finally  ceded  it  in  tho*  treaty  of  Nyerchinsk.  A  modem 
stanitza  has  sprung  up  at  the  foot  of  the  ruined  fortress,  which  is  now  overgrown 
with  trees  and  shrubs.  The  present  capital  of  the  reconquered  Russian  territory 
on  the  Middle  Amur  is  Blagoryenhchtmk,  which  was  founded  in  1856  on  the 
peninsular  terrace  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Amur  and  Zyeya,  18  miles  above 
the  confluence.  The  brand-new  Russian  town»  with  its  governor's  pakce,  broad 
streets,  low  red-roofed  houses,  all  built  by  the  soldiers  on  one  plan,  contrasts 
unfavourably  with  the  populous  Chinese  town  of  Aigftn,  lying  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  some  20  miles  farther  down.  But  it  does  a  brisk  trade  with  Manchuria, 
which  even  in  1869  was  already  estimated  at  nearly  500,000  roubles  yearly.  Even 
within  the  Russian  frontier  there  reside  over  10,000  Chinese  subjects,  who  pay 
thoir  taxes  to  the  officials  on  the  right  bank.  The  Blagovyeshchensk  district  is 
destined  to  become  the  future  granary  of  tho  Amur  region.  Most  of  the  Slav 
squatters,  belonging  to  the  sect  of  the  Dttkhabortzi,  or  "  Spiritual  Wrestlers,"  are 
free  colonists,  having  selected  the  sites  of  their  villages  on  the  Zyeya  and  Zavitaya 

t 

•  Yield  of  gold  in  the  Amur  basin  in  1878,  2,076,000  roubleB;  hands  employed,  39,250,  of  whom 
1,936  escaped. 


IIP 


aWM^jMWejKttWjMWSiWifB 


I 


i 


-  I 
m 


ASIATIC  IIUSSIA. 
without  the  intervontion  of  the  military  authorities.     First  came  the  young  men  in 


the  spring,  provided  with  supplies,  and  accompanied  with  their  horses,  which  they 
bartered  with  the  Manchus  for  working  oxen.     On  tiie  arrival  of  the  families  a 


I«.^I«-a;w^-^  M^^^^CT-^J^Tfl 


mmmmtmmmmm 


TOPOORAPHY. 


tho  young  men  in 

SI 


f    I' 


pses,  which  they 
f  the  families  a 


few  months  later  on,  the  cuhinn  were  already  built,  and  long  yokea  of  eighteen  or 
twenty  cattle  hod  already  cleariHl  tho  thickctn  of  dwarf  ouIcn.  T\um)  villagoN  ure 
now  flourishing,  and  with  their  cheerful  aHpcct  preHent  a  ntriking  coiitruHt  to  tho 
wretched  iiettlomentH  established  by  order  of  tho  uuthoritiuM  in  the  njicUt  of  scrub, 
rocks,  and  swamp*.  One  of  the  most  thriving  colonics  Ih  that  of  Mikhatlo- 
8emyonoc»k,  situated  ut  the  issue  of  the  gorge  of  the  Duroyu  Uivor. 

Tlie  present  capital  of  all  the  Lower  Amur  region  ond  of  the  maritime  province 
is  Khaharvvka,  thus  named  in  honour  of  the  daring  Cossack  who  first  jlescended 
the  Amur  nearly  to  its  mouth.  Built  on  the  steep  side  of  a  hill  overlooking  tho 
right  bank  of  the  Amur  at  its  confluence  with  the  Usuri,  Khabarovku  consisted  till 

Fig.  2J0.— NiKOLATITSK. 

floiOci  '.t/tfioa. 


0to82F*«t. 


81  Feet  and  upwiuda. 
8,160  Tarda. 


recently  of  little  more  than  a  few  barracks  and  stores.  But  its  happy  position  at 
the  diverging  point  of  the  three  great  waterways  of  the  Middle  and  Lower  Amur 
and  Usuri,  and  under  one  of  the  least  rigorous  climates  in  Siberia,  seems  to  insure 
for  this  place  a  prosperous  commercial  future.  About  20,000  sable  skins  are 
annually  brought  to  this  market.  But  the  surrounding  marshes  and  woodlands 
present  g^reat  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  agriculture. 

Of  all  the  Russian  colonies  in  Siberia  those  of  the  Lower  Amur  are  the  most 
backward.  Some  of  them  have  even  had  to  be  abandoned,  the  hopes  of  tho  Slav 
peasantry  having  been  completely  baffled  by  the  rainy  climate,  thankless  soil,, 
swampy  lowlands,  and  rocky  or  wooded  slopes.     Sofiisk  and  Mariinak  derive  some 


'^'mammmmmm 


I 


it  L  iiW*  MUBtaw^id—W 


448 


ASIATIC  nUS8IA. 


iniimrtimco  from  flu'ir  ixwition  on  tlic  Atimr,  iit  tlio  ontrunco  of  the  doprcMion 
loading  to  the  (iulf  of  CuMtrio*.  Nlkohiyvrnk,  the  old  Ch««rl)ukh  of  the  UUiuks,  doo« 
Hoinc  tnido  (luring;  thuKiio  jh^umou  hh  the  pott  of  entry  to  tlir  river.  Soino  Ainorieun 
dealers  ure  w'ttled  here,  but  inoHt  of  the  population  c.  jjc.-';  *  »if  -u>luior»i  and  offioiuU. 
I'lven  the  free  townMfolk  consider  theni8<*lveH  as  exiles,  i  *•".'■  *  i'  t'ln  wttlc  here 
pornmnuntly.     The  women  uru  in  u  lurgo  minority  in  thi^^oi^-hut  eottlemont.     The 


Fig.  231.— Amirica  Day. 
Bi»U  1  :  180,000. 


0  to  39  Feet. 


8S  to  W  Feet.  80  Feet  and  npwordi. 


difBoultios  presented  by  the  bar  and  inconvenient  roadstead,  the  five  months'  block 
during  the  winter  season,  and  the  absolute  interruption  of  all  relations  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  even  in  spring  and  autumn,  prevent  Nikolayevsk  from  benefiting 
by  its  advantages  as  the  port  of  entry  of  the  great  East  Siberian  river.  Its 
wi'etched  climate  also  renders  it  one  of  the  most  uninviting  places  of  residence  on 
the  globe.     The  sun  shines  for  months  together  behind  the  clouds;  the  air  is 


■^ffww 


TOrOOllAPIIY. 


411 


0  dcprcuion 
UUiuks,  doe* 
r«  Amprieiin 
and  offioiuU. 
11  !M)ttlv  here 
?mont.    The 


$0 


3C 


constantly  ohnrgcd  witli  drizzling  miMtH,  iicroinpunic*!  by  drnso  tof^n,  nnd  in  winter 
Hrrco  Nnow-HtorniH  alin<mt  completely  iiiterrtipt  till  eouuniiiiicution  from  house  to 
houHO.  Owinjj  to  thuHO  eiiuHOH  Nikoluyuvuk  hu»  Lllen  into  decuy,  uud  the  cupitui 
huH  l)cen  romovctl  to  Khahiirovka. 

The  jK)i-tH  on  the  Mancliurian  nealMiard  have  Ix^nefited  by  the  dirtadvantugeH  of 
Nik»)layovHk,  and  many  emigrantN  from  the  Lower  i\mur  hiive  Hetthnl  in  Port 
ItHpriidl,  Vladimir,  and  0/f/r/,  in  the  ports  on  the  (lulf  of  IVter  the  Oroaf,  and 
oHi)ocially  in  Vltulivimtok,  t(»  whieh  the  military  CHtabliHhmontH  of  Nikcdayevsk  huvo 
l)oon  removed.  The  very  name  of  Vladivontok,  whieh  meann  "  Ruler  of  the  Kant," 
and  whieh  recallH  Vladikavkaz,  "  Uuler  of  the  Cam^aHUH,"  at  the  other  extremity  of 
Awa,  iK'trayH  the  future  aHpirations  of  thone  who  founded  tliiH  utation  in  IH<)0, 
The  Btrait  connecting  the  Gulf  ol  the  Amur  with  that  of  the  llHuri  has  lH>en  nameil 

Fig.  222.-TUR  PoaiiiiT  Imlbti. 
Bool*  1 :  aoofiOfO. 


OtolOFcet. 


16to89Feet. 


inths'  block 
IS  with  the 
a  benefiting 
river.  Its 
'osidence  on 
:  the  air  is 


89  Feet  and  npwwd*. 
I  G  MilM. 


the  "  Eastern  Bosporus,"  and  the  harbour,  which  forms  a  semicircular  inlet  at  the 
extremity  of  the  Muraviov  Amurskiy  peninsula,  boars  the  title  of  the  "  Golden 
Horn."  Vladivostok  is  thus  intended  to  become  a  second  Constantinople.  But 
whether  such  aspirations  be  realised  or  not,  it  is  beyond  doubt  already  the  chief 
city  of  all  Asiatic  Russia  east  of  Yakutsk,  and  must  maintain  this  position  until  the 
Russians  shall  have  occupied  other  ports  in  more  southern  latitudes.  The  idea  has 
also  been  entertained  of  making  it  a  winter  station  for  the  foreign  merchants  from 
Shaug-hae  and  Ning-po.  In  1880  the  strained  relations  with  China  rendered  it 
for  a  time  the  most  animated  naval  station  in  the  extreme  cast,  and,  thanks  to  its 
armaments,  Russia  found  herself  for  the  first  time  more  powerful  than  Great 
Britain  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  waters.  But  the  importance  of  Vladivostok  is 
far  more  of  a  military  than  a  commercial  character,  and  the  outlay  for  all  the  great 
works  undertaken  on  the  shores  of  the  "  Golden  Horn  " — spiers,  docks,  arsenals — 


iiiiiani 


«p 


44S 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


has  been  defrayed,  not  by  private  enterprise,  but  by  the  imperial  exchequer.  Half 
of  the  population  is  composed  of  soldiers,  officials,  liberated  convicts,  and  the  other 
half  of  Mandzi,  Chinese,  and  Coreans,  whose  junks,  wooden  houses,  sheds,  and 
other  surroundings  impart  a  very  different  aspect  to  the  place  from  that  of  most 
Slav  cities.  The  free  Russian  element  is  scarcely  represented  except  by  a  few 
artisans,  and  very  few  women  are  met  in  the  streets.  Vladivostok  is  still  little 
more  than  an  encampment,  in  which  the  normal  family  life  is  the  exception.  Its 
small  export  trade  in  hartshorn,  trepang,  mushrooms,  and  other  fungi  used  in 
tanning,  is  entirely  monopolized  by  the  Chinese,  and  amounted  in  1879  to  little 
over  104,000  roubles.  Some  of  the  ports  on  the  Manchu  coast,  especially  those  of 
America  Bay  and  of  the  Possiet  Sounds  east  and  west,  might  easily  develop  a  greater 
commercial  activity.  The  latter  exported  in  1866  as  much  as  400,000  roubles' 
worth  of  sea-cabbages  alone.  Vladivostok  is  still  unconnected  by  any  go,od  high- 
ways of  communication  with  the  inland  districts.  In  summer  all  the  traffic -with 
the  TJsuri  valley  is  carried  on  by  the  Bay  of  the  Amur  and  the  Sr.ifun  waterway, 
which  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  for  a  distance  of  over  ?0  miles.  But  in 
winter  the  "  Bosponis  "  is  blocked  with  ice,  although  the  waters  of  the  gulf  itself 
remain  open  throughout  the  year.  Vladivostok  promises  one  day  to  become  the 
Pacific  terminus  of  the  great  trunk  line  across  the  eastern  hemisphere,  as  it  has 
long  been  that,  of  the  "  Danish "  telegraphic  system,  whose  central  point  is  in 
Copenhagen,  and  whose  ramifications  already  stretch  over  half  the  globe. 

A  writer  in  a  recent  number  of  the  North  China  Herald  recommends  Vladivostok 
as  a  sort  of  sanitarium  or  summer  retreat  for  English  residents  in  China.  He 
states  that  the  summer  temperature  is  about  65°  Fahr.,  with  invigorating  moimtain 
breezes,  splendid  scenery,  and  extensive  oak,  beech,  and  pine  forests  in  the  district. 
From  Nagasaki,  in  Japan,  the  route  lies  along  the  Japanese  coast,  close  to  the 
lovely  islands  of  Hirado,  Ikutski,  and  Iki.  From  Iki  it  runs  about  230  miles  east 
of  Tsu-shima  to  Dagelet  in  the  full  strength  of  the  £uro-sivo  oceanic  current- 
Dagelet  is  a  picturesque  island,  wooded  to  the  very  summit  of  its  highest  peak, 
4,000  feet  above  sea-level.  From  Dagelet  the  coursd  is  due  north  for  340  miles  to 
the  island  of  Skryplef,  within  6  miles  of  Vladivostok.  The  soil  of  this  part  of 
Russian  Manchuria  he  describes  as  extremely  productive,  with  abundance  of  the 
very  finest  forest  trees,  besides  gold,  iron,  coal,  and  other  minerals.  The  surround- 
ing waters  also  teem  with  fish,  while  the  reefs  are  covered  with  edible  seaweed. 
Between  Arkold  and  St.  Vladimir  Bay  there  are  several  fairly  good  harbours,  some 
of  them  quite  sheltered.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  bracing,  but  too  severe  for  a 
winter  residence. 


VIII.-SAKHALIN. 


This  island,  although  one  of  the  larg^t  in  the  world,  with  an  area  of  about 
25,000  square  miles,  has  remained  almost  unknown  to  Europeans  till  within  the 
last  hundred  years.  The  Dutch  navigator,  Martin  Gerrits,  of  Vries,  had  coasted 
its  eastern  seaboard  in  1645,  and  cast  anchor  in  the  Gulf  of  Patience ;  but  he 


mmmmmim 


^*r- 


SAKHALIN. 


449 


chequer.    Half 
»,  and  the  other 
«)8,  sheds,  and 
m  that  of  most 
ecpt  by  a  few 
k  is  still  little 
axception.     Its 
fungi  used  in 
1879  to  little 
Bcially  those  of 
velop  a  greater 
0,000  roubles' 
my  good  high- 
he  traffic -with 
fun  waterway, 
miles.     But  in 
the  gulf  itself 
t»  become  the 
here,  as  it  has 
al  point  is  in 
obe. 

Is  Vladivostok 
a  China.  He 
ting  moimtain 
in  the  district. 
,  close  to  the 
230  miles  east 
eanic  current, 
highest  peak, 
340  miles  to 
of  this  part  of 
mdanoe  of  the 
rhe  Burround- 
iible  seaweed, 
larbours,  some 
>  severe  for  a 


trea  of  about 
ill  within  the 
I,  had  coasted 
ence;  but  he 


supposed  that  he  was  following  the  coast-lino  of  the  Japanese  land  of  Yezo.  Even 
on  Cook's  chart,  published  in  London  in  1784,  Sakhalin  figures  .nerely  as  a  small 
island  near  the  Gulf  of  the  Amur.  Buache  alone  had  succeeded  in  tracing  its 
northern  outlines  with  some  approach  to  accuracy,  but  even  he  attributed  nioie  than 
half  of  the  whole  island  to  Yezo.  The  very  name  of  Sakhalin  betrays  the  ignorance 
till  quite  recently  prevailing  in  regard  of  this  terra  incognita.  It  is  a  contracted 
form  of  the  Manchu  term,  Sakhalan  anda  Eanda,  or  "  Rock  of  the  Amur  Estuary," 
applied  originally  to  an  islet  at  the  mouth  of  this  river,  and  not  to  the  extensive 

Fig.  223.— La  PfiKocaa  Strait. 
1 1 : 1,600,000. 


OtolflOFeet. 


UOtoSMFeet.  9S0  Uset  and  npttudi. 


insular  region  stretching  along  the  Manchu  seaboard  for  a  distance  of  570  miles 
north  and  soutih.  The  Japanese  and  Ainos  of  tht:  Kurile  Archipelago  gave,  aud 
still  give,  to  this  island  the  name  of  Erafto,  Earaftu,  or  Karafutu,  which  it  ought  to 
have  retained.  Mamia  Rinzo  simply  calls  it  Kita  Yezo,  or  "  North  Yezo,"  while 
such  terms  as  Tarakai,  Choca,  and  Sisam  seem  to  refer  only  to  portions  of  the  land, 
or  to  its  inhabitants. 

So  far  back  as  1787,  La  P^rouse,  while  navigating  the  strait  bearing  his  name 
and  separating  Yezo  from  Sakhalin,  had  penetrated  into  the  Gulf  of  Tatary  and 
surveyed  all  the  coasts  of  island  and  mainland  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Castries.     But 


460  ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 

although  Sakhalin  seemed  to  be  obviously  an  island,  the  reports  of  the  natives 


u 
a 

jr. 

o 

■< 


3 

t 


I 


60 


regarding  a  portage,  over  which  they  carried  their  sleighs,  referred,  according  to 
some  geographers,  to  an  isthmus  connecting  Sakhalin  with  the  continent.    For  at 


■n 


msmmmmmm 


SAKHALIN. 


461 


f  the  natives 


that  time  tho  existence  was  still  unknown  of  the  Kizi  bank,  lying  between  the 
Amur  and  Gulf  of  Castries.  These  reports  might  also,  ])erhap8,  have  referred  to 
the  bridge  of  ice  by  which  Sakhalin  is  every  year  connected  with  the  mainland. 
In  1797  Broughton,  after  visiting  the  west  coast,  and  in  1805  Krusenstem,  after 
doublino;  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  still  supposed  that  it  might  be 


Fig.  225.— Mamia  Hinzo  Sthait. 
Soale  1  :  300,000. 


OtolOFest.  16  to  80  Feet.  60  Feet  and  npwarda. 

_^_^^_______  6  Miles. 


cording  to 
t.    For  at 


joined  to  the  continent  by  a  sand-bank.  Till  about  the  middle  of  the  present 
century  most  of  the  European  charts  represented  Sakhalin  as  a  peninsula,  although 
the  Japanese  pilot,  Mamia  Rinzo,  had  already,  a  few  years  after  the  voyage  of 
Krusenstem,  explored  the  Gulf  of  Tatary,  and  penetrated  by  this  route  into  the 
Amur  estuary.  At  last  the  hydrographic  labours  of  Nevelskoi  during  the  years 
1849—62  revealed  the  correct  outlines  of  the  shores  of  Sakhalin  and  the  Mamia 


462 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


Rinzo  Strait.  Vessels  drawing  16  feet  of  water  have  room  to  tack  about  between 
the  sand-bonks  in  the^j  waters.  At  the  same  time  this  passage  is  completely 
ice-bound  for  four  months  in  the  year,  and  it  is  obstructed  by  floes  till  the  month  of 
June. 

Since  1875  the  whole  island  has  belonged  to  Russia  as  far  as  La  Pdrouse  Strait, 
the  southern  portion  having  been  ceded  by  Japan  to  that  power  in  exchange  for  the 
Kurile  Archipelago.  But  its  thorough  survey  had  already  been  commenced  by 
Voshnyak,  Orlov,  Rudanovskiy,  Schrenck,  Schmidt,  Glehn,  Brilkin,  and  others, 
who  carefully  explored  its  shores,  and  studied  its  relief,  climate,  inhabitants,  mines, 
and  harbours.  Russian  geographical  terms  are  already  supplanting  the  native 
Aino  and  Giliak  names,  and  several  French  appellations  g^ven  by  La  Pdrouse  to 
capes,  islands,  bays,  and  coast  ranges  have  been  either  distorted  or  forgotten. 


Highlands. 

In  its  relief  Sakhalin  resembles  the  mainland  of  Manchuria.  Were  the  land 
suddenly  to  subside  a  few  hmidred  yards,  the  Sikhota-alin  chain  would  also 
become  an  insular  region,  with  a  crest  running  across  several  parallels  of  latitude. 
On  the  other  hand,  were  the  bed  of  the  sea  to  be  upheaved,  Sakhalin  would  be 
converted  into  a  long  escarpment  of  the  continent.  Its  hills  and  mountains,  which 
seem  on  the  whole  to  be  of  more  recent  formation  than  those  of  the  mainland,  are 
disposed  in  long  ridges  running  parallel  with  the  meridian.  The  western  chain, 
which  skirts  the  whole  coast  from  north  to  south,  and  which  is  by  for  the  most 
elevated,  rises  here  and  there  to  heights  of  from  3,000  to  nearly  6,000  feet.  But 
in  some  places  it  sinks  as  low  as  580  feet,  and  is  here  crossed  without  the  slightest 
difficulty.  East  of  this  main  range,  consisting  of  cretaceous  and  tertiary  rocks, 
there  stretch  other  parallel  chains,  or  fragments  of  chains,  with  a  mean  elevation  of 
scarcely  more  than  640  feet,  and  with  gently  roimded  crests,  few  of  which  deserve 
the  name  of  mountain.  The  Tiara  '^^'^ne,  culminating  point  of  the  eastern  ridgpe, 
which  terminates  in  a  long  peninsuln  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Patience,  is  an  imposing 
peak,  comparable  to  those  of  the  weste/n  range.  The  Sakhalin  Mountains  nowhere 
reach  the  snow-line,  but  several  rise  above  the  limits  of  vegetation,  blending  their 
bare  greyish  crags  with  the  watery  clouds  of  those  latitudes.* 

The  chains  running  north  and  south  are  separated  by  intervening  plains  or 
valleys  disposed  in  the  same  direction,  and  watered  by  ntreams  flowing  either 
northwards  or  southwards.  Thus  the  Poronai,  or  Plii,  the  great  river  of  Sakhalin, 
after  winding  through  a  broad  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  western  range,  falls  into  the 
GuU  of  Patience,  and  in  the  same  depression  rise  the  head-streams  of  the  river 

*  Chief  elevations  of  the  Sakhalin  HounUinB,  according  to  Schmidt  and  Glehn  : — 

Mean  height  of  the  west  coast  nmge  (Schmidt) 2,930 

La  Martiniire  or  Kt6nspal  Peak,  centre  of  the  tsnga  (Olehn)        .        .       .  4,8M 

Bemiset,  south  end  of  the  island  ((Hebn) .  3,MW 

Arkai-pal,  east  of  Du{  (Qlehn) 880 

IHara,  east  range  (Glehn) 1,940 

Pass  between  Knsunai  and  Maaiie        ........  780 


"fPfSfWT 


mm 


mm 


«pi 


CLIMATE,  FAUNA,  PLOEA. 


m 


about  between 
is  completely 
the  month  of 

;*^rou8e  Strait, 
ihange  for  the 
ommenced  by 
Q,  and  others, 
ntants,  mines, 
ig  the  native 
ja  P^rouse  to 
rgotten. 


i^ere  the  land 
a  would  also 
Is  of  latitude, 
ilin  would  be 
ntains,  which 
nainland,  are 
estem  chain, 
tar  the  most 
10  feet.    But 
the  slightest 
irtiary  rocks, 
1  elevation  of 
hich  deserve 
astern  ridge, 
an  imposing 
tins  nowhere 
ending  their 

ag  plains  or 
wing  either 
of  Sakhalin, 
alls  into  the 
of  the  river 


Itet. 
2,920 
4,86S 
3,890 

680 
1,940 

780 


Fig.  226.— Sakhalin. 
SoOe  1  : 1,750,000. 


Tim,   which  runs  northwards  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.      In   these  intervening 

depressions  are  also  found  the  lakes  and  the  regxdar  curves  of  the  gulfs  and  bays, 

which  are  limited  right  and  left  by  the  headlands  of  the  ranges  running  north  and 

south.     As  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ehanka, 

the  constant  action  of  the  surf  under  the 

influence  of  the  prevailing  south  winds  has 

perceptibly  modified  the  coast  of  Sakhalin. 

Thus  the  sandy  beach  forming  a  perfect 

orescent  round  the  Gulf  of  Patience  has 

separated   from   the  sea  several  lakes  and 

marshes  which  recall  the  previous  outlines 

of  the  coast,  and  in  which  are  discharged 

the  waters  of  the  Poronai.    The  formation 

of  the  coast-line  has  probably  beeniacilitated 

by  the  upheaval  of  the  land,  for  quantities 

of  marine  remains  have  been  found  in  places 

which  are  at  present  from  8  to  10  feet  above 

the  level  of  the  sea. 

Climate,  Fauna,  Floba. 

From  its  position  Sakhalin  naturally 
partakes  of  the  East  Siberian  climate. 
Broken  masses  of  ice  have  been  known  to 
remain  heaped  up  round  the  eastern  head- 
lands till  the  month  of  July,  and  during  the 
month  of  April  sleighs  arc  still  able  to  make 
their  way  along  the  shores  of  the  Qxdf  of 
Patience.  Hera  tTie  thermometer  often 
remains  66*^  below  freezing  point  in  January, 
tyhpreas  on  the  west  coast,  which  is  well 
sheltered  by  tlie  neighbouring  range  running 
north  and  south,  the  tempcmtuio  is  fully 
20°  warmer.  But  whatever  bo  it«  relative 
advantages,  even  on  this  coast  the  climate 
is  very  severe.  Although  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island  lieik  under  the 
46th  parallel  of  latitude,  or  about  the 
same  distance  from  the  pole  as  the  Lombard 
towns  nestling  at    the  foot  of  the  Alps, 

its  temperature  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Archangel  or  Haparauda,  at  the  head 
of  the  Baltic.  The  station  of  Kusunai,  situated  in  48°  N.  lat.,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Tatary,  is  crossed,  according  to  Dobrotvorskiy,  by  the  isothermal  of  2°  23.  In 
other  words,  ?  n  mean  temperature  is  lower  than  that  of  the  Norwegian  town  of 


,  ISOUilea. 


.  TV 
It  ■ 

h  *' 


v;  ■■ 


k- 


454 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Tromso,  which  lies  some  22°  nearer  to  the  polo.  In  July,  the  warmest  month  in 
the  year,  the  mean  temperature  of  Kusunai  is  only  from  60°  to  02°  Fahr.,  and  in  the 
hottest  seasons  the  glass  never  rises  beyond  77°  Fahr.  Even  the  shores  of  Aniva 
Bay,  notwithstanding  their  sunny  aspect,  have  a  very  severe  climate,  owing  to  the 
northern  winds,  which  sweep  through  the  broad  depressions  between  the  mountain 
ranges.  The  disagreeable  character  of  the  climatic  conditions  is  intensified  by  the 
extreme  humidity,  fogs,  rains,  and  snows  of  those  northern  skies.  At  Eusunai, 
which  enjoys  on  exceptionally  favourable  position,  thanks  to  the  continental  winds, 

Fig.  227.— AiNo  GiEi.. 


by  which  its  atmosphere  is  frequently  cleared  of  clouds,  the  rainy  or  foggy  days 
average  253,  so  thfit  fine  weather  does  rot  prevail  for  a  third  of  a  year.  On 
the  east  coast  the  liroponion  of  bright  days  Is  far  less  considerable.  Throughout 
its  vast  empire,  where  the  St.  Peti  j  ,burg  Government  has  discovered  so  many 
dreary  pkces  of  exU( ,  there  are  scarcely  any  more  terrible  than  those  of  Sakhalin, 
exiwsed  as  they  are  to  icy  rains  and  raging  snow-storms  for  a  great  part  of  the  year! 
The  flora  of  this  Siberian  island  naturally  resembles  that  of  the  Manchurian 
coast  lands,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by  the  narrow  Mamia  Rinzo  Channel. 
Most  of  the  extensive  forests  covering  the  mountain  slopes  belong  to  the  Siberian 


INHABITANTS— THE  AINOS  AND  OROKS. 


45A 


meat  month  in 
ihr.,  and  in  the 
lores  of  Aniva 
0,  owing  to  the 
the  mountain 
ensified  by  the 
At  Kusunai, 
tinental  winds, 


N^ 


and  Manchurian  flora.  But  some  species  have  also  found  their  way  into  tlio  island 
from  the  Japanese  Archipehigo,  and  there  even  occurs  a  sort  of  hmnhoo  (^Arutidiuaria 
Ktiriiensin)  covering  whole  mountains,  and  growing  to  man's  height  on  the  uplands 
side  by  side  with  the  dwarf  birch  of  Kamchatka.  Some  American  species  are  also 
intermingled  with  the  Asiatic  vegetation  of  the  island,  and  according  to  Schmidt, 
Sakhalin  formed  part  of  the  New  World  during  the  miocene  epoch.  Thus  it  is 
that  plants  from  the  most  opposite  portions  of  the  r^nhe  become  associated  together 
in  masses  of  a  strikingly  original  vegetation.  Of  seven  hundred  flowering  species 
scarcely  twenty  are  peculiar  to  the  island.  The  forest  trees  and  undcr-growths, 
which  flourish  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  form  a  continuation  of  those  of  the  mainland. 
Higher  up,  the  vegetable  zone,  as  far  as  1,600  or  1,600  feet,  consists  mainly  of 
conifers,  while  a  third  and  still  more  elevated  zone  is  chiefly  composed  of  birches 
and  willows,  beyond  which  comes  a  dense  growth  of  trailing  species  of  an  almost 
blackish  hue,  and  reaching  nearly  to  the  summit. 

The  animals  frequenting  these  woodlands  are  the  same  as  on  the  neighbouring 
mainland.  On  both  sides  of  the  strait  the  bear,  wild  reindeer,  and  sable  are  hunted, 
and  the  tiger  often  visits  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island,  which  ho  reaches 
across  the  ice-bound  Mamia  Rinzo  Strait  in  winter.  But  he  has  never  been  seen  in 
the  southern  districts,  ond  before  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  the  Ainos  are  said  not 
to  have  known  him  even  by  name. 


P 


r  foggy  days 
year.  On 
Throughout 
Jd  so  many 
of  Sakhalin, 
of  the  year. 
Manchurian 
go  Channel, 
ho  Siberian 


Inhabitants — ^The  Ainos  and  Oboks. 

The  population  of  Sakhalin,  estimated  altogether  at  scarcely  more  than  15,000 
souls,  or  considerably  less  than  1  to  2  square  miles,  consists  exclusively  of  immigrants 
from  the  continent  and  neighbouring  islands.  ITie  Giliaks,  who  occupy  all  the 
northern  districts  to  the  number  of  about  2,000,  in  no  way  differ  from  their  kins- 
men of  the  Lower  Amur.  The  Oroks  of  the  east  coast  ars  Tiinguses  of  the  same 
stock  as  the  Orochons  and  Maaguns  of  the  Amur,  and  call  themselves  by  the  same 
name  of  Olcha.  The  Ainos,  a  boarded  and  gentle  race,  who  are  supposed  to  have 
been  the  aborigines  of  the  Kurile  and  Japanese  Archipelago,  are  new  restricted 
to  the  southern  districts  of  Sakhalin.  But  the  Aino  geographical  terms  occurring 
even  in  the  extreme  north  show  that  this  race  fonnerly  occupied  a  inuch  wider 
range.  They  have  been  driven  south  by  the  Giliaks  and  Oroks,  and  since  the 
middle  of  the  present  century  some  of  their  villages  have  been  completely  wasted 
by  small-pox.  The  slavery  to  which  all  the  Ainos  have  been  reduced  by  the  Japa- 
nese fishers  has  also  contributed  to  diminish  their  numbers  as  well  as  to  increase 
their  moral  debasement. 

The  civilised  element  is  represented  by  the  Japanese  and  Russians.  The  former 
are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  fishing  industry,  and  have  founded  settlements  and  fac- 
tories at  intervals  along  the  coast,  where  few  are  met  except  as  temporary  immigrants 
unaccompanied  by  their  families.  The  Russians,  whether  military  ofiicials,  police, 
or  exiles,  have  all  arrived  against  theii-  will  in  this  inhospitable  land  of  rains,  snows, 
and  fogs,  whore  they  have  to  be  supported  by  the  Goveriunent,  the  resources  of  the 


466  ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 

island  being  totally  insufBcient  for  thoir  wants.     The  Ainos  and  Oiliaks  aro  able 


s 


to  live  on  the  produce  of  their  fishories,  but  the  Russians  need  many  other  things 
to  render  existence  possible,  especially  in  such  a  dismal  region  as  this.     In  any 


TOPOORAPHT. 


467 


alcH  aro  able 


I.';' 


uj 


other  things 
tiis.     In  any 


case  oven  the  marine  animals  have  greatly  diminished  in  these  waters,  and  Seal 
Island,  a  vast  bank  in  the  south-oast  of  the  Gulf  of  Patience,  is  no  longer  covered, 
as  formerly,  by  multitudes  of  cetacea,  thousands  of  which  fell  a  prey  to  a  few  seal- 
hunters  on  every  expedition.  The  cultivation  of  cereals  and  vegetables  and  stock- 
breeding  has  not  yet  made  much  progress,  nor  is  it  likely  over  to  succeed  except  in 
a  few  of  the  more  sheltered  valleys.  Hence  the  flour  required  by  the  inhabitants 
bus  still  to  be  brought  from  the  mainland,  and  even  from  Russia  itself.  No  doubt 
Sakhalin  possesses  considerable  latent  resources  in  its  numerous  coal-fields,  which 
are  being  constantly  more  and  more  developed  by  the  Russian  convicts,  and  which 

Fig.  229.— Port  op  Muratiov. 
floUe  1 :  i<n.ooo. 


rnder  10  Vert. . 


lOtoSOFeet 


SO  fact  and  npwardt. 
_  3  HUM. 


are  highly  appreciated  by  seafarers  in  the  Pacific.  But  this  coal  costs  more  than 
that  of  Japati  and  Australia,  and  the  yearly  output  does  not  even  yet  suffice  for  the 
local  demand.  The  mortality  of  the  immig^nts  greatly  exceeds  the  birth  rate, 
and  Sakhalin,  which  has  not  yet  been  constituted  a  colony,  remains  for  the  Russians 
a  mere  prison  or  place  of  banishment. 

Topography. 

The  Russian  stations  are  all  situated  on  the  coast.    Du'i,  near  La  Jouquiere  Bay, 
about  the  middle  of  the  west  side,  is  the  most  important  village.    Its  quarries  and 
coal  mines,  the  first  opened  in  the  island,  employ  2,000  <  onvicts,  hired  out  by  the 
80 


ASUTIC  liUSSIA. 


Oovorninont  to  tho  owners  at  the  rate  of  from  1 «  to  ^h.  G<1.  a  duy.  Tho  hurbour 
of  this  convict  Htntion  is  forinod  by  u  j^i'iitlc  curvv  in  tlu  'iind,  with  a  Inthl  capo  at 
each  extremity  ;  and  the  shore  is  lined  by  U)fty  cliffs  of  ironstone  and  limestone, 
with  HCfims  of  coal  at  an  an^'lo  of  al)out  -'JO".  Kiminai  and  Matme  have  the 
advantage  of  being  connected  together  by  tho  route  which  crosses  the  island 
at  its  narrowest  point,  and  this  circumstance  greatly  facilitates  their  exchanges. 
Farther  south  some  700  Chinese,  under  tho  control  of  u  few  Japanese,  are  engaged 
in  tho  Maiika  Cove,  on  tho  oust  coast,  in  tho  trepang  and  sea-cabbage  fisheries.       '^ 

Some  interesting  information  regarding  Mauku.  (Jove,  on  the  oast  coast,  has 
been  recently  communicated  to  tho  British  IFy'!'. /graphic  Office  by  Captain 
Anderson,  of  tho  steamer  Appin.  Mauka  Cove  (47"  3'  N.,  H'i"  0'  K.)  is  tho 
head-tjuarters  of  a  company,  which  has  acquired  from  tho  Russian  Government  tho 
right  to  collect  along  the  sea-coast  seaweed,  bficho  de  mer,  fish,  &c.,  for  a  term  of 
ten  years.  The  cove  is  about  two  cables  in  length,  cast  and  west,  and  has  the 
reputution  of  affording  tho  safest  anchorage  in  this  part  of  the  island.  The 
population  consists  of  3  Europeans,  a  small  guard  of  7  Russian  soldiers,  and 
about  700  coolies,  chiefly  Ainos,  Coreans,  and  Chinese.  The  Ainos  are  said  to 
bo  excellent  hunters,  and  a  quiet,  good-natured,  hardy  race.  Although  cold,  tho 
climate  is  very  fine,  the  summer  temperature  not  exceeding  60°  Fahr.,  and  fulling  in 
winter  at  times  to  24°  below  zero.  Fine  weather  prevails  from  May  to  tho  autumn 
equinox :  when  the  storms  set  in,  June  and  July  are  very  foggy  months,  with 
occasional  east  and  south-east  winds,  which  bring  rain  from  the  uplands.  But 
even  then  there  is  often  a  clear  /one  along  the  coast  free  from  fogs,  extending 
4  or  5  miles  ofic  shore.  There  is  an  abundance  of  fine  timber  in  the  valleys — yellow 
pine,  cedar,  sprune,  ash,  oak.  Coal  crops  out  about  a  mile  inland  from  the  cove, 
and  there  arn  also  evident  indications  of  the  presence  of  iron.  Bears,  hares, 
grouse,  and  m  winter  sables  and  fine-furred  foxes  are  numerous,  and  the  herring, 
cod,  salmon,  front,  and  flounders  abound  on  the  coast.  Communication  with  the 
ea8l  side  of  tae  island  is  maintained  by  means  of  dog-sledges,  which  the  Ainos  are 
expert  in  driving.  South  of  Mauka  Cove  there  are  about  a  dozen  trading  stations 
along  the  coast,  each  with  its  mountain  stream  and  settlement  of  Coreans  and 
Ainos,  who  are  employed  by  the  European  traders. 

On  Aniva  Bay,  at  the  other  side  of  the  peninsula,  are  situated  the  bar- 
racks of  Korsakov,  military  capital  of  the  island.  Here  there  is  a  garrison  of  about 
500  men.  Muraviov,  another  military  station,  facing  the  Japanese  waters,  lies 
near  the  same  coast,  on  a  lake  which  communicates  by  a  narrow  channel  with  Aniva 
Bay.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  of  its  bar,  this  post  is  perhaps  the  least 
inconvenient  in  the  island.  But  along  its  entire  coast-line  of  about  1,200  miles 
Sakhalin  has  not  a  single  thoroughly  sheltered  harbour.  Nevertheless  this  island 
promises  to  be  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  Russians,  owing  to  its  abimd&nt  and 
varied  resources,  including  excellent  timber,  coal,  iron,  seaweed,  whales  and  seals, 
sablei),  and  other  fur-bearing  animals.  The  soil  also  in  some  of  the  most  favoured 
spots,  is  extremely  fertile,  and  capable  of  g^wing  all  the  useful  plants  of  the 
temperate  zone. 


•V  WmfiiclWW^'*"' 


mHifmmmm 


SOCIAL  ELEMENTS— THE  EXILES  AND  OUTLiVWS. 


m 


Tlio  liurbour 
ti  bold  capo  at 
ind  limestone, 
nur  huvo  the 
<C8  the  iNlaiul 
oir  oxchan^en. 
3,  uro  cngujj;cd 
I  tiHhories. 
east  couat,  has 

0  by  Captain 
'  G'  K.)  is  the 
ovcrnment  the 

for  u  term  of 
,  and  has  the 

island.      The 

soldiers,  and 
)8  are  said  to 
ough  cold,  the 
and  falling  in 
to  the  autumn 

months,  \<rith 
uplands.  But 
)g8,  extending 
iiUeys — yellow 
from  the  cove, 

Bears,  hares, 

1  the  herring, 
ntion  with  the 

the  Ainos  are 
'ading  stations 
:  Coreans  and 

ated  the  bar- 
'rison  of  about 
i  waters,  lies 
el  with  Aniva 
haps  the  least 
ut  1,200  miles 
less  this  island 
abundant  and 
ales  and  seals, 
most  favoured 
plants  of  the 


IX.— MATERIAL  CONDITION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  SIBERIA. 

FuK  upwards  of  a  hundred  years  the  UuHsiuns  have  formed  by  far  the  most 
considerable  clement  of  the  Siberiun  population.  Those  who  cluiin  tu  be  Russiuni 
and  are  really  Slavs,  either  by  direct  descent  or  by  crossings  and  a  gradual  process 
of  aNsimilution  in  manners  or  speech,  rcproseut  altogether  about  seven-eighths  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  proportion  is  rapidly  increasing  to  their  advantage  not 
only  by  their  natural  expansion,  but  also  by  the  disappearance  or  Russiticution  of 
the  native  elements.  Amongst  the  ruling  people,  of  whom  the  Great  Russians 
form  the  vast  majority,  the  distinction  of  Russians  proper,  Lithuanians,  Esthonians, 
Germans  of  the  Baltic  Provinces,  and  others  have  already  almost  entirely  disap- 
peared, so  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  far  more  homogeneous  even  than  the 
population  of  European  Russia.  Slavs  of  every  branch  except  the  Poles  are  all 
Russians  alike  in  the  eyes  of  Yakuts  and  Tunguses,  as  are  also  the  Germans  and 
Finns,  most  of  whom  now  speak  the  language  of  the  Muscovite. 

The  origin  of  the  first  Siberian  immigrants  is  well  known.  The  eorly  traders 
were  hunters,  or  promMtlanii/r .  from  the  Novgorod  settlements  in  the  north  of 
Russia.  Yermuk  was  accom  od  by  Cossacks  in  his  conquest  of  Sibir,  but  very 
few  cither  of  the  traders  .  ,?«ick8  brought  their  families  with  them,  and  when 

they  settled  in  the  country  they  generally  married  native  women.  The  vast  majority 
of  the  subsequent  arrivals  down  to  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
colonists  against  their  will,  either  soldiers  and  officials  or  exiles,  and  of  these  the 
latter  element  was  perhaps  the  most  niunerous.  But  the  death  rate  was  much 
higher  amongst  them  than  amongst  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  most 
of  them  perished  before  they  could  become  founders  of  families.  Taking  an  average 
only  of  those  returned  by  the  official  documents  as  exiles,  or  say  from  8,000  to 
9,000  a  year,  it  is  beyond  doubt  that  more  than  1,000,000  of  hu'.nan  beings  have 
been  banished  to  Siberia  during  the  last  two  himdred  and  fifty  years,  exclusive  of  those 
simply  interned  in  this  region.*  With  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated,  the  first  groups 
of  free  colonists  were  the  peasantry  who  migrated  to  the  Lower  Amur  immediately 
after  the  annexation  of  North  Manchuria  to  the  Russian  Empire.  No  free  immigration 
had  been  possible  until  the  abolition  of  serfdom.  The  Crown  and  landowners  kept  their 
peasants  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land,  only  sending  to  Siberia  the  unfortunate 
wretches  whom  they  wished  to  get  rid  of.  At  the  same  time,  these  exiles,  ceasing 
to  be  serfs,  soon  acquired  a  greater  degree  of  comfort  thou  they  over  knew  in  their 
native  land. 

Social  Elements — ^The  Exiles  and  Outlaws. 

The  North  Asiatic  regions  were  peopled  by  Russian  settlers  in  the  same  way 

that  the  governments  of  Viatka,  Perm,  and  Orenburg  had  been  peopled.     But  to 

criminals,  habitual  vagrants,  "  loafers,"  and  outcasts  of  every  sort  the  Government 

here  superadded  schismatics  and  rebels.     The  hardships  of  the  journey — epidemics, 

scurvy,  the  rigours  of  the  climate,  the  horrors  of  bondage,  and  enforced  domicile, 

*  ExiliBiy^m  1823  to  1858:  Men,  238,482;  womttn,  42,844 ;  women  and  childrau  following  the  heads 
of  families,  23,286.    Total,  304,618. 


"■PB 


ASUnO  BUS8U. 


cnmbinoil  witli  u  continual  inquiHiluriul  r<^giino  and  tho  voarinoM  of  homo  aioknoM — 
■ufficiently  account  for  the  oxcomivo  mortality  of  '  o  oxiloH,  whilu  the  nnall  pro- 
portion of  tho  women  accompanying  them  pru^  itn  tho  rapid  ro-CHtabliHlimont  of 
domestic  circloH.  No  doubt  tho  IluHHiun  {M)pula(  n  of  Siberia  ban  Wm  more  than 
trebled  during  the  lust  hundred  yearn.  But  compared  with  certain  other  colonial 
■ettlementH  Asiatic  RuHsia  ban  been  very  slowly  peopled  during  the  three  centuries 
which  have  elapsinl  since  the  conquest.  If  the  returns  can  bo  trusted,  some  districts 
would  even  seem  to  have  occasionally  lost  ground.  Thus,  while  the  government 
of  Tomsk  shows  a  yearly  increase  of  over  20,000  by  tho  natural  excess  of  tho  birth 

Fig.  SSO.—Dbniitt  or  thi  SiniiiiAN  Popui.ation. 

NoaU  I  !  T0,0OO.OnO. 


^ 


J'/ 


^c^'; 


^} 


P^^ 


m 


E 


60* 


TlfG 


40 


rjcr 


Inl»Utaiita  to  the  SqiMn  If  ile. 


CtoS. 


Sto4. 


4toS0. 


SO  to  4a 


WtoSO. 


SO  to  ISO. 


110  to  lao. 


VnlnlMUtcd. 
eooHUei. 


rate,  that  of  Irkutsk  would  appear  to  liave  had  12,000  less  inhabitants  in  1873 
than  twelve  years  previously,  the  numbers  having  fallen,  according  to  the  Buasische 
Heme,  from  370,455  in  1861  to  358,700  in  1873.  In  most  of  the  towns  the  popu- 
lation would  decrease  were  it  not  kept  up  by  constant  immigration,  but  in  the  rural 
districts  there  is  a  steady  normal  increase.  It  is  evident  that  on  the  whole  the 
expansion  of  the  Slav  element  has  largely  compensated  for  the  retrog^rade  move- 
ment amongst  the  indigenous  peoples,  all  of  whom,  except  the  Yakuts,  have  fallen 
off  in  many  Siberian  regions.  The  proportion  of  men  is  np'  ly  greater  than 
that  of  women,  because  Siberia  is  at  once  a  land  of  exile  and  of  immigration.  Yet 
the  disparity  of  the  sexes  is  much  less  than  in  Australia  and  in  the  lands  of  the  far 


mmm 


■J4 


lorae  aiRknem — 
J  tbo  nnall  pro- 
HtubliNhniunt  of 
been  moro  thuii 
t  other  colonial 
three  centuries 
I,  Hoine  cliHtrictd 
ho  government 
)88  of  the  birth 


50 


^; 


40 


loO* 


tlSO. 


ants  in  1873 
the  JRuaaische 
ms  the  popu- 
t  in  the  rural 
he  whole  the 
)grade  move- 
i,  have  fallen 
greater  than 
ration.  Yet 
ids  of  the  far 


I 


7] 


^> 


V 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


ISBlSiiUfilMTiii   ill 


PhotDgra[iiic 

Sciences 

Corporalion 


m 


<,w.*aw«»s»w» 


CIHM/ICMH 

Microfiche 

Series. 


CIHIVI/ICIVIH 
Collection  de 
microfiches. 


CaiMcUan  Inttltun  for  Historical  MIcroroproductioiw  /  Imtitut  canadion  do  microroproductlons  hlatoriquoa 


SOCIAL  ELEMENTS— THE  EXILES  AND  OUTLAWS. 


461 


West,  and  at  least  in  East  Siberia  males  and  females  stand  in  the  average  propor- 
tion of  10  to  9. 

The  name  of  Siberia  has  become  synonjTnous  with  a  "  land  of  exile."  Each 
successive  stage  in  the  progress  of  Russian  dominion  in  Asia  has  been  marked  by  a 
lino  of  penal  settlements.  At  every  fresh  annexation  transported  convicts,  dragging 
their  chains  through  steppe  and  forest,  carried  to  the  extreme  limits  of  the  empire 
the  proofs  of  the  Czar's  omnipotence.  Under  the  shadow  of  every  fortlet  and 
convent  erected  in  the  vast  Siberian  domain  there  were  opened  dungeons  for  the 
reception  of  the  exiled.  At  their  very  birth  the  colonies  of  Pelim,  Beryozov, 
Selenginsk,  and  Albazin  were  already  marked  off  as  convict  stations,  and  on  the 
report  of  every  fresh  discovery  at  St.  Petersburg,  a  gang  of  banished  victims  was 
immediately  marched  to  the  spot.  The  history  of  the  land  is  inseparably  asso- 
ciated with  the  mournful  history  of  transportation. 

The  first  decree  of  banishment  struck  the  church  bell  of  Uglich  guilty  of 
having  summoned,  the  people  to  arms  at  the  time  of  the  murder  of  Dimitri  by  Boris 
Gudonov  in  1591.  It  was  condemned  to  "lose  its  tongue  and  ear,"  like  ordinary 
criminals,  and  to  be  transported  to  Pelim,  whither  it  was  soon  followed  by  many 
citizens  of  the  same  place,  and  later  on  by  everybody  suspected  by  Boris.  During 
the  first  century  of  Russian  colonisation  the  exiles  consisted  almost  exclusively  of 
State  prisoners.  But  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  conquered 
Little  Russians  of  Ukrania  had  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  the  exiles  from  Great 
Russia.  These  Little  Russians,  having  been  sent  away  in  numerous  batches,  have 
best  preserved  the  customs  of  the  mother  country.  Then  the  nimibers  were 
.  swollen  by  the  unhappy  Raskolnik  dissenters,  many  of  whom  perished  on  the  road 
of  hardships,  hunger,  and  torture,  re-echoing  the  words  of  "  Father  "  Avvakimi  in 
his  memoirs,  "  The  rafts  are  wearily  stemmed  against  the  current ;  the  headmen 
are  relentless,  their  sticks  are  heavy,  their  knouts  cut  the  skin,  and  our  food  is  the 
carrion  rejected  by  the  wolf  !  "  "  And  must  these  sufferings  last  long  ?  "  asked  the 
wife  of  the  "  pope,"  as  she  fell  worn  out  with  fatigue.  "  Unto  death,"  gently 
answered  Father  Avvakum.  "  Be  it  so,  father,"  she  said,  taking  fresh  courage. 
Amongst  these  Raskolniks  of  Siberia  there  were  men  whose  first  trial,  on  entering 
the  community,  was  to  endure  the  torture  of  burning  coals  in  the  ear. 

The  Stryeltzi,  also  dissenters,  were  banished  by  Peter  the  Great  to  mount 
guard  in  the  remotest  fortresses  of  the  empire,  as  far  as  Okhotsk  and  Kamchatka. 
Their  direct  descendants  are  still  met  in  the  settlements  along  the  banks  of  the 
Lena.  After  Peter's  death  the  palace  intrigues  sent  other  unwilling  exiles  to 
Siberia — the  Menshikovs,  Dolgorukis,  Birons,  Miinichs,  Tolstois,  Buturlins,  and 
other  great  names.  "  Fare  thee  well,  and  if  for  ever,  still  for  ever  fare  thee  well," 
were  words  in  their  hearts,  if  not  on  their  lips,  for  they  knew  that,  like  all  doomed 
to  Siberia,  they  would  soon  be  forgotten.  Some  perished  without  leaving  a  trace 
behind  them,  and  when  a  turn  in  fortune's  wheel  brought  their  friends  back  to 
power  the  wretched  victims  were  sought  for  in  vain  amidst  the  forests  and  wastes 
of  the  tundra.  Soimonov,  one  of  the  few  who  were  discovered,  was  immediately 
installed  as  Governor  of  Siberia. 


I 


462 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


r 


In  1658  began  the  transportation  of  the  Poles,  but  the  wholesale  banishments 
from  tliis  hmd  date  only  from  the  time  of  Catherine  II.,  with  the  confederates  of 
Bar  and  the  associates  of  Kosciuzko.  Of  the  Poles  Avho  had  taken  service  under 
Napoleon,  nine  hundred  were  sent  to  Siberia,  and  these  were  followed  by  numerous 
convoys,  especially  after  the  revolution  of  ISfiO,  and  the  various  insurrections 
which  have  taken  place  in  Poland  since  that  time.*  These  Polish  exilps  have  taken 
a  larj^e  share  in  the  progress  of  the  country.  Thej'  have  improved  the  manage- 
ment of  the  mines,  created  several  local  industries,  taught  horticulture,  arid 
developed  family  instruction. 

The  exiles  whose  memory  awakens  most  sympathy  amongst  the  Russians  are 
the  so-called  "  Dekabrists,"  or  "  Decembrists,"  who  reached  Siberia  in  182G.  At 
first  they  had  much  to  suffer,  but  their  condition  was  gradually  improved,  thanks  to 
the  self-sacrifice  of  the  women,  who  resolved  to  share  the  lot  of  their  husbands — 
thanks  also  to  the  influence  of  the  Decembrists  themselves,  or  their  gaolers,  and  to 
the  spirit  of  association  which  they  developed.  They  were  all  grouped  in  a  com- 
munal system  organized  in  such  a  way  that  none  could  be  reduced  to  want,  and  all 
alike  were  provided  with  books,  periodicals,  and  some  of  the  comforts  of  civilised 
existence.  Their  influence  is  even  still  felt  in  some  of  the  towns  of  East  Siberia. 
Since  then  other  political  victims  have  been  added  to  the  Siberian  population ;  but 
none  of  tliem  have  aroused  the  same  feelings  of  sympathy  u  <  did  the  Dekabrists. 
They  move  about  on  foot  like  the  ordinary  convicts,  and,  like  them,  work  in  the 
prisons,  mines,  and  Government  establishments.  They  are  allowed  neither  to  read, 
associate  together,  nor  select  the  work  most  suited  to  their  own  taste. 

Formerly  the  gangs  of  convicts,  whether  condemned  by  common  law  or  for 
political  causes,  were  joined  together  by  a  long  iron  bar,  and  in  this  way  were 
obliged  to  traverse  on  foot  the  3,500  miles  that  separate  the  Bussian  prisons  from 
Transbaikalia.  The  journey  generally  lusted  about  two  years.  They  are  still 
marched  from  Tomsk  to  Chita  on  foot.  On  entering  a  village  they  intone,  if 
permitted,  the  mournful  chant,  or  rather  long  wail,  of  the  Misericordia  (^Milo- 
serdiiyaya^,  and  then  the  peasantry  bring  their  offerings  to  the  "unfortunates" 
{iiyeschasMyc),  as  the  exiles  are  called  by  all  the  Siberians,  who  refuse  to  regard 
them  as  criminals.  Even  the  katorjniye,  or  convicts  condemned  for  crimes  against 
society,  are  everj'where  well  received,  and  their  reconciliation  with  the  commimity 
is  much  facilitated  by  a  certain  feeling  of  esteem  entertained  for  them,  as  for  men 
of  resolution.  But  ihe  j^oseleneiz,  or  ordinary  petty  thief,  is  usually  regarded  with 
contempt,  so  that  in  Bussia  it  is  almost  better  to  be  "  hanged  for  a  sheep  than  for  a 
lamb."  Attempts  at  escape  might  easily  be  made,  but  there  is  a  traditional  code 
of  honour  amongst  the  exiles,  in  accordance  with  which  the  attempt  must  not  be 
made  en  route,  lest  their  comrades  suffer  in  their  place.  Even  on  the  march  they 
group  themselves  in  communes  and  appoint  their  ovra.  starosta. 

*  In  1863  alone  as  many  as  18,023  Poles  vrere  banisbed  to  Siberia. 


THE  SIBERLiN  RUSSIANS— THE  COMMUNE. 


4C3 


banishments 
fcderiitcs  of 
jrvice  under 
by  numerous 
insurrections 
8  have  taken 
10  manage- 
eulturc,  an'd 

lussians  are 
1826.     At 
•d,  thanks  to 
husbands — 
olers,  and  to 
id  in  a  corn- 
rant,  and  uU 
of  civilised 
last  Siberia. 
Illation;  but 
Dekabrists. 
(vork  in  the 
ther  to  read, 

I  law  or  for 
:s  way  were 
prisons  from 
ey  are  still 
y  intone,  if 
yrdia  (Milo- 
fortunates  " 
B  to  regard 
mes  against 
community 
as  for  men 
farded  with 
)  than  for  a 
itional  code 
lust  not  be 
narch  they 


The  SiuERiAN  Russians — The  Commune. 

The  Siberians,  being  recruited  at  once  from  the  best  and  worst  classes  of 
Russian  society,  naturally  present  great  contrasts  in  many  respects  to  the  inlui- 
bitants  of  the  mother  country.  Their  inherited  qualities,  dcveloiied  under  new 
conditions,  necessarily  tended  to  constitute  them  a  special  grouj)  in  the  grcuit  family 
of  the  Russian  Slavs.  Their  natural  intelligence,  though  seldom  quickened  by 
education,  is  perhaps  even  more  acute  than  that  of  the  European  Russians.  The 
pleasure  of  "  interviewing  "  strangers  has  much  to  do  with  the  welcome  recepticm 
all  receive  in  their  izbas,  which  arc  generally  both  spacious  and  cleanly,  and  with 
better- furnished  tables  than  many  of  those  of  the  poverty-stricken  Western  Mujiks. 
Never  having  endured  serfdom,  except  perhaps  in  the  mines  and  factories,  enjoying 
more  room  than  Russian  peasantry,  and  generally  more  exempt  from  official  inter- 
meddling of  all  sorts,  the  "  Sibiryaks  "  have  developed  a  keener  sense  of  freedom. 
But  although  there  is  nothing  cringing  in  their  voice  or  manners,  they  lack  the 
natural  gentleness  and  genuine  kindliness  of  the  Western  Slavs.  They  are,  on  the 
whole,  inferior  to  the  Russians  proper  in  morals,  no  less  than  in  natural  disposition 
and  industrial  habits.  Their  great  defect  is  apathy.  Shrewd  calculators,  they  yield 
neither  to  the  impulses  of  religious  zeal  nor  to  political  theories ;  hence  scarcely 
any  poets  or  musicians  are  found  amongst  them.  They  are  inquisitive  without 
taking  the  trouble  to  learn ;  they  are  fond  of  comfort,  but  shrink  from  the  labour 
necessary  to  procure  it ;  they  call  themselves  the  equals  of  all,  but  never  dream  of 
striking  for  freedom.  Nevertheless,  the  example  of  the  sublime  acts  of  self- 
sacrifice  with  which  the  history  of  the  Siberian  exiles  is  full  has  not  been  lost,  and, 
like  the  veins  of  gold  in  the  crumbling  rock,  noble  types  are  here  and  there 
revealed  in  the  midst  of  the  prevailing  mediocrity.  Should  Siberia  ever  acquire 
any  great  importance  in  the  civilised  world,  as  may  bo  expected  from  the  natural 
resources  of  a  large  portion  of  her  territory,  she  will  not  fail  to  make  her  influence 
felt  in  the  cause  of  local  self-government  and  political  freedom.  .'  ' 

As  in  European  Russia,  the  bulk  of  the  people  are  grouped  in  communes.  The 
whole  of  the  land,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  properties  conceded  under  special 
conditions,  still  belongs  to  the  State,  so  that  the  communes  enjoy  its  usufruct  only. 
Thus  in  the  government  of  Krasnoyarsk  there  is  only  one  landed  estate,  whose 
privileges  date  from  the  reign  of  Catherine  II.  But  properties  are  already  being 
indirectly  created  by  the  concession  of  long  leases  of  eighty  years  and  upwards,  aa 
in  England. 

In  Siberia  as  in  Russia  the  tnir,  as  a  whole,  is  responsible  to  the  Government  for 
the  taxes,  and  distributes  the  land  according  to  the  number  of  "  soids  " — that  is,  of 
able  adults — who  in  their  turn  become  boimd  to  the  commune  for  the  family  taxes. 
The  Siberian  mir  is  usually  composed  of  several  villages,  each  with  its  allotment  of 
lands,  answering  more  or  less  to  the  number  of  its  inhabitants.  Thus  each  "  soul " 
has  the  use  of  about  14  acres,  an  extent  of  land  which,  if  well  cultivated,  would 
amply  suffice  for  the  support  of  several  families.  But  the  prevailing  system  is 
ruinous  to  the  land  itself     The  Siberian  peasant  never  manures  his  farm,  when 


I  I 


^^i^»me^mi^s^^^f4'^^0^-i}A:jmmmmm£mf5V3a' 


464 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


y- 


?; 


r* 


exhausted  simply  allowing  the  soil  to  lie  fallow.  Ilenco  he  scarcely  utilises  more 
than  a  third  of  iho  land,  and  when  he  has  raised  three  or  four  crops  in  succession 
in  one  place  ho  passes  on  to  another.  Under  this  system  the  arable  land  cannot 
he  redistributed  except  at  long  intervals  of  time,  or  when  the  census  is  taken, 
whereas  the  tracts  under  grass,  producing  hay  unintermittently,  are  parcelled  out 
every  year.  The  forest  remains  common  property,  although  every  peasant  is  free 
to  settle  there,  clear  a  certain  extent  of  land,  and  sow  his  crops.  But  even  then  ho 
does  not  become  the  owner,  and  the  State  removes  him  at  pleasure,  merely  granting 
him  a  few  roubles  per  acre  as  compensation  for  disturbance. 

The  commune  is  bound  to  receive  into  its  organization  all  the  exiles  that  become 
colonists  after  the  expiration  of  their  sentence.  They  obtain  a  site  for  their  house, 
an  acre  and  a  quarter  for  their  garden,  and  their  due  proportion  of  the  fields  and 
meadows.  But  many  remain  outcasts,  receiving  neither  lands  nor  rights.  This 
floating  element  constitutes  tho  hrodyngi,  or  vagrant  class,  whose  number  is,  of 
course,  unknown  to  tho  census  takers,  but  who  are  supposed  to  average  about  one- 
fourth  of  those  condemned  to  hard  labour.  In  1848  and  1849  as  many  as  3,104 
prisoners  escaped  from  Nyerchinsk  alone.  These  outcasts  thus  avoid  the  hardships 
of  mining  and  tho  monotonous  life  of  the  cantonments,  but  in  so  doing  they 
voluntarily  adopt  a  career  which  would  be  intolerable  to  any  but  the  condemned 
convict.  Nor  does  the  pleasure  of  being  their  own  masters  last  very  long,  for 
during  the  hard  winter  season  the  only  resource  in  most  cases  left  them  is  to  allow 
themselves  to  bo  confined,  imder  a  false  name,  in  some  prison  far  from  that  whence 
they  have  escapctl. 

To  prevent  such  evasions,  the  Russian  authorities  of  Transbaikalia  and  the  other 
Siberian  countries  were  formerly  accustomed  to  destroy  tho  cartilage  of  the  nostrils 
of  all  tho  condemned.  Until  1864  they  were  branded  on  tho  forehead  and  both 
cheeks  with  letters  burnt  into  the  flesh ;  but  at  present  tho  authorities  limit  them- 
selves to  declaring  all  those  as  outlaws  who  escape  from  the  mines,  thus  giving 
every  one,  even  Timguses  and  Buriats,  the  right  to  shoot  them  down  with  impunity. 
This  has  rendered  the  natives  themselves  more  cruel,  and  human  life  is  now  held 
in  little  account  in  those  regions.  Tho  crack  of  the  rifle  is  soon  lost  in  the  silence 
of  tho  forest.  "  The  antelope,"  says  the  Buriat,  "  yields  but  one  skin ;  but  the 
chaldon  (outlaw)  yields  three — his  pelisse,  his  coat,  ai^fl  his  shirt."  Yet  there  is  no 
lack  of  vagrants  even  in  these  districts.  They  learn  to  avoid  tho  dangerous  places, 
they  take  the  right  direction  through  the  virgin  forest  by  instinct,  and  they 
quickly  recognise  the  marks  left  by  the  Tunguses,  or  by  other  outlaws  who  have 
preceded  them.  From  one  end  of  Siberia  to  the  other  all  the  brodyagi  have  thus 
covered  the  land  with  signs  unintelligible,  or  even  invisible  to  others,  but  perfectly 
clear  to  themselves.  They  are,  moreover,  protected  by  the  villagers,  who  derive  a 
profit  by  employing  them  on  their  farms,  in  return  for  their  food  alone.  In 
isolated  houses  the  outlaw  always  finds  bread,  milk,  salt,  rude  garments,  left  here 
by  the  peasantry  for  their  unhappy  countrymen.  There  are  many  villages  where 
they  may  reside  without  fear,  and  even  cultivate  the  land  and  found  a  family, 
confidently  relying  on  the  connivance  of  all  the  inhabitants.     They  have  even 


AGBICULTUBE— THE  CHASE  AND  FISHEEIES. 


405 


utilises  more 
in  succession 
land  cannot 
ms  is  taken, 
parcelled  out 
msant  is  free 
even  then  ho 
ely  granting 

that  become 
their  house, 
le  fields  and 
ights.  This 
umber  is,  of 

0  about  ono- 
ny  as  3,104 
10  hardships 

doing  they 
»  condemned 
ry  long,  for 

1  is  to  allow 
that  whence 

id  the  other 

the  nostrils  . 
ad  and  both 
limit  them- 
thus  giving 
li  impunity, 
is  now  held 

the  silence 
a ;  but  the 
;  there  is  no 
fous  places, 
.  and  they 
I  who  have 

have  thus 
t  perfectly 
to  derive  a 
alone.  In 
3,  left  here 
ges  where 

a  family, 
have  even 


formed  villages  nil  to  themselves,  and  in  unforcsocn  circumstances,  requiring  an 
exltu  amount  of  labour,  the  authorities  tlu'iusclves  have  uppeulod  to  the  vagrants, 
on  iiio  tacit  understanding  of  "asking  no  questions,"  or  demanding  their  passports. 
On  such  occasions  hundreds  of  persons  mysteriously  emerge  from  the  surrounding 
forests  and  undertake  the  required  work.  According  to  the  official  statistics,  the 
proportion  of  centenarians  will  seem  to  be  far  greater  in  Siberia  than  in  European 
Russia,  although  the  average  death  rate  is  lower  in  the  latter  country.*  Wut  it 
may  bo  asked  whether  those  pretended  Siberian  centenarians  are  not  simply  outlaws 
who  have  been  substituted  for  defunct  peasants  in  the  commune.  The  homeless 
fugitive,  "  Ivan  the  Nameless,"  or  "  Michael  Know-nothing,"  has  received  the 
papers  which,  in  the  eyes  of  all,  constitute  him  the  official  representative  of  a  known 
family.  What  can  it  matter  if  these  documents  add  some  twenty  or  thirty  years 
to  his  age  P 

Religious  Sects — The  Stranniki. 

The  brodyagi,  who  have  escaped  from  prison  or  from  their  place  of  internment, 
are  not  the  only  "  vagabonds  "  in  the  land.  In  these  boundless  regions  immensity 
itself  has  its  attractions.  Thus  the  sect  of  the  Stranniki,  or  "  Wanderers,"  has 
many  representatives  in  Siberia,  where  they  arc  ceaselessly  roaming  over  woodlands 
and  highlands  in  search  of  that  "  White  Water  "  which  cleanses  from  all  sin,  and 
at  the  same  time  insures  them  everlasting  bliss.  In  most  of  the  towns  and 
villages  they  find  friends,  who,  though  really  members  of  tho  sect,  lead  a 
sedentary  life,  and  outwardly  conform  to  the  orthodox  religion.  Their  sole  mission 
is  to  give  hospitality  to  their  "  wandering  "  brethren,  and  screen  them  from  the 
police.  When  they  are  discovered  and  thrown  into  prison,  tho  Stranniki  thank  tho 
Lord  for  the  trial  which  has  overtaken  them,  and  which  must  purify  their  faith. 
But  as  a  rule  tho  "  raskol,"  or  "  dissent,"  finds  a  less  propitious  soil  in  Siberia  than 
in  European  Bussia,  and  the  indifference  of  the  Sibiryaks  in  religious  matters  has 
ended  by  reacting  on  the  Raskolniks  themselves.  Except  in  tho  valleys  of  the 
Altai  and  the  colonies  of  the  Amur,  founded  by  the  Dukhobortzi,  the  great 
majority  of  the  Slav  population  consists  of  Orthodox  Greeks.  In  all  Siberia  there 
are  only  five  Protestant  churches,  and  according  to  the  official  returns  the  Siberian 
Protestants  number  altogether  only  6,990  from  Tobolsk  to  Vladivostok.  A 
missionary  establishment  founded  at  Irkutsk  is  engaged  in  converting  the  natives 
to  the  orthodox  religion. 

Agriculture — The  Chase  and  Fisheries. 

Still  in  a  rudimentary  state,  the  agriculture  of  Siberia  scarcely  suffices  for  the 
wants  of  the  population.  Yet  in  the  southern  regions  there  are  excellent  lauds, 
which  might  be  made  to  yield  in  abundance  all  the  products  of  the  temperate  zone 
in  Europe.  In  a  description  of  Russia  translated  from  the  Chinese  by  Klaproth, 
the  writer  expresses  his  amazement  that  although  they  know  how  to  sow,  the 
Russians  "  do  not  understand  the  art  of  weeding  their  fields."  This  remark  of  the 
*  One  centenarian  to  805  inhabitants  in  Siberia ;  one  to  2,702  in  Bussia. 


400 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


Chinese  observer  holds  gowl  now,  nnd  the  Siberians  still  repent  tho  sn}'ing  quoted 
by  Gnu'iin,  "  All  thiit  work  yields  is  bud,  for  it  conies  not  of  (umI."  No  d(»ubt 
some  llussian  Raskolniks  und  Chinese  or  Coreun  inimigrunts  in  tho  nmritimo 
province  have  set  tho  exuniplo  of  systematic  tillugo,  but  they  huvo  found  few 
imitators  amongst  tho  Siberian  peasantry.  Almost  everywhere  the  fields  and 
gardens  have  a  neglected  look.  But  tho  grassy  lands  are  naturally  very  fine, 
abounding  in  savoury  herbs,  and  supporting  large  herds  of  cattle.  Tho  horses, 
although  ill-cared  for  and  living  in  herds  almost  in  u  wild  state,  are  also  very 
numerous  in  Siberia,  where  they  reckon  nearly  one  horse  to  every  inhabitant.  Tho 
"Siberian  ])lugue,"  which  makes  grout  ravages  amongst  the  herds,  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  the  Uaraba  steppe. 

Tho  chase,  which  has  hero  an  historic  interest,  having  led  to  the  discovery  and 
Bettlement  of  Siberia,  has  remained  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  Asiatic  Itussia. 

Fig.  231.— PiiODvoB  OF  East  Sibbiuan  Sablb  Hu.vtino  i'Hom  1850  to  1866. 

Boole  1  :  26,000,000. 


1  to  3  Feet. 


Sablei  per  Trappor. 


8  to  6  Fleet.  6  to  40  Feet.     40  Feet  and  apwarda. 

_^.ii_^^  300  Miles. 


The  Yakuts  and  Tunguses  still  continue,  as  they  did  two  bundred  years  ago,  to 
yield  to  their  conquerors  that  tribute  of  peltries  which  has  been  the  source  of  so 
many  atrocities  and  infamous  speculations.  Nevertheless,  this  industry  is  still 
followed  by  entire  villages  of  promishloniye,  who  are  the  noblest,  most  upright,  and 
daring  hunters  in  Siberia.  Nearly  fifty  different  species  of  animals  are  trapped 
for  their  furs,  and  they  perish  by  the  million  during  the  hunting  season.  The 
yearly  export  of  peltries  from  Siberia,  exclusive  of  those  taken  from  marine 
animals,  represents  a  gross  value  of  from  4,000,000  to  5,000,000  roubles.  The 
standard  price  of  all  the  Siberian  skins  is  regulated  by  that  of  the  sable,  which 
averages  from  8  to  10  roubles,  though  the  finest,  of  a  very  deep  colour,  and 
sprinkled  with  white  hairs,  fetch  as  much  as  80  roubles  even  on  the  spot.  But 
the  sablo  is  a  very  little  animal,  smaller  than  the  European  marten,  and,  as  the  skin 
of  the  back  alone  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  costly  pelisses,  as  many  as  eighty 
skins  are  required  for  one  robe  alone,  which  thus  comes  to  cost  nearly  5,000 


MINING  INDUSTRIES. 


407 


Rnying  quoted 

il."     No  (l()ul)t 

tho   iimritimo 

lave  found  few 

tho   fields   and 

•ully  very  fine, 

Tho  liorses, 

L",  arc  also  veiy 

ihubitant.    Tho 

is  Muid  to  have 

R  discovery  and 
Asiatic  llussia. 

1855. 


roubles.  Tho  fur  of  tho  black  fox  is  oven  more  highly  prized  than  tluif  of  tho 
siihle,  and  some  of  the  finer  speciniens  have  been  sold  htr  over  •Mi)  roubles.  Tho 
skins  of  tho  sfjuirrel  ah)no  furnish  ulK)ut  a  third  part  of  tho  revenue  of  Siberia  from 
this  source,  and  from  ten  to  twelve,  and  even  fifteen  millions  of  these  rfKleiils  have 
been  killed  in  a  single  year  during  their  migrations.  Through  Kiakhta,  China 
receives  u  considerable  portion  of  these  jieltrics,  but  a  fur  larger  (piantity  is  purchased 
by  Kuropo.  At  tho  Irbit  fair  tho  Russian,  Polish,  and  (jiernian  dealers  compete  for 
these  costly  spoils,  whoso  value  is  increased  tenfold  before  it  reaches  the  consumer.* 
Several  species,  especially  of  tho  more  highly  esteemed  fur-bearing  animals,  are 
known  to  havo  considerably  decreased  since  tho  taiga,  or  Siberian  woodlands,  have 
boon  brought  within  tho  influence  of  tho  Kuropeun  markets.  Nevertheless,  none 
of  the  land  species  pursued  by  the  Siberian  trappers  havo  entirely  disappeared. 
The  forest  offers  them  better  sboltor  than  tho  marine  animals  find  on  tho  shores  of 
the  ocean. 

The  Siberian  fisheries  potoess  an  economic  value  of  the  first  imiwrtance,  for 
they  supply  their  chief  support  to  entire  popidations,  not  only  amongst  the  natives, 
but  oven  in  many  communities  of  Russian  origin.  But  the  capture  of  largo  species 
has  considerably  fallen  off,  at  least  in  Lake  Baikal.  Nor  do  tho  Russians  any 
longer  follow  the  whalo  in  tho  Arctic  waters,  while  in  the  pursuit  of  tho  smaller 
cetacea  they  have  been  succeeded  by  the  Americans  in  the  North  Pacific,  and  in 
the  Kara  Sea  by  the  Norwegians.  Hence,  apart  from  tho  local  consumption, 
which  is  enormous,  the  yield  of  the  Siberian  fisheries  for  the  export  trade  is 
■insignificant.  In  this  respect  Siberia,  with  its  thousands  of  miles  of  coast-lino,  its 
great  lakes  and  countless  rivers,  is  of  less  importance  than  the  basins  of  the  Kuban, 
Terek,  and  Kur  alone,  on  both  sides  of  the  Caucasus. 


L;. 


MiNiNO  Industries. 


1  years  ago,  to 

s  source  of  so 

dustry  is  still 

It  upright,  and 

is  are  trapped 

season.     The 

from   marine 

roubles.     The 

e  sable,  which 

p  colour,  and 

10  spot.     But 

id,  as  the  skin 

any  as  eighty 

nearly  5,000 


The  mining  industry  has  also  fallen  off  considerably  since  the  middle  of  the 
present  century.  But  the  extent  of  her  metalliferous  deposits  none  tho  less  insures 
to  Siberia  a  high  position  amongst  the  co  i  .tries  producing  the  precious  mctuls. 
On  an  average  tho  Russian  Empire  supplies  to  trade  the  eighth  part  of  the  annual 
gold  yield  of  the  whole  world,  and  three-fourths  of  this  quantity,  or  about  the 
eleventh  part  of  the  total  production,  comes  from  Siberia.  The  first  gold- washings 
occurred  about  the  beginning  of  this  century  in  the  torrents  of  the  Siberian  TJrals, 
and  the  mines  of  the  Altai  had  already  become  profitable  to  their  owner,  the  Czar. 
But  the  period  of  prosperity  set  in  about  1825,  and  lasted  till  the  middle  of  the 
century.  Since  that  time  the  number  of  mines  and  gold-washings  has  no  doubt 
increased,  but  the  profits  of  these  undertakings  have  greatly  diminished.     The 


•  Peltries  brought  to  the  Irbit 

market  in  1876:- 

- 

-  a:'    ■. .■  '\'  .  i   - 

Skini. 

Bkins. 

Squirrels  (small  grey)    . 

.     5,000,000 

Martens  of  divers  species 

750,000 

Ermine 

216,000 

Sables 

12,000 

HHres 

300.000 

Suudiits 

200,000 

Foxes  of  divers  species 

82,000 

r"^ 


408 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


li 


mnnnp'ors  of  tho  varioun  works  gonornlly  lack  the  noccHWiry  instriK'tion,  and  are 
fvt'ii  i^norunt  of  tho  imtiiro  of  t\w  rovkn  which  prcnluco  the  aiirifcroUH  muikIh. 
ThcHc  wiikIh  have  boconio  inipovcriNhwl  in  n)o«t  of  th<'  rivorn,  since  thouHanfU  of 
gohl-scckcrH  have  Im'^iui  to  work  thcni.  ThuN  ho  moan  proportion  of  metal  in  tho 
aiiriforouH  Munds  of  the  Yonisoi  ^ovornmont  has  gnuhtully  docroaHod  fnmi  tho 
throc-tliouHi'.ndth  part  f^old  to  ono-ttfth  or  ono-tonth  of  that  quantity.  Moreover, 
tho  owners  of  minoH  have  lost  tho  monopoly  which  fonnorly  enriched  them,  and 
they  no  lonj^er  connnand  the  Hervices  of  thoumtnds  of  serfH  jifiven  to  them  by  tho 
Crown.  LalKdir  is  now  free,  and  whilo  tho  value  of  gold  is  gradually  diminish- 
ing in  tho  market  compared  with  that  of  provisions  and  industrial  pnKluce,  tho 
wages  of  tho  miners  are  increasing.  Yet  tho  wretched  condition  of  tho  latter  hus 
scarcely  improved.  Working  in  tho  half-frozen  water  of  tho  streams,  oxpose<l  to 
tho  iuclomoncy  of  an  oxcossively  scvoro  climate,  devoured  by  mosquitoes,  obliged  to 


Fig.  232.— QoLD- WASH  iNos  m  tub  Amur  Damn. 

acale  1  :  10,000,000i  > 


120Hfle«. 


pass  the  night  in  foul  outhouses,  they  are  supplied  with  insufficient  food,  washed 
down  with  pernicious  alcoholic  drinks,  which  they  are  compelled  to  purchase  at 
three  or  four  times  their  value  in  the  booths  of  their  employers.  At  the  end  of  the 
season,  when  the  sands  again  become  hardened  by  the  frost,  most  of  them  ore  no 
better  off  than  when  they  set  out  for  the  mine,  and  those  who  have  managed  to 
save  a  little  money  immediately  squander  it  in  the  taverns  of  "  London,"  "  Paris," 
and  the  other  neighbouring  villages  of  the  Olokminsk  district.  There  are  altogether 
about  a  thousand  gold- washings,  yielding  80  lbs.  of  gold,  or  perhaps  100  lbs.  includ- 
ing the  metal  concealed  from  the  fiscal  officers  in  order  to  avoid  paying  the  tax. 
Since  1726,  when  the  Siberian  gold-fields  first  began  to  be  worked,  the  total  yield 
connot  be  estimatetl  at  less  than  £120,000,000.*  Next  to  the  Urals  and  Altai,  the 
most  productive  auriferous  regions  are  those  of  the  Upper  Yenisei,  Angara,  Vitim, 

*  Yield  of  gold  in  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  from  1720  to  1876,  3,128,680  lbs.,  valued  at 
£176,800,000.    Gold-seekers  in  East  Siberia  in  1877,  '^1,272. 


i4>n.   'f^vm9  ■• 


mHfmmmm 


-r 


MANUFACTUUES— TRADK. 


400 


iction,  niid  aro 
iriforouM  kuikIh. 
['o  thoiiNandN  of 
of  metal  in  tho 
'a8i><I  from  tho 
ty.  Moreover, 
:hcd  them,  and 
to  them  by  tho 
lully  diniiniHh- 
il  pr<Mlu{!e,  tho 
tho  luttor  has 
ms,  oxpoHc<l  to 
toes,  obliged  to 


food,  washed 
>  purchase  at 
;he  end  of  the 
'  them  are  no 
3  managed  to 
•n,"  "  Paris," 
ire  altogether 
'0  lbs.  includ- 
ying  the  tax, 
le  total  yield 
nd  Altai,  tho 
igara,  Vitim, 

Iba.,  valued  at 


and  Oh)kma  basins.     The  present  annual  yield  of  gold  in  Silwria  is  valued  at 
i;i,2()(>,0()0. 

Tho  yield  ol  silver  is  proiM)rtionaU>ly  far  less  conNideriibht.  Nevertheless  the 
mines  of  TranMi)aikalia,  whieh  are  tho  most  important,  and  whieh  have  be«'n  worke<l 
since  the  iM'ginniiig  of  the  eighteenth  century,  have  produced  argent it'erous  lead 
ores,  from  which  have  lu'en  extractefl  over  7,'0O(l,O()O  lbs,  (tf  nilvt'r,  valued  at  u]>wanls 
of  £'^0,000,000,  The  present,  yearly  averagt  is  alM)ut  il'iOO, ()()(),  C.'opp«'r  mining  has 
also  ae(|uired  8(mie  importance  in  the  Ural  and  Altai  regions,  but  the  great  metalliirgio 
intluNtry  is  that  of  iron.  The  first  works  were  founded  on  the  Siberian  slopes  of  the 
Urals  two  hundred  and  lifty  years  ago,  and  nearly  100,000  hands  are  now  employed 
in  the  various  factories  of  the  Yekaterinburg  mining  district,  which  yields  some  of 
the  finest  iron  in  the  world,  Tho  annual  production  of  the  Ural  regi<jn  has  b<'en 
trebled  since  the  l)eginning  of  the  present  century.  At  the  same  time  tho  increase 
during  tho  same  period  in  most  eiviliscHl  countries  has  been  far  more  ctmsiderable,* 
Gra])hite  is  also  mined  in  the  Urals,  as  it  was  till  recently  in  Mount  Alib<rt,  near 
Irkutsk.  8il)eriu  draws  from  her  salt  lakes,  rivers,  and  mines  sufticient  of  that 
article  for  tho  local  demand,  while  she  also  possesses  extensive  coul  monsurcs  in  tho 
Kusnetzk  district,  in  tbe  Lena  and  Amur  basins,  and  in  Hakhalin,  But  all  these 
resources  have  hitherto  been  but  little  utilised.  Such  vast  accumulations  of  fuel 
necessarily  lie  idlo  in  u  country  without  iudustrios,  and  almost  dcstituto  of  inha- 
bitants. 

r 

Manufactures — Tradk. 

Manufacturea,  such  as  those  which  flourish  in  Europe,  could  naturally  he  deve- 
loped only  in  tho  southern  regions  of  Siberia,  where  the  Russian  population  has 
been  concentrated.  But  even  here  they  are  far  from  numerous,  and  their  total 
yield  still  represents  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the  various  manufactured  wares 
required  to  meet  the  annual  local  demand.  The  enterprising  members  of  the  com- 
munity prefer  the  chance  of  rich  "  finds  "  in  the  gold-fields  to  steady  manual  labour, 
and  most  of  the  available  money  of  small  capitalists  is  absorbed  in  these  ventures. 
Hence  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants  still  continue  to  be  supplied  from  abroad. 
Hardware  comes  from  the  Urals ;  china,  woven  goods,  and  leathers  from  European 
Bussia  ;  genuine  or  sham  fancy  wares  from  the  far  West.  The  people  of  East  Siberia 
eagerly  purchase  the  most  trumpery  objects  of  this  class  in  the  markets  lying  to 
the  west  of  the  Irtish  and  Tobol  Rivers. 

Most  of  the  local  factories  formerly  commanded  the  labour  of  the  convicts,  and, 
having  thus  no  wages  to  pay,  they  were  able  to  compete  in  tho  production  of  certain 
articles  with  their  foreign  rivals.  But  at  present  manual  labour  is  quite  as  dear  in 
Siberia  as  elsewhere  in  the  Russian  Empire,  and  even  in  the  Yenisei  and  Amur 
basins  the  rate  of  wages  is  higher  than  in  European  Russia.  The  only  really 
important  local  manufacturing  industry  is  the  distilleries.     In  Asia,  as  in  Europe, 

*  Annual  yield  of  iron  in  tbe  Urals  and  Siberia  from  1707  to  1857,  169,000  tons ;  from  1867  to  1877, 
492,000  tons. 


l*J»«iJ,&'***!«*Sa^^S*'- 


470 


ASIATIC  mrnsiA. 


lar^o  (|iiiiiititi(>N  of  ^riiin  iiiitl  potutoon  ar«  con  i't«>U  into  iilroliolif  driiilcN,  wliich 
uro  rctiiilctl  in  iiiiiiniicnihlo  tavcriiN.  V'ft  tlrinikciuuMH  in  ]M<rhu|m  Ichm  proviilctit 
ill  Silxria  than  in  UiiNNia  ])ro|H>r.  Including;  thi-Ntt  (liHtiH«>rii>M,  tlio  nutnlM>r  of 
indiiNtriai  cNtiiMiNliinrntN  iH'twccn  tlic  Ol)  and  tht>  Amur  anioiinttKi  in  |H7(t, 
atcordin^  to  Snltlxitin,  to  1, 100,  i>inplo\  n^  4,0()0  InindN,  and  producinf;  nianii- 
fa«tuic<l  ):(\»m\h  valufd  at  8,000,000  roubk-s,  or  ucurly  2  ruublus  pur  Lead  of  tho 
pttpidation. 

Itut  indiiMtry  tniiNt  n(>(-ONNarily  remain  in  a  rudimentary  Ntato  in  a  country  almoNt 
duMtitutu  of  towuN,  the  natural  murketH  for  lalxiur  of  all  HortN,  aH  well  iw  the  true 
nurseries  of  Htudy,  refinement,  and  soeial  amenitieN.  Kven  including  the  mining  (Uh- 
trietsof  the  Kastern  TralH,  tlie  whole  of  Siberia,  a  region  larf^er  than  the  ecmtinent  of 
Europe,  contains  no  more  than  Heventirn  towuH  with  a  |H)pulation  of  upwards  of  .'5,000. 
In  other  words,  there  is,  on  tho  average,  unly  ono  ftueh  town  to  a  npaco  uh  largo  ua 
Franco  and  Italy  combined.  And  uvon  thcHO  tuwnH  uro  nioro  like  largo  villagoH, 
most  of  tho  hoUMOH  lH>ing  const riu'ted  of  wood.  So  rare  aro  Mtono  buildings  in 
Siberia  that  in  lH7o  more  than  half  tho  towns,  or  IH  in  Ml,  were  destitute  of  u  single 
Btructuro  of  this  material,  and  where  sucli  did  exist  they  rarely  amountinl  to  more 
than  ten  or  twelve.  In  some  parts  of  Kast  Siberia  the  fear  of  earthquakes  would 
appear  to  have  u  certain  influence  in  keeping  up  tho  practi<;o  of  erecting  exclusively 
wooden  houses,  but  this  method  of  building  is  undoubtedly  duo  nniinly  to  tho  rudi- 
mentary state  of  Siberian  civilisation.  In  any  case  it  is  not  a  littlo  remarkable 
that  tho  towns  in  this  region  increase  very  slowly  in  ]K)puIati(m,  tho  actual  growth 
in  this  respect  being  mostly  limited  to  tho  rural  districts.  Such  expansion  as  does 
tak(!  place  is  duo  in  the  towns  far  more  to  tho  arrival  of  liuHuiun  settlors  thuu  to 
tho  natural  excess  of  tho  birth  rate. 

Important  fairs  nro  still  held  in  tho  opon  country,  and  certain  clearings  along 
the  banks  of  tho  Amur  and  Lena  become  at  definite  times  of  tho  year  u  rendezvous 
for  thousands  of  Yakuts,  Tunguses,  and  Ru  sians.  J^von  the  famous  fair  of  Irbit 
was  originidly  nothing  but  a  great  "  camp  meeting  "  in  tho  midst  of  tho  forest. 
The  Siberian  dealers  aro  nearly  all  Russians,  either  hawkers  from  Vladimir,  who 
visit  in  succession  all  the  markets  as  fur  as  tho  Yakut  and  Buriat  territories,  or  else 
shopkoopors  or  clerks  from  North  Russia,  who  have  been  hired  out,  or  rather  sold 
by  their  families  while  still  mere  children.  Tho  town  of  Cherdin  alone,  in  the 
government  of  Perm,  annually  supplies  to  this  traffic  from  twenty  to  forty  chil- 
dren, whom  the  corriors  cart  away  at  a  fixed  price  to  the  Irbit  fair,  and  who  are 
then  engaged  as  unpaid  apprentices  for  a  term  of  tHree  years  by  some  remote 
master  tradesmen,  proprietors,  or  merchants. 

Siberia  naturally  does  a  considerable  trade  with  European  Russia,  as  most  of  the 
manufactured  goods  and  fancy  articles  arrive  from  beyond  the  Urals.  But  the  annual 
exchanges  Avith  China  are  still  relatively  of  slight  importance,  and  have  even  dimi- 
nished when  compared  with  the  general  movement  of  the  empire,  although  the  two 
states  have  a  common  frontier  of  some  thousands  of  miles  in  extent.  The  exchanges, 
such  as  they  are,  are  greatly  in  favour  of  China,  which  is  chiefly  an  exporting 
coimtry.    But  the  quantity  of  teu  forwarded  through  the  Siberian  custom-houses 


<•  (IriiikH,  wliich 

I     l«'8H    |ir(>Vllll>l|t 

li«>  niniilN>r  of 
lilted  ill  IM7({, 
<)<liin'ii^  iiiiiiiit- 
•cr  hfud  of  tlio 

counfryalnioHt 
rt'c'll  UN  (ho  fru(» 
(li(>  mining  (liH- 

K'  continent  of 
•wiinlHof  fj.OOO. 
Muro  iiM  Iiirffo  ufl 

lurjifo  villaj^oH, 
lo  buildjiif^M  in    i 
tutoof  It  Hinglo 
ountwl  to  more 
hqujikt'H  would 
ing  cxoluHivcIy 
ily  to  the  nidi- 
tlo  ronmrkablo 
lu'tuul  jjfpowth 
)anHion  ua  dooa 
Kittlurs  thuu  to 

jloaringH  along 
r  u  rcndezvouH 
18  fuir  of  libit 

of  the  forest. 
Vladimir,  who 
itories,  or  else 
or  rather  sold 

alone,  in  the     * 
to  forty  chil- 
',  and  who  are 

some  remote 

as  most  of  the 
5ut  the  annual 
ve  even  dimi- 
ough  the  two 
lie  exchanges, 
an  exporting 
ustom-houses 


IIKIUWAVH  OF  coMMirNK'ATION— TIIK  TUAKT-IIAILWAY  I'UOJKCTS.     171 

incrniw'N  very  nlowly,  owing  to  the  conHtantiy  iiicreaNiag  coiiiiN-titioii  of  thi'  mou 
route  through  the  Suex  Cuiiul  with  the  overhind  eomniereiul  liighwiiyM.  On  tliO 
other  hand,  the  priKluctN  of  the  UuHHian  and  SilM>riun  fuctorieH  are  more  mtited  to 
tlie  tiiNte  of  the  Kirghiz  and  MoiigolianM  than  to  that  of  the  ChineNe,  who  are 
more  diHieult  to  pleiiNe,  and  wlio  in  any  cane  receive  thniugh  their  Nea|KirtN  all  the 
Kiiropean  wiircn  wliicii  tliey  i'i'«|iiire.  No  doubt  the  UiiNNiaii  iiiaritinie  provinces  wiip- 
plicM  "  Hea-cal»l»ag«',"  ticpaiig,  and  (ImIi  to  tlie  Muridundiiig  ('liiiicMe  diNtriitn.  Hut 
this  iiiteruatioiial  trade  can  liavi<  but  a  Hiiglit  economic  ini|H)rtaiice  ho  long  m  Uun« 
aian  Manchuria  reinaiiiN  uninhabited  except  by  u  few  Hcattered  comniunitieH.*  The 
abacnco  of  commercial  relati(mH  between  Siberia  and  the  neighl)ouritig  caHtern 
regions  is  iN'trayed  by  the  Htnall  nuinlM>r  of  telegraphic  dispatclicH  traiiHiiiitted  from 
lluNNia  to  China  and  Japan,  which  in  1H7K  itiiountcd  altogether  only  to  1,1 10. t  The 
moMMiigeH  forwarded  in  transit  iM'tween  West  Kurop(>  and  China  and  Japan  viii 
VludivoHtuk  are  far  uturu  uumeruuH  thuu  thuse  of  UusHiu  itttelf.t 


TIioiiWAYH  OF  Communication — ^Thk  Tiukt — Railway  PRojEfrrs. 

With  the  gradual  development  of  her  means  of  communication  the  trade  and 
population  of  Siberia  cannot  fail  to  increase.  The  trakf,  as  the  great  highway  from 
Perm  to  Kiakhta  is  usually  callwl,  has  already  done  more  for  the  civilisation  of 
these  regions  than  the  waterways  themselves.  The  i?ili.ibitants  have  become  con- 
centrated in  groups  along  this  route,  and  at  certain  distances  from  Iwth  sides  of  it. 
It  is  traversed  by  long  lines  of  waggons  and  sleighs  while  the  fairs  are  being  held, 
and,  although  sinking  here  and  there  in  the  quagmires,  the  carts  will  cover  from 
45  to  60  miles  u  day.  The  horses,  which  are  of  u  special  breed,  feed  en  route 
from  u  crib  attached  to  the  preceding  cart,  and  exposed  to  the  weather,  so  that  the 
oats  often  get  mixed  with  the  snow.  At  the  head  of  the  convoy  is  the  head-man's 
waggon,  decorated  with  a  small  shrine,  a  sort  of  ambulatory  chapel  containing  a 
sacred  image.  This  izvoa,  or  rarriago  traffic,  has  caused  thriving  villages  to  spring 
up  by  the  roadside,  generally  consisting  of  a  single  line  of  houses  from  1  to  IJ 
miles  long.  These  two-storied  houses,  with  their  cheerful  balconies,  present  a  rcraark- 
oble  contrast  to  the  wretched  izbas  of  Central  Idissia.  Some  of  the  stages  occurring 
at  longer  intervals  along  the  trakt  have  grown  into  towns,  of  which  those  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  and  consequently  at  the  converging  point  o  '  several  routes,  are  natu- 
rally the  most  important.  On  the  other  hand,  the  windings  of  the  trakt  itself  have 
caused  the  decay  of  other  towns,  which  have  thus  become  abandoned  in  favour  of 

•  Trade  of  Russia  with  China,  according  to  (^ubbotin  : — 


Average  from  1fli27  to  1831 

„  1842  to  1846 

„  1864  to  1868 

Year  1876  .     .     . 

t  To  China  69/),  to  Japan  616. 

X  Diaputches  in  transit  vift  Vladivostok,  246,332  words,  or  about  20,000  meaaagea. 


Exports. 
1,200,000 

Imports. 
2iiO,OUO 

Total. 
1,400,000 

Proportion  to  the 
totnl  'I'mde  of 
the  Kmpirc. 
1  percent. 

6,500.000 

6,600.000 

13,000,000 

8 

6,800,000 

4,600,000 

10,300,00t 

26      „ 

2,600,000 

14,100,000 

16,600,000 

2        .. 

umi'iiuiimiJiKt-n :j;.iij»».!nnijjiii.  .    .i,iii!i|»jiii«l»iiiii[r.»ir     - 


47S 


ASIATIC  EU8SIA. 


more  convenient  sites,  and  fresh  centres  of  population  have  in  this  way  sprung  up 
in  the  midst  of  the  steppe  or  forest. 

The  future  railways,  with  their  various  side  branches,  will  have  analogous  results, 
but  their  construction  must  be  long  delayed  by  the  very  immensity  of  the  distances 
and  the  sparse  population  of  the  regions  to  be  traversed  by  them.  No  doubt  a  line 
has  already  crossed  the  Urals,  on  either  side  of  which  are  two  stations,  respectively 
known  as  "Europe"  and  "Asia."  But  this  line  is  not  yet  connected  with  the 
European  system.  The  branch  ultimately  destined  to  unite  the  European  and 
Central  Asiatic  with  the  great  trunk  line  from  Yekaterinburg  to  Pekin  will  probably 
pass  through  Orenburg.  The  distance  from  the  Urals  to  the  capital  of  China  is 
estimated  by  Bogdanovich  at  about  3,480  miles,  of  which  rather  more  than  660 
lie  within  the  Chinese  frontier. 

The  first  section  of  this  main  line  between  Yekaterinburg  and  Tumen  has 
already  been  begun,  and  although  only  225  miles  long,  it  is  expected  to  cost  about 
25,000,000  roubles.  The  capital  required  to  construct  the  whole  line  from  the  Urals 
to  the  Pacific  seaboard  cannot  be  estimated  at  less  than  £80,000,000.  Siberia  has 
hitherto  remained  beyond  the  influence  of  international  movement,  but  when  it  has 
become  the  direct  and  necessary  line  of  passage  for  most  travellers  between  Europe 
and  the  extreme  east  a  genuine  revolution  will  have  been  accomplished  in  the  his- 
tory of  mankind.  China  cannot  be  easily  brought  within  the  sphere  of  a  universal 
international  railway  system  except  through  Siberian  territory.  The  southern  and 
western  frontiers  of  the  "  Middle  Empire  "  are  fringed  by  plateaux  and  highlands 
rising  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  But  towards  the  north  broad  gaps  and 
regularly  sloping  depressions  give  access  at  several  points  from  the  Irtish  and  Amur 
basins  to  that  of  the  Hoang-ho.  The  highway  of  the  ancient  military  migrations  of 
Huns  and  Mongols  might  easily  be  reopened,  to  be  henceforth  traversed  rather  by 
locomotives  and  express  trains  then  by  conquering  hosts.  What  nations  and  races 
are  destined  most  to  benefit  by  this  future  highway  crossing  the  eastern  hemisphere 
is  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  still  awaiting  solution. 

Education — ^Administration. 

The  Siberian  people  are  not  preparing  themselves  by  a  solid  system  of  educa- 
tion for  their  high  destinies  in  the  civilised  world.  This  region  is  still  far  below 
Europe  in  the  relative  number  of  its  schools  and  scholars.  In  some  towns  there 
are  scarcely  ten  children  receiving  regular  instruction,  and  in  1870  the  whole  of 
East  Siberia  had  only  283  schools,  attended  by  8,610  pupils,  in  a  total  population  of 
1,500,000.  In  many  districts  the  Russian  colonists,  lost  amidst  the  surrounding 
Yakut  peoples,  have  even  forgotten  their  mother  tongue  and  national  usages,  and 
they  now  purchase  their  wives  by  paying  the  kalim  like  the  other  natives.  Never- 
theless several  Siberians  have  already  distinguished,  themselves  by  their  scientific 
attainments  and  literary  labours.  Among  contemporary  Russian  savants  and  men 
of  letters  there  are  some  even  with  Buriat  and  Yakut  blood  in  their  veins,  and 
their  works  have  already  penetrated  to  the  masses.     But  the  young  men  of  Asiatic 


EDUCATION— ADMINISTRATION— POLITICAL  LIFE, 


478 


ray  sprung  up 

logous  results, 
'  the  distances 
o  doubt  a  line 
},  respectively 
cted  with  the 
European  and 
will  probably 
il  of  China  is 
ore  than  660 

d  Tumen  has 
to  cost  about 
rom  the  Urals 
Siberia  has 
it  when  it  has 
tween  Europe 
3d  in  the  his- 
of  a  universal 
southern  and 
md  highlands 
oad  gaps  and 
ish  and  Amur 
migrations  of 
'sed  rather  by 
Ions  and  races 
n  hemisphere 


»m  of  educa- 
itill  far  below 
e  towns  there 
the  whole  of 
population  of 
I  surrounding 
1  usages,  and 
ves.  Never- 
beir  scientific 
mts  and  men 
jir  veins,  and 
en  of  Asiatic 


Russia,  anxious  to  prosecute  their  studies,  are  still  obliged  to  proceed  to  Europe. 
The  university  so  long  expected,  and  which  was  endowed  by  anticipation  some  fifty 
years  ago,  is  only  just  beginning  to  rise  above  its  foundations.  Its  erection  was  not 
definitely  decided  on  by  the  Council  of  State  and  approved  of  by  the  late  Czor, 
Alexander  II.,  till  the  year  1878.  In  the  same  year  throughout  the  whole  of 
Siberia,  with  a  population  of  4,000,000  scattered  over  an  area  larger  than  all 

'  '       Fig.  2J3. — Vladivostok  amd  the  Eastbbn  Bospobub. 

SoUel  :86,000.  , 


Otol6Feet.  16to90F«et.         80  Feet  and  opwardi. 

-— .— .1— _  2,160  Tarda. 


Europe,  there  were  only  two  periodicals,  one  weekly  ana  one  monthly,  apart  from 
the  official  notices  published  in  each  of  the  provincial  capitals. 

Siberia  comprises  two  great  governments,  that  of  West  Siberia,  with  Omsk  for 
its  capital,  and  East  Siberia,  whose  capital  is  Irkutsk.  Each  of  these  main  divi- 
sions is  subdivided  into  governments  and  provinces,  which  are  again  distributed 
into  districts  and  circles.  The  province  of  the  Amur,  whose  administration  par- 
takes more  Qf  a  military  character  than  any  other  part  of  this  vast  domain,  is  divided 
81 


•MMMBi 


474 


ASIATIC  EUSSIA. 


f 


into  Cossack  "  regiments  "  and  "  battalions."  But  on  the  whole  the  Government 
of  Siberia  may  bo  said  to  bo  modelled  on  that  of  European  Russia.  Municipal, 
judicial,  religious  institutions  are  all  based  on  the  same  uniform  plan,  and  the  dif- 
ferences arising  out  of  the  vastness  of  the  distances  and  the  local  customs  are  being 
gradually  effaced.  Formerly  the  true  masters  of  the  land  beyond  the  urban 
districts  were  the  dealers,  who,  through  their  monopoly  of  the  peltry  trade, 
disposed  of  the  very  lives  of  entire  populations.  But  although  they  have  still 
great  power,  their  authority  is  now,  at  all  events,  second  to  that  of  the  commanding 
officers  and  higher  Government  functionaries.  Practically  the  representatives  of 
the  Czar  possess  almost  absolute  control,  and  their  will  or  caprice  is  implicitly 
obeyed.  A  region  of  banishment  and  prisons,  peopled  by  convicts  and  the  children 
of  exiles,  far  too  few  in  numbers  and  too  scattered  to  form  communities  capable  of 
combined  resistance,  Siberia  has  never  yet  thought  of  asserting  its  autonomy. 
Even  were  she  one  day  to  assert  her  independence,  her  inhabitants  are  too  closely 
allied  to  the  European  Russians  by  the  ties  of  a  common  origin  and  civilisation  to 
allow  the  future  of  both  countries  ever  to  be  separated.  From  the  Danube  to  the 
Amur,  Russia  and  Siberia  have  the  same  political  destinies,  and  the  same  social 
spirit  must  continue  to  animate  both  nations,  even  though  one  autocrat  may  some 
day  cease  to  control  the  aggressive  forces  of  each. 

SiBEBTAN  Political  Life. 

The  people  of  Siberia,  as  Kolb  well  observed,  has  hitherto  led  a  life  of  its  own, 
troubling  itself  little  about  the  rrmote  centres  of  government  in  St.  Petersburg  or 
Moscow.  A  Polish  exile  wrote  some  thirty  years  ago,  "  This  country  will  soon 
cease  to  be  a  region  of  terror  and  captivity,  for  it  possesses  all  the  means  (with 
the  exception  of  its  being  a  very  cold  country)  of  becoming  in  time  a  land  of  pros- 
perity and  freedom.  Siberia  has  no  nobility,  no  peculiarly  privileged  classes,  very 
few  officials,  and  a  population  which  has  never  been  in  bondage,  and  knows  how  to 
govern  itself."  Another  circumstance  has  since  been  added,  viz.  the  powerful, 
ever-increasing  influence  of  the  neighbouring  country  of  North  America  and  its 
republican  institutions,  which  reach  as  far  as  Bering  Strait,  since  the  sale  of  the 
Russo- American  colony.  Among  the  admirers  and  advocates  of  these  institu- 
tions are  those  Poles  who  were  sent  to  Siberia  by  tens  of  thousands  after  the  last 
insurrection,  and  who  find  here  more  freedom  and  liberty  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Europe.  The  communication  between  Novo-Nikolayevsk  and  the  rapidly  growing 
city  of  Francisco  constantly  increases.  Professor  Eachenusky,  of  Charkov,  has 
remarked  that  "  the  further  we  advance  towards  the  east  the  freer  and  more 
independent  do  we  find  life  and  opinions  among  us.  The  principle  of  independ- 
ence is  infinitely  farther  advanced  in  Moscow  than  in  St.  Petersburg,  but  most  of 
all  in  ill-fated  Siberia." 


tho  Government 
iia.  Municipal, 
an,  and  the  dif- 
tstoms  are  being 
'•ond  the  urban 
le  peltry  trade, 

they  have  still 
he  commanding 
presentatives  of 
ce  is  implicitly 
md  the  children 
lities  capable  of 

its  autonomy. 
8  are  too  closely 
i  civilisation  to 
i  Danube  to  the 
the  same  social 
)crat  may  some 


life  of  its  own, 
Petersburg  or 
iintry  will  soon 
le  means  (with 
a  land  of  pros- 
ed classes,  very 
i  knows  how  to 
.  the  powerful, 
Lmerica  and  its 
the  sale  of  the 
these  institu- 
I  after  the  last 
y  other  part  of 
ipidly  growing 
E  Charkov,  has 
'eer  and  more 
e  of  independ- 
g,  but  most  of 


QEOWTH  OF  THE  EUS3IAN  EMPIBE.  475 


GROWTH  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 

Our  account  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia  may  be  fittingly  concluded  with  a 
brief  retrospect  of  the  steps  by  which  the  empire  has  gradually  acquired  its 
present  enormous  expansion.  Its  colossal  growth,  remarks  Kolb,  began  in  1581, 
in  which  year  the  Cossack  Hetman  Yermak  Temogefev  surrendered  to  Czar 
Ivan  II.  the  vast  regions  of  West  Siberia,  which  he  had  overrun  with  amazing 
rapidity.  But  it  was  not  till  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great  that  Russia  began  to  be 
held  in  any  regard  by  the  more  civilised  states  of  Christendom.  In  1707  Peter 
took  possession  of  the  recently  discovered  peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  and,  what  was 
of  far  more  importance,  by  the  Peace  of  Nystadt,  in  1721,  Russia  wrenched  from 
Sweden  parts  of  Finland,  Ingria,  Karelia,  Esthonia,  and  Livonia.  Azov,  which 
was  taken  from  the  Turks  in  1699,  was  again  lost  in  1711.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Czar  took  from  the  Persians  Daghestan,  Shirv&n,  Ghil&n,  and  Derbent, 
large  portions  of  which  were,  however,  restored  to  the  Shah  in  1732  and  1736. 

The  Kirghiz  Kasaks  were  subdued  in  1730,  and  the  Ossetes  of  the  Central 
Caucasus  in  1742.  The  easternmost  portion  of  Siberia,  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and 
the  Bering  Archipelago  were  also  incorporated  in  the  same  year.  The  Finnish 
province  of  Kymenegard  was  secured  by  the  treaty  of  Abo  in  1743.  Then 
followed  the  three  partitions  of  Poland,  under  Catherine  II.,  in  1772,  1793,  and 
1795,  Russia  thereby  acquiring  nearly  two-thirds  of  this  once  powerful  monarchy. 

By  the  Peace  of  Kuchuk-Kainarji,  July  22nd,  1774,  the  Turks  finally  surrendered 
Azov,  part  of  the  Crimea,  and  Kabardia  in  Caucasia.  The  rest  of  the  Crimea 
followed  in  1783,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Yassy,  January  9th,  1792,  Oczakov  was 
absorbed.  Georgia  also  came  under  the  protection  of  the  Czar  in  1783,  and 
Kurland  and  Leni  in  1793. 

In  1793  also  followed  the  conquest  of  Persian  territory  as  far  as  the  river  Kur, 
while  the  formal  annexation  of  Georgia  was  effected  in  1801.  Although  worsted 
in  the  war  of  1807  by  the  French,  Russia  nevertheless  acquired  by  the  I'eace  of 
Tilsit,  July  7th,  the  province  of  Byalistok,  which  had  been  taken  from  her  ally, 
Prussia.  The  Peace  of  Vienna,  October  14th,  1809,  transferred  the  Circle  of 
Turnopol  and  part  of  East  Galicia  from  Austria  to  Russia.  The  Peace  of 
Friedrichshaven,  November  17th,  1809,  deprived  Sweden  of  what  remained  to  her 
of  Finland ;  the  Peace  of  Bucharest,  May  28th,  1812,  took  Bessarabia  from  the 
Turks ;  that  of  Tiflis,  in  1813,  robbed  Persia  of  parts  of  the  Caucasus ;  and  two 
years  later  the  Congress  of  Vienna  gave  Poland  to  her  ancient  rival. 

After  fresh  wars  the  Persians  lost  the  provinces  of  Erivan  and  Nakhichevan 
(now  called  Russian  Armenia)  by  the  Peace  of  Turkmansheir,  February  22nd,  1828 ; 
and  the  following  year,  by  the  Peace  of  Adrianople,  the  Turks  surrendered  Anapa, 
Poti,  Akhaltzik,  and  Akhalkalaka.  The  desire  to  precipitate  the  dissolution  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire  led  to  the  Crimean  war  of  1853,  in  which  England  and  France 
joined  in  1854,  and  Sardinia  in  1855,  and  which  ended  in  the  Peace  of  Paris, 
March  31st,  1866.     The  Russians  were  now  compelled,  for  the  first  time  for  over  a 


»a«M<gig»8e»KfeaM»,feiE;,V>=TgJtKffr'.~'ia;r-;Sh'^BS 


470 


ASIATIC  BUSSIA. 


century,  to  agree  to  a  cession  of  territory,  restoring  to  Rumania  the  left  bank  of 
the  Danube  in  Bessarabia,  in  which  tract  were  included  Ismail  and  Kiala. 

The  final  subjection  of  the  whole  of  Caucasia  was  effected  in  1859  and  1864, 
when  the  Circassian  people  migrated  in  a  body  to  Turkey.  Then  followed,  by 
agreement  with  China,  the  annexation  of  Manchuria  as  far  as  the  left  bank  of  the 
Amur.  A  ukase  of  February  29th,  1868,  extinguished  the  last  spark  of  Polish 
political  life.  The  khanates  of  Western  Turkestan  (Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Kokhan) 
were  subdued  in  the  next  few  yeors,  and,  while  a  semblance  of  freedom  was  left  to 
Bokhara  and  Ehiva,  Kokhan  was  completely  absorbed  under  its  old  name  of 
Feighanu.  On  the  other  hand,  Russia  withdrew  from  the  New  World  in  1867, 
when  Russian  America  (Alaska)  was  sold  to  the  United  States.  This  vast  region, 
however,  had  never  been  formally  incorporated,  having  been  rather  the  property  of 
a  chartered  trading  company. 

The  late  Russo-Turkish  war  brought  the  Czar's  forces  to  the  gates  of 
Constantinople,  and  although  British  intervention  prevented  the  occupation  of  that 
famous  capital,  the  ensuing  Congress  of  Berlin,  July,  1878,  awarded  to  Russia  fresh 
territory  in  Asia — Batdm,  on  the  Euxine,  and  the  fortress  and  district  of  Kars, 
besides  restoring  to  her  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  she  had  been  forced  to  surrender 
to  Rumania  after  the  Crimean  war. 

Lastly,  after  reiMjated  failures,  the  Czar's  troops  triumphed  early  in  the  year 
1881  over  the  Tekko  Turkomans  of  the  Daman-i-koh,  and  the  Turkoman  country, 
from  the  Caspian  nearly  to  the  Herat  district,  was  in  the  same  year  incorporated  in 
the  newly  organized  Trans-Caspian  territory,  dependent  on  the  Government  of  the 
Caucasus.  This  makes  Russia  absolute  mistress  of  all  Western  Turkestan,  the 
Mery  oasis  alone  excepted.  The  changes  caused  by  these  movements  have 
necessitated  a  rectification  of  the  Russo-Persian  frontier  between  the  Caspian  and 
Afghanistan.  The  Boundary  Commission  charged  to  lay  down  the  new  line  has 
not  yet  concluded  its  labours,  but  the  British  Government  is  not  represented  on 
this  commission,  which,  it  is  understood,  will  award  to  Russia  all  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Kuren-dagh,  including  the  fertile  Dera-goz  district,  and  the  Persian 
town  of  Askabad,  if  not  Sarakhs,  bringing  the  Russian  frontier  close  to  Herat. 
Thus  disappear  the  vast  spaces  which  certain  British  statesmen,  till  quite 
recently,  supposed  woidd  continue  to  intervene  between  the  Russian  and  British 
dominions  in  the  East. 

Meantime,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  recall  the  warning  words  of  Arminius 
Vamb^ry,  written  at  a  time  when  Russia  had  not  yet  advanced  beyond  the  Aral  and 
Caspian  Seas,  and  while  the  Turkestan  khanates  and  the  Turkoman  country  were  still 
independent : — "  The  drama  of  a  collision  of  the  two  great  colossi  in  Central  Asia,  which 
political  dreamers  imagined  years  ago,  continues  still  far  from  actual  performance. 
The  question  moves,  it  is  true,  slowly,  but  still  always  in  a  forward  direction.  Let 
me,  following  the  natural  course  of  events,  without  imdue  warmth,  endeavoiir  to 
acquaint  the  reader  with  the  motives  that  influence  me  when  I  disapprove  of  the 
indifference  of  the  English  to  the  Russian  policy  in  Central  Asia 

"  The  real  progress  of  the  Russian  designs  is  beyond  all  doubt.     As  I  before 


GROWTH  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE. 


the  left  bank  of 

Kiala. 

1859  and  1864, 
len  followed,  by 
left  bank  of  the 
spark  of  Polish 

i,  and  Kokhan) 

lorn  was  left  to 
Its  old  name  of 
orld  in  1867, 
'his  vast  region, 
the  property  of 

0  the  gates  of 
cupation  of  that 
to  Russia  fresh 
istrict  of  Kars, 
ed  to  surrender 

rly  in  the  year 
koman  country, 
incorporated  in 
emment  of  the 
Turkestan,  the 
ovements  have 
he  Caspian  and 
i  new  line  has 
represented  on 
I  the  northern 
nd  the  Persian 
lose  to  Herat, 
len,  till  quite 
1  and  British 

'  of  Arminius 
the  Aral  and 
atry  were  still 
al  Asia,  which 
performance, 
rection.  Let 
endeavour  to 
•prove  of  the 

As  I  before 


477 


said,  the  interests  of  civilisation  make  us  wish  the  most  entire  success  to  the 
llussian  army ;  but  still  the  remote  consequences  of  an  acquisition  once  made 
suggest  a  highly  important  and  complicated  inquiry.  The  question  whether 
Hussia  will  content  herself  even  with  Bokhara,  or  will  allow  the  Oxus  to  become 
the  final  boundary  of  her  influence  and  of  her  designs,  is  difficult  to  answer. 
Without  plunging  into  any  deep  considerations  of  policy,  I  may  remark  that  it 
seems  very  probable  that  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg,  in  return  for  her  persevering 
policy  of  sacrifices  pursued  across  the  deserts  for  years  and  years,  at  great  expensu 
and  labour,  will  seek  some  richer  compensation  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  oases  of 
Turkestan.  I  should  like,  indeed,  to  see  the  politician  who  would  venture  to  aflirm 
that  Russia,  once  in  possession  of  Turkestan,  would  be  able  to  withstand  the  temp- 
tation of  advancing,  either  personally  or  by  her  representatives,  into  Afghanistan 
and  Northern  India,  where  political  intrigues  are  said  to  find  alw'ays  a  fruitful  soil. 
At  the  time  when  the  Russian  columns,  imder  the  orders  of  Peroffsky,  threw  their 
ominous  shadow  from  the  west  shore  of  the  Aral  Sea  as  far  as  Kabul — at  the 
time  when  the  spectre  of  Vitkovich*  appeared  in  that  city  and  in  Kandahar, 
the  possibility  of  such  complications  as  those  alluded  to  was  foreseen.  And  cannot 
that  which  has  once  occurred,  when  the  necessity  arises,  occur  a  second  timePt 

"  Without,  therefore,  lending  to  the  question  the  foid  colouring  of  envy  or 
jealousy,  I  consider  myself  justified  in  disapproving  of  England's  indifference  to 
the  plans  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia.  Such  is  my  humble  opinion ;  but  whether 
the  British  Lion  is  to  come  into  direct  hostile  collision  with  the  Russian  Bear  in 
those  regions,  or  in  brotherly  fashion  they  are  to  share  and  share  alike,  is  a  question 
which  I  will  not  venture  nearer  to  approach."  + 

The  foregoing  rapid  sketch  of  the  continuous  growth  of  the  Russian  Empire 
during  the  last  three  centuries  may  be  summed  up  in  the  subjoined  table : — 


Banian  Empire  under 

IMS. 

Ar«a  in  Square  Miln. 

Ivan  Vasilivich  I. 

1462 

382,000 

Vasili  IvsnoTich 

1606 

510,000 

Ivan  Vasilivich  II. 

1684 

1,630,000 

Alexis  Michaelovich 

1660 

6,039,000 

Petor  the  Great    . 

1689 

5,963.000 

Anne    . 

1730 

0,888,000 

Catherine  II. 

1776        .        . 

.        7,122,770 

Alexander  II. 

1868 

7,866,000 

Alexander  III.      . 

1881 

7,960,000 

Incrkasb  of 

POPUL*TIO». 

1722    . 

.    14.000,000 

1829    . 

.     60,500,000 

1742    . 

10,000,000 

1838    . 

.     r)9,000,000 

1762    . 

19,000.000 

1851     . 

.       5.000,000 

1782    . 

27,600,000 

1870    . 

.     78,000,000 

1793    . 

34.000,000 

1877    . 

.    80,260,000 

1803    . 

36,000,000 

1878    . 

.    87.722.600 

1811    . 

42,000,000 

1881    . 

.     88,600,000 

1815    . 

46,000.00 

0 

*  This  'was  the  name  of  the  Russian  agent  sent  hy  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg  to  Afghanistan  in 
1838,  with  large  sums  of  money  to  be  employed  in  intrigues  against  England. 

t  These  prophetic  words  were  fully  verified  in  1878  by  the  arrival  of  a  Uussian  mission  in  Ktfbul, 
an  evont  which  brought  about  the  late  war  between  the  British  and  the  unfortunate  Amir  of  Afghanistan, 
Khtr  Ali. 
■    {  "  Travels  in  Central  Asia,"  1804,  p.  440. 


478 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


The  three  districts  directly  affected  by  the  recent  annexations  in  Turkestan  are 
Mcrv,  tlio  Persian  frontier  territory  of  Dera-goz,  and  the  Akhal  Tekke  country  on 
its  border.  Regarding  all  three  interesting  and  valuable  information  has  been 
received  during  the  present  year,  and  is  hero  subjoined. 


Mekv. 

During  the  summer  of  1881  Mr.  O'Donovan  was  detained  a  prisoner  in  this 
oasis,  respecting  the  present  state  of  which  Colonel  E.  C.  Stewart  also  collected 
some  particuhirs  in  1880-1,  while  residing  in  the  Dera-gtiz. 

"  Meru,  or  Merv,"  writes  Colonel  Stewart,  "  the  city  on  the  Murghab,  is  men- 
tioned in  the  earliest  records  of  the  Aryan  race.  Balkh,  Merv,  and  Seistan  were 
the  places  where  Iranian  history  begins.  The  country,  watered  by  the  Murghab 
and  lojeud  Rivers,  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  Margiana,  and  it  was  visited  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  Antiochus  Nicator  ruled  on  the  Murghab.  Merv  was 
the  seat  of  a  Christian  Archbishop  of  the  Nestorian  Church  during  the  reigns  of 
the  Sassanian  dynasty  of  Zoroastrian  £ings  of  Persia,  as  was  also  Toos,  near 
Meshed  in  Khorasan. 

"  The  Arabs  captured  Merv  about  a.d.  666,  and  found  it  a  very  rich  city.  Until 
this  period  it  had  a  Christian  Archbishop.  At  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  the 
Salor  and  Saluk  tribes  of  Turkomans  were  in  the  country.  The  lieutenants  of 
the  Khalifs  of  Bagdad  ruled  Khorasan,  with  Merv  as  their  capital. 

"  On  the  25th  of  February,  1221,  Merv  was  besieged  by  a  Mogid  army  under 
Tulin,  a  son  of  Jenghiz  Khan  ;  the  place  was  captured  and  the  population  put  to 
death  with  very  few  exceptions.  It  is  said  by  Ibn-ul-Ether  that  700,000  dead 
bodies  were  counted.  This  is  probably  an  exaggeration,  but  it  shows  how  large  a 
city  Merv  must  have  been  that  a  writer  could  suggest  that  700,000  persons  were  put 
to  death  in  it.  The  Moguls  had  a  curious  and  methodical  way  of  numbering  the 
slain.  WR8n  a  thousand  dead  had  been  completed,  they  placed  one  body  with  its 
head  buried  in  the  ground  and  its  feet  upwards,  so  that  the  thousands  might  bo 
conveniently  counted. 

••  The  last  Merv  was  the  city  so  bravely  held  by  Bairam  Ali  Khan  Kajar.  A 
branch  of  the  Kajar  family  who  now  rule  Persia  hud  been  placed  in  Merv  by  Shah 
Tamasp  to  defend  this  outlying  province,  as  they  were  renowned  for  their  courage. 
During  the  troubles  that  followed  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah,  Merv  was  attacked  and 
captured  from  the  Persians  by  Begge  Jan,  called  also  Amir  M&sum,  the  Amir  of 
Bokhara,  in  1784.  Bairam  Ali  Khan  was  slain  outside  the  town,  and  his  son, 
Mahomed  Hussein  Khan,  who  made  a  glorious  defence — even  the  women  joining 
in  it — was  carried  captive,  with  the  popidation  that  were  spared,  to  Bokhara.  Since 
that  date  there  has  properly  been  no  such  town  as  Merv.  The  Merv  country  still 
exists,  but  there  is  nothing  worthy  the  name  of  town  there.  The  Amir  of  Bokhara 
broke  down  the  great  dam  on  the  Murghab,  which  filled  the  mmierous  canals  and 
fertilised  the  whole  country,  in  the  hope  of  rendering  it  a  desert  inaccessible  to 
Persia. 


MEBV. 


479 


[iirkcstan  are 

country  on 

Jfl  has  beea 


loner  in  this 
fso  collected 

lb,  is  men- 
•cistan  wore 
le  Murghab 
visited  by 
Merv  was 
to  reigns  of 
Toos,  near 

city.  JJntU. 
onquest  the 
sutenants  of 

anny  under 
ition  put  to 
0,000  dead 
low  large  a 
IS  were  put 
ibering  the 
4y  with  its 
might  bo 

^ajar.     A 
y  by  Shah 
r  courage, 
acked  and 
» Amir  of 
his  son, 
a  joining 
ra.  Since 
ntry  still 
Bokhara 
tnals  and 
issible  to 


"After  1784  it  belonged  to  Bokhara  for  some  years,  and  the  Salor  and  Suruk 
Turkomans  encampcfl  on  it.  It  was  subsequently  taken  from  the  Amir  of  Bokhara 
by  the  Khan  of  Khiva,  whoso  ofKcials  were  found  hero  living  in  a  poor  villugo 
called  Merv  when  the  place  was  visited  by  Abbott  early  in  1840.  Tliis  place, 
which  was  a  possession  of  the  Saruk  tribe,  and  which  is  described  by  Al)l)ott  as 
consisting  of  about  one  hundred  mud  huts,  has  been  destroyed  by  the  Tckko  Turko- 
mans, who  began  to  settle  in  this  country  about  1830,  and  finally  drove  the  Saruks 
further  up  the  Murghab  to  Yulutan  and  Panj  Deh.  I  have  not  been  able  to  dis- 
cover the  date  of  the  destruction  of  this  last  and  most  wretched  of  places  which 
have  borno  the  name  of  Merv,  but  it  was  probably  about  1856. 

"  This  deserted  place  was  occupied  by  Persian  armies  in  1857,  under  Sultan 
Murad  Mirza  Hissam-i-Sultunut,  and  again  in  1860  by  Ilamza  Mirssa  Ilashmat- 
ud-Dowlah,  whose  army  was  disastrously  defeated  in  an  attack  on  Kala  Kaushid 
Khan,  then  only  just  commenced  and  in  a  very  rudimentary  state. 

"  The  Tekke  Turkomans  have  possessed  themselves  of  the  best  part  of  the  country. 
They  have  built  a  large  fort  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  most  westerly  branch  of  the 
Murghab.  It  is  situated  25  miles  below  tho  great  band,  or  dam,  which  divides  the 
Murghab  into  many  canals  or  branches.  The  place  where  the  great  band  is  situated 
is  called  Allahsha,  where  there  is  a  ferry  over  the  Murghab,  which  is  used  for  a  few 
weeks  in  tho  spring  when  the  river  is  in  high  flood.  At  other  times  there  are 
wooden  bridges. 

"  The  fort  of  Kaushid  Khan,  which  is  very  strong  indeed,  is  protected  by  the 
Murghab  River  on  two  sides,  being  built  in  the  loop  of  the  river.  It  is  about 
2^  miles  long  and  I-J-  wide.  The  Tekkc  have  most  wonderful  confidence  in  the 
strength  of  the  place,  which  will  contain,  they  say,  50,000  alajaks,  or  Turkoman 
tents.  It  is  called  Kala  Kaushid  Khan  from  tho  name  of  its  founder,  Kaushid 
Khan,  the  chief  of  the  Beg  clan  of  the  Tekke  tribe.  It  was  commenced  in  1860, 
and  the  Tekke  have  worked  at  it  by  fits  and  starts  ever  since. 

"  When  the  Persians  now  speak  of  Maur,  or  Merv,  they  mean  Kala  Kaushid  Khan. 
Turkomans  themselves  never  speak  of  Maur  as  a  town  ;  when  they  use  the  term  at 
all  they  mean  the  district  where  Merv  was  formerly  situated.  The  fact  of  the 
Persians  speaking  of  Merv  as  a  town,  and  as  a  place  captured  by  their  armies,  has 
led  to  endless  confusion.  There  are  no  signs  of  a  town  about  Kala  Kaushid  Khan. 
There  aro  about  6,000  tents  of  the  Beg  tribe  generally  pitched  near  it,  and  each 
chief  man  has  a  guest-house  of  mud  or  simburnt  brick,  but  they  themselves  live 
either  in  felt  tents,  or  in  places  wh6re  reeds  are  plentiful,  in  reed  or  mat-huts,  which 
can  be  carried  away  on  oiimels. 

"  Near  Kala  Kaushid  Khan  there  is  a  hoys*  school,  with  five  or  six  houses  for  the 
moUahs,  or  priests,  who  teach  in  it,  belonging  to  MoUah  Turah,  the  chief  mollah  of 
the  Beg  tribe.  A  market  is  held  on  the  river  bank  near  the  fort,  and  here  the  Jew 
traders  who  frequent  the  place,  each  trader  being  under  the  protection  of  some 
powerful  Turkoman,  have  built  small  open  enclosures,  without  any  roofs,  where 
they  expose  their  goods  for  sale  on  the  two  days  in  a  week  when  a  market  is  held. 
"  When  Persians  speak  of  the  bazaar  of  Merv  they  mean  this  open  mai*ket-place. 


HMMtdiHMSI 


^"rs^^firEraar-^"*?:  '.•  ^ 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


f- 


InHido  tho  fort  somo  alajahs  aro  pitched,  and  tho  family  of  KuuHhid  Kljan  havo  a 
guest-house  there.  Tho  fort,  however,  is  kept  more  as  a  phi('(>  of  refuge  than  as  an 
ordinary  habitation.  From  what  I  could  gather  the  portion  of  tho  country  lit  for 
cultivation  is  about  90  miles  long,  and  extends  to  about  1 1  miles  on  each  side  of 
the  river.  Tho  ground  is  very  fertile,  ond  produces  melons  and  water-melons  in 
plenty  and  of  great  excellence.  Melons  constitute  one  of  tho  exports  to  Dera-gtiz, 
both  fresh  and  dried.  Even  at  Meshed  the  melons  of  Merv  arc  much  liked,  and 
are  sent  by  ritih  people  as  presents  to  one  another. 

"  General  Abbott,  who  visited  this  country  in  1840,  says,  '  Tho  profusion  of 
water  renders  tho  soil  productive,  but  it  has  not  strength  to  bear  any  but  the 
poorer  sorts  of  grain.'  In  a  previous  paragraph  he  says,  '  During  tho  misrule 
and  anarchy  of  the  past  sixty  years  the  ancient  dam  of  the  Murghab  was  neglected 
and  carried  away.  The  dam  ia  again  set  up,  and  the  lands  aro  brought  under  culture.' 
I  gather  from  this  that  tho  dam  had  not  long  been  repaired  when  Abbott  saw  it. 

"  From  the  Tejend  River,  to  whore  the  first  canal  from  the  Murghab  is  reached, 
a  space  of  some  85  miles  has  to  be  passed  over  either  without  water  at  all,  or  on 
some  of  the  roads  there  are  wells  of  brackish  water  at  about  66  miles  after  passing 
the  Tojend.  The  only  easy  road  to  the  Merv  country  without  constructing  a 
canal  is  from  Herat  and  up  the  Kushk  stream  to  its  junction  with  the  Murghab. 
In  former  days  Herat  as  well  as  Merv  belonged  to  Persia,  and  this  road  was  much 
used.  Also  in  former  days  canals  from  the  Tejend  near  Sarakhs  ran  out  a  long 
way  into  the  desert,  and  made  the  journey  by  Sarakhs  a  comparatively  easy  one, 
which  it  certainly  is  not  now.  There  are  still  water  reservoirs  and  caravanserais 
in  ruins  on  the  road,  showing  where  the  old  road  to  Merv  ran. 

"  A  canal  which  formerly  existed,  and  which  led  from  the  Tejend  River  near 
Sarakhs  to  Eacha  Eum  (within  20  miles  of  the  Merv  oasis),  could  bo  easily 
reconstructed.  Kacha  can  be  still  traced  from  the  Tejend  to  this  place,  and  in  1860 
Hamza  Mirza  Ilashmat-ud-Dowlat,  the  Persian  general,  employed  his  army  for  a 
few  days  in  damming  up  the  Tejend  and  turning  it  into  the  bed  of  the  old  canal. 
His  e£forts  were  successful,  and  the  water  ran  for  many  miles  in  the  bed  of  the  old 
canal  and  supplied  his  army  for  several  days.  The  water  did  not  reach  so  far  as 
it  formerly  did,  but  only  to  a  place  called  Kurk  Tepe,  or  the  Wolf's  Mound.  StiU 
this  was  an  immense  assistance.  A  little  more  time  and  a  little  more  engineering 
skill  would  no  doubt  have  sent  the  water  as  far  as  it  formerly  went,  to  Eacha  Eum, 
from  whence  it  is  only  about  20  miles  across  the  desert  to  the  first  canal  from  the 
Murghab."  * 

It  thus  appears  that  Merv  has  been  living  on  its  reputation  since  the  year  1784, 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Amir  of  Bokhara.  Since  then  it  has  absolutely 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  centre  of  population,  ^nd  although  it  has  been  succeeded  by  a 
strong  fort,  both  the  fort  and  the  oasis  have  lost  all  strategic  importance  since  tho 
advance  of  the  Russians  in  the  spring  of  1881  along  the  Daman-i-koh  frontier  of 
Ehorasan.  The  railway  in  their  newly  organized  Trans-Caspian  territory  was 
completed  in  September  of  the  same  year  as  far  as  Eizil-Arvat,  and  the  -vi^hole 

*  H-oceeditiffs  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  September,  1881. 


THE  DEBA-OOZ. 


481 


llian  havo  a 

thuii  as  un 

|ntry  fit  for 

ttch  HJdo  of 

|-niclonH  in 

Ihra-giiz, 

liked,  und 

'ofusion  of 
ny  but  the 
0  misrule 
neglected 
or  culture.' 
t  saw  it. 
is  reached, 
all,  or  on 
er  passing 
tructing  a 
Murghab. 
was  much 
»ut  a  long 
'  easy  one, 
avanserois 

liver  near 
bo   easily 
d  in  1860 
nny  for  a 
old  canal. 
>f  the  old 
so  far  as 
id.    StiU 
fineering 
iha  £um> 
Prom  the 

sar  1784, 
)solutely 
led  by  a 
ince  the 
»ntier  of 
)ry  was 
i  whole 


country  as  far  as  Sarnkhs,  on  the  Perso-Af ghan  frontier,  isliicing  rapidly  reduord  to 
order.  From  this  extreme  point  the  natural  route  to  the  interior  of  AfgliiiniNtan 
lies  through  the  Tejend  and  lluri-rud  River  valley  as  far  an  Herat,  and  thence  in  u 
direct  line  across  the  Ilelmand  to  Kandahar,  and  ho  on  over  the  Khojnk  and  (iwaja 
Passes  of  the  Khoja  Amran  range  to  the  Pishin  valley,  whi(rh  is  now  HritiNh 
territory.  There  is  another,  though  far  more  difficult,  route  from  the  Oxus  through 
Balkh  and  over  the  Damiun  Pass  of  the  Ilindu-Kush  down  to  the  Kubul  Uiver 
volley.  IJut  the  Tejend  is  a  long  way  west,  the  liamian  a  long  way  enHt  of  JMerv, 
so  that  Merv  lies,  not  on  the  mute,  but  between  the  routes  leading  from  lluNsiun 
Turkestan  to  Afghanistan  and  India. 

In  any  case,  Merv,  or  rather  the  fort  of  Eala  Kaushid  Khan,  could  easily  bo 
either  masked  or  occupied  whenever  that  step  may  seem  expedient  to  the  rulers  of 
the  Arulo-Cospian  basin.  What  the  Persians  did  twice  in  this  century  the 
Russians  will  not  fail  to  do  when  it  Buits  their  convenience.  By  nearly  flooding  the 
old  canal  from  the  Tejend  they  can  arrive  within  20  miles,  or  a  day's  march,  of  the 
oasis.  Hence  nothing  now  remains  of  any  moment  between  the  two  great  Asiatic 
powers,  whoso  frontiers  are  practically  conterminous  all  along  the  line  from  Herat 
to  the  Hindu-Kush. 

The  consequences  of  these  altered  conditions  are  thoroughly  understood  and 
already  openly  discussed  in  Russia.  A  writer  in  the  Novoye  Vremya  recently 
observed  significantly  that  "  the  annexation  of  the  Turkoman  country  occurs 
opportunely  with  the  cession  of  Kulja  to  China.  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
our  new  acquisition  are  principally  strategical.  The  importance  which  the  new 
territory  possesses  is  threefold,  as  affecting  the  routes  leading  into  Central  Asia, 
the  pacification  of  the  Trans-Caspian  region,  and,  lastly,  our  new  relations  to  the 
neighbouring  Asiatic  States  on  our  extended  southern  frontier.  It  is  well  ascertained 
that  the  route  along  the  river  Atrek,  and  up  the  Tejend  valley  to  Herat  and 
Kandahar,  is  by  far  the  best,  if  not  the  only  one,  in  the  event  of  a  Russian  expedi- 
tion against  British  India.  The  occupation  of  a  strong  base  on  this  route  is  of 
vast  importance  in  a  military  sense,  and  must  naturally  influence  the  friendly  dis- 
position of  England  towards  Bussia.  The  mOre  resolutely  M'e  take  up  an  advanced 
position  on  the  road  to  India,  the  more  yielding  becomes  England's  policy  in  the 
Eastern  Question.  Hence  the  occupation  of  the  Daman- i-Eoh  by  the  Russians  has 
been  followed  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  British  from  Kandahar." 

The  Dera-goz. 

In  view  of  its  probable  peaceful  acquisition  by  Russia,  the  reader  may  bo  glad 
to  have  the  subjoined  brief  account  of  this  little-known  tract  by  Colonel  V. 
Baker,  one  of  the  few  Europeans  who  have  visited  it  in  recent  times : — 

"  The  Dera-goz  instead  of  being  a  town,  as  marked  on  all  old  maps,  is  a  province 
containing  more  than  a  hundred  villages,  the  chief  town  being  Mohamedabad, 
nine  miles'  distance  from  Chepishli ;  this  town,  together  with  Nowhandan  and 
many  villages,  lies  on  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  ihe  main  range,  surrounded  by  small 


482 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


mnuntainH  which  Ropnmto  it  from  the  dosort ;  aiul  l)oyond  thotto  mniintuinn,  ond  on 
th(>  vor^o  of  tho  (l(<m<rt,  lio  iin])<)rtant  fortH,  Niich  un  Khtmrubad,  Nuniii,  iind  iiiuny 
othorH.  In  tho  iniddlo  of  tho  phiin  thcro  ia  u  Nprinfi;,  hut  tho  main  wutor  Hupply  in 
di'i'ivcHl  from  ii  rapid  rivor  wliicn  dcHconds  from  the  Kur(>n-I)aKh  ranf^o  noar 
Diirin^a,  and  then  waturn  Rovoral  villagon  and  alno  tho  townn  on  tho  plainn.  In 
tracing  PcrNian  rivers  on  the  map  thoHtudont  muMt  over  romomln'r  that,  through  tho 
water  heinj^  taken  for  irrigati(m,  they  unually  l)ecomo  loss  and  less  after  they  leave 
the  moiintiiins,  and  arc  eventually  so  exptMidwl. 

"Dora-goz  certainly  has  a  more  verdant  well-to-do  aspect  than  any  Persian 
province  that  I  have  seen  except  Ghilan  and  Mazandaran,  where  nature  has  done 
everything,  but  man  nothing.  Even  tho  face  of  tho  mountain  has  a  freshness  not 
seen  from  tho  southern  side.  The  people  are  Kurds,  they  havo  Iwen  ruled  by  tho 
samo  family  for  150  years,  and  there  is  a  manliness  about  them,  combined  with 
a  degree  of  order  and  cleanliness,  that  is  quite  unusual  in  Persia.  In  case  of 
emergency  Dcra-gdz  cim  turn  out  about  a  thousand  mounted  men,  and  about  three 
thousand  armed  infantry  mountaineers  could  bo  assembled  from  the  different  villages, 
liut  infantry  are  never  considered  in  these  countries,  whore  cavalry  only  are 
thought  of  any  importance."  * 

The  Dera-goz  was  again  visited  in  1881  by  Colonel  E.  C.Stewart,  who  travelled 
through  Persia,  disguised  as  an  Armenian  horse-dealer,  from  Calcutta.  He  reached 
it  from  the  Moshcd-Kucban  valley,  by  the  Maidan-Kuni  and  Allaho-Akhbar  Passes 
over  the  Ilazar-Masjid  Mountains,  which  here  culminate  in  a  peak  10,500  feet  high. 
Tho  Maidan-Kuni,  or  "  Bloody  Plateau,"  is  so  named  from  the  number  of  people 
who  perish  here  in  the  winter  when  trying  to  cross  over  during  tho  heavy 
snow.  .  "  This  is  the  easiest  road  into  the  district  of  Dera-goz,  but  for  weeks  in  the 
winter,  when  there  is  snow,  there  is  no  communication  between  Dera-goz  and  the 
rest  of  Khorasan.  As  soon  as  the  Maidan-Kuni  is  passed,  there  is  a  sharp  de.>"fir>f, 
and  then  there  are  three  small  villages  of  the  name  of  Derbendi,  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Dera-goz  district.  From  Derbendi  I  continued  to  Mahomcdabad, 
the  capital,  crossing  the  Allaho-Akhbar  Pass  en  route.  The  AUaho-Akbbar  is  lower 
than  the  Maidan-Kuni  Pass,  being  only  4,200  feet  high,  and  it  can  almost  always 
bo  crossed  without  difficulty,  even  in  winter.  Several  low  ranges  of  hills  cross  the 
Dera-goz  plain,  but  no  mountain  ranges,  while  beyond  the  Turkoman  plain  is  seen 
extending  away  to  the  blue  horizon.  In  every  direction  villoges  and  cultivation 
are  seen,  showing  it  to  be  a  fertile  land ;  ond  every  one  soys,  '  If  we  had  only 
peace  we  should  indeed  be  rich.'  But  in  every  direction  the  plain  is  dotted  with 
towers,  as  refuges  from  the  formerly  dreaded  Turkoman. 

"  After  descending  the  plain  the  flourishing  village  of  Chapashli  is  passed.  Cha- 
pashli  is  surrounded  by  vineyards,  which  are  famed  all  over  the  country.  Grapes 
are  so  plentiful  that  45  lbs.  of  the  finest  can  be  purchased  for  ninepence. 

"  Near  the  village  of  Hakwerdi,  a  little  further  on,  the  refuge  towers  are  very 
close  together,  every  square  of  150  yards  of  the  fields  having  one.  In  other  parts 
of  Khorasan  I  had  seen  a  few  of  these  towers,  but  here  the  whole  country  is  so 

*  "  Clouds  in  the  East,"  p.  220. 


mmm^ 


THE  AKHAL  TEKKR  COUNTRY. 


UuiiiH,  mifl  on 
[•".  iind  iiuuiy 

riui«'«(    iu.,,1.  _ . 
t^  pluinH.     In 

through  tho 
lor  thoy  loavo 

any  I»orHmn 
re  I1H8  done 
froshnoHs  not 
ruled  by  tho 
mbinod  with 
In  case  of 
i  about  throe 
•rent  villages, 
ry  only  are 

''ho  travollod 

He  reached 
khbar  Passes 
'00  feet  high. 
>er  of  people 

tho  heavy 
tveeks  in  the 
goz  and  the 
arp  de.>"iPTit^ 

comijience- 
homedubad, 
bar  is  lower 
nost  always 
Is  cross  the 
lain  is  seen 
cultivation 
J  had  only 
lotted  with 

sed,  Cha- 
•     Grapes 

I  are  very 
ther  parts 
itry  is  so 


thlikly  dottcfl  with  them  us  to  l(K)k  like  u  choHH-lKJard  covered  with  choMSinen, 
Tho  towers  aro  small  round  buildings,  built  of  unbakiMl  clay,  alN)ut  1'.^  f(*i>t  high  ; 
they  are  roofed  over,  and  have  no  o{)eniug  whatever  except  u  sniuU  round  liolo  at 
tho  bottom,  through  which  u  not  too  stout  person  niuy  wriggle  himm>lf  in  like  a 
snako.  If  surprised  by  Turkomans,  tho  cultivator  or  traveller  creeps  through  this 
hole,  and  closes  it  with  two  lorge  stones,  which  are  there  for  the  purpost;.  Even 
if  these  stones  aro  wanting,  tho  occupant  is  safe,  as  it  would  iiide<Hl  l»o  a  daring 
Turkoman  who  would  try  and  force  himself  througli  the  bole,  with  the  certainty  of 
having  his  brains  l)eaten  out  with  a  stono  while  struggling  to  get  through,  even 
supiMming  tho  person  inside  had  no  better  weapon ;  but  almost  every  one  here  goes 
armed. 

"  The  defence  towers  aro  higher  and  larger,  and  have  a  parapet  at  the  top,  with 
loopholes  to  firo  through,  an4  a  ladder  for  ascending  to  the  top.  Each  viiu^yurd  or 
orchanl  bus  its  one  or  more  towers. 

"  Tho  ])era-g()2!  district  has  a  length  of  some  65  miles  and  a  breadth  of  about  40. 
There  is  a  governor  appointed  by  the  8hah,  though  the  ajipointment  is  hereditary 
in  ono  family.  He  bears  tho  title  of  Begler  Begi,  and  the  ])Coplo  H})eak  of  him 
familiarly  as  tho  Khan.  His  name  is  Muhomed  Ali  Khau.  He  is  of  Turk  origin, 
as  arc  a  largo  portion  of  his  subjects."  * 

It  may  bo  added  that  the  Trans-Caspion  railwoy  running  from  tho  south-east 
sido  of  the  Caspian  along  tho  northern  foot  of  tho  Kuren-dagh  in  the  direction  of 
tho  Tojend  River  and  Herat  was  completed  us  far  as  Kizil-Arvut  in  September,  1881. 
Kizil-Arvat  lies  about  180  miles  from  Mikhailovsk,  the  terminus  on  tho  Caspian, 
and  about  the  samo  distance  from  Mohamedabad,  in  the  heart  of  tho  Dera-goz, 
which  will  probably  form  tho  next  stage  on  the  road  to  Herat. 

The  Akhal  Tekke  Country. 

Beyond  Dera-goz  lies  the  Akhal  Tekke  country,  stretching  along  the  Daman-i- 
koh,  or  "  Skirts  of  the  Hills,"  incorporated  in  the  year  1881  in  the  new  Russian 
Trans-Caspian  province.  It  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  fertile  land  intervening 
between  the  Euren-dagh.  range  and  the  Turkestan  desert.  Although  not  very 
productive,  it  is  still  far  from  being  tho  arid  waste  that  it  has  been  described. 
From  the  northern  slopes  of  the  mountains  a  considerable  number  of  streams  flow 
down  to  the  plain,  where  they  are  all  absorbed  for  irrigation  purposes  before 
reaching  the  sands  of  the  desert.  The  productive  tract  extends  from  Kizil-Arvat 
to  Gawars,  and  the  Russian  railway,  as  already  stated,  is  now  completed  from  the 
Caspian  to  Kizil-Arvat. 

For  the  new  capital  of  the  Trans- Caspian  territory  the  Russians  have  chosen 
Bami,  in  the  Akhal  Tekke  country,  and  to  this  point  the  railway  is  to  be  continued 
at  once.  The  district  through  which  it  runs  is  rich  and  productive  enough  to 
support  a  population  estimated  at  25,000  tents,  or  125,000  souls,  besides  a  large 
number  of  horses  of  excellent  breed  and  numerous  flocks  of  sheep.     The  now 

*  Proetedingi  of  tkt  Royal  Gtogruphieal  Society,  September,  1881. 


t  ini'ii]MMiiii<»'>'.»iu  iim  ii  I)  in-iii>ir<M> 


*»W3WfaP,»llU.  Jl  •m«^.«!ur ; 


AM 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


province  hn*  iilw)  nnotlicr  mmrco  of  wculth  in  tho  fiMhoriod  of  Hturg<»on  nnd  other 
Huh  on  tho  CuNpiun  c<mMt,  which  uro  very  pnxlucti  und  yield  (•onMi(h<i-uhlu 
(|iiautitieN  uf  niviiir.  Itut  ii  Ntill  uioru  vuluuhh)  coniniod'  '«  |H>trol(>uni,  of  whi(;h 
viiMt  HtorcH  iiro  known  to  cxiMt  in  this  region,  which  lM>lon^H  m'oloj^iciilly  to  tho 
Hunw  forniutioM  hh  tho  Haku  diNtrict,  on  tho  opponito  Hide  of  tho  f'uNpiun.  In  tho 
inhind  <if  Chclckcn,  nour  MikhaihiVHk,  uro  found,  k'NidcH  petroleum,  largo  (piuntitien 
of  mineral  wax,  which  in  a  very  valuuhlo  HubHtanoo. 

To  these  roMoureeH  muNt  Iw  added  tho  induHtrien  of  tho  Turkoman  triln'H,  of 
which  C'olonel  Htewurt  Hpoakn  vory  highly.  "They  munufucturo  enrpetH  that 
cannot  bo  nurpasNiHl  or  e(pialled  in  I'erHia,  and  uro  Himilur  to  tho  ancient  I'oraiun 
curiM'tH,  wlii(!h  fetch  ho  largo  a  price,  ond  cannot  now  Im?  n>ade  in  PerHia.  Thoy 
have  |M)wder  millH  worked  by  water-power  which  turn  out  very  gootl  gimpowder, 
and  they  are  clever  in  manufacturing  false  Persian  money,  with  which  they  flcxxl 
the  Ixizaur  in  Mahomodabad.  Their  felts  and  tho  rough  cloths  thoy  manufacture 
from  shcop'a  wool  are  fur  superior  to  any  miulo  in  Persia ;  and  they  also  make 
a  stuff  that  looks  something  like  alpaca,  only  thicker,  which  fetches  a  high  price. 
Aniline  dyes,  which  arc  ruining  tho  Persian  carpets,  have  not  yet  reached  the 
Turkomans,  and  as  tho  materials  thoy  use  are  good,  tho  carpets  last  almost  for 
ever.     In  fact,  everything  tho  Turkomans  make,  except  their  money,  is  thoroughly 

gO(Ml." 

This  trovoller  estimates  tho  strength  of  the  Tekko  and  other  Turkomun  tribes  in 
this  district  and  the  still  independent  territory  of  Merv  as  under  : — 


**  Akhnl  Tokico,  in  Uamnn-i-kuh.  now  bolonffinK  to  Ru(«ia 
Morv  Tokko,  on  Murghab,  and  a  fow  on  Tcjcnd  Uivor  . 

Kalor,  in  Morv  Tokke  oasis 

Soruk,  at  Yulutan,  and  Punj-Dch  on  tho  Murghab  Rivoi- 

Toua     .     . 


TenU. 

2S,000 

4(>,000 
«,000 
0,000 

76,000 


"  The  number  of  inhabitants  per  tent  may  be  taken  at  five.  This  will  give  for 
the  Daman-i-kuh  and  Morv  country  u  population  of  380,000,  and  I  do  not  think 
this  is  an  excessive  estimate." 

Of  these  the  Akhul  Tekkc  are  now  Russian  subjects,  and  the  others  are 
expected  soon  to  accept  the  Hussiau  proteotorate. 


iiijiwUllilil 


486 


and  nthnr 
|oiiMi(I(.iul)|i, 
I'l  <»f  wliich 
lally  to  tlio 
III.  In  tho 
p  <luuntitieH 

I  frilM'H,  of 
irpftH  thut 
»nt  Porsiun 
Mill.  Thoy 
<iifi  powder, 

mnufucture 
uIno  make 
high  price, 
cached  the 
ahnost  for 
thoroughly 

an  triboH  in 


Penta. 
d.OOO 
(>,000 
5,000 
B.OOO 
li.OOO 

ill  give  for 
not  think 

others  are 


1 


THE  RACES  OF  ASTATIC  lUTSSTA  OROrPKD  ACrORDINO  TO  THEIR 

AFFINITIES  AND  RELKIIONS.* 

Am,  llie  |M>(ipUiit  of  Asiatic  RuMNiii  Ix'jong  othnitMlIy  to  thrco  diHtinct  ly|M>H — the 
CaucaHic,  Mofi^ol.  and  Sob-  Vntic.  The  ('aucaMic,  or  Fair  <yiM>,  in  n>preM(>nted  chifHy 
hythc  Uii^^iaii  Slavs,  by  the  Ariu^^nian,  KurdiMh.and  iVr^ian  IranianN;  i)y  tbe<lt>wiN)i 
and  Arab  iSiiii  u^h;  and  by  ^bo  numemuH  tribcHof  tboCaitcaHUH,  wboare  taken  an  tli(> 
ty])ical  inend)erM  of  the  family.  Tbc  Mongcd,  or  YeUow  tyiM*,  itt  repremMited  mainly 
by  the  Turkoman,  UMlf4'}{.  Kara-Kalpak,  Noffai,  Yakut,  and  Kirghiz  Tatarn;  by  tbu 
Kalmuk  and  Huriat  MongoliauH  ;  by  the  Soyot,  ONtiak,  and  Samoyi>de  FinuN;  by 
the  TungUMCH,  I^amutH,  Golds,  and  otherH .  if  Manchu  stock  ;  and  by  the  Chinem^  and 
CoreauH  of  the  Amur  baNin.  The  8ub-Arcti<!  tyjH\  whoH  i  ixiHition  and  I'ftiniticM 
proHent  many  ditKcult  probloms,  comprises  provisionally  the  Oiliaks,  Koriaks, 
and  a  few  other  nomad  tribes  in  the  extreme  north-east  of  the  continent. 

The  prevailing  religions  are  the  Buddhist,  diversely  nuxlified,  professeil  chiefly 
by  the  Kalmuks,  Buriats,  Chinese,  and  Corcans ;  the  MohumnuMlan,  adopted  by 
nearly  all  the  Tatar  peoples,  as  well  as  by  the  Kurdish  and  Persian  Iranians ;  Chris- 
tianity, restricted  mainly  to  the  Slavs,  Armenians,  and  Georgians  of  the  Caucasus  ; 
Paganism  and  Shamanism,  still  practised  by  some  Caucasian  tribes,  by  the  Samoy- 
edcs,  Ostiaks,  and  other  nomads  of  Siberia,  and  by  nearly  all  the  Sub-Arctic  peopl(<s. 

Far  more  numerous  are  the  languages,  of  which  there  are  probably  not  less 
than  a  dozen  fundamentally  distinct  stocks.  But  most  of  these  are  concentrated 
in  the  Caucasus  and  the  extreme  north-east.  The  dialects  elsewhere  current  are 
all  reducible  to  two  great  families — the  Aryon  and  the  Ural-Altaic  or  Finno- 
Tatoric.  Of  the  Aryan  four  branches  are  represented  in  Asiatic  Russia — the 
Slavonic,  Iranic,  Golcha,t  and  Teutonic.  Of  the  Urol-Altaic  all  the  four  main 
divisions  are  represented,  as  shown  in  the  subjoined  scheme.  Of  the  other  distinct 
stock  languages  the  principal  are  the  Georgian,  Cherkcss,  and  Chcchonz  of  the 
Caucasus ;  the  Yukaghir,  Koriak,  and  Aino  of  the  north-eastern  logions,  besides 
the  Semitic  and  Chinese. 

I.— CAUCA8I0  EACES. 
CAUCASIANS. 


Karttbu 
Family 


Wmt 

Cavcasvi 


Georp^Iana  . 
Imentiaiu  . 
Minp^relians 
Qarians .  . 
Lases  .  , 
Svana  .  . 
Rachiana 
Khevsura    . 

kPahiiva  .     . 

<  Chcrkeaaea  . 

I  Abkhaaiana 

(Kabarda 


Orthodox  and  Latin  Chriatiana 


Sunnitea 


:( 


,  Nominal  Christiana 


860,000 


Sunnitea 

Sunnitoa }     138,000 

Orthodox  Chriatiana 


*  It  ia  right  to  atate  that  the  Editoi  alone  ia  reHponaible  for  the  aubjoined  cluaaiflcationa,  which  dopart 
in  aome  reapecta  from  thoae  generally  adopted  by  the  Author. 

t  The  Oalchaa,  whom  M.  Ch.  da  Ujfalvy  calla  "  Highland  Tajika,"  are  commonly  claaaed  with  the 
Iraniana.  But  they  aeem  rather  to  hold  an  intermediate  poaition  between  the  Iranio  and  Indio  branchea 
of  the  Aryan  family. 


■««ilf 


48G 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


East 

Caucasus 

(Daghcstan) 


Ibanuns 


Slavs 


Galchas 


Teutons 


r Avars;  Kurini    •     .■,  ^ 

T-fiSffhinna  J  Kazi-Knmyksh  .     .  I  AllSunnites  except  the  Dido,  said  I     .,-„»« 

l^sghians  .     .     •    Andi;  Udo;  Dido  .)     to  be  "  Devil- worshippers "    .    .)    ^'^-"''^ 


Chechonzes 


Ohscs  (Iron) 
A  rmoniuns . 
Kurds  .  . 
Tnlyshcs  . 
'I'ats  .  .  . 
'I'ajiks  .  . 
Sartcs    .     . 

!  Groat  Russians 
Little  liussians 
,  Poles  .  . 
IMaghians  . 
Kshtuts 
Fiilffliars  . 
Mnchas  .  . 
Fans .  .  . 
Yn,!?nol)s  . 
Kamtt'chins 
Germans     . 


Arabs 
Jews. 


/     to  be  "  Devil-worshippers "    .    .  ( 

1 


(Avars ;  Kurini    . 
! 
Dnrgo ;  Duodez  , 
f  Infruish     .     .  i 

I  Kisr'      '     * /**"nnito8  mostly ^    166,000 

iTfish ;  .'  ,'J  J 

ARYANS.  -'.-_;.:..  :\:"'  ' '  I  U<:''::: 

Nominal  Christians 110,000 

Christians,  Gregorian  rite 722,000 

Sunuitos 16,000 

Shiahs |     i20,0im 

SunnitoB  mostly 2.000,000 


I  Orthodox  Church 

Orthodox  and  Reman  Catholic 


) 


9,000,000 


Sminites,  Pagans,  and  Fire-worshippers \    250,000 


Lutherans 


SEMITES. 


Sunuitos . 
Judaism  . 


60,000 

? 
30,000 


Mixed 
Tataks 


II.— MONGOLIC  EACES. 
TURKI  OR  TATAR  FAMILY. 


XTZBEGB 


Kumuks  ' . 

Nogais  .  . 

Telents  .  . 

Ilashkirs  . 


/  Kara-Nogai 
I  Kalafls-Sabla 


Kalaus-Jembuluk 


JvumandcM  . 
Tatars  of  Siberia 
/ 

Chaudors    .     . 


/  Tangaur     .     . 

.  I  Karagai-Kipchak 

( Bursian .     .     . 


Turkomans   j  g^^^ 


Erssri 

Ali-EU 

Kara 

Salor 


Tekke    . 
Ooklan  . 

Yomud  . 

I  Kung^d 
Naiman  . 

'  Kiprhak 
Jalair  . 
Andijani 


("  Red  "  and  "  Black 
r  Abdal ;  Bozagi 
J  Igdyr;  Burunjuk 

■  \  Essenlu  ;  tShcikh 
I  Kara-Chaudor 


SunniteB 


60,000 
36,000 


Hunnites 


I 

) 

Christians     .     ,     , 
")  Mostly  Christians  , 


I    760, 


000 


'  Sunnites 


•  \      60,000 


}  1,000,000 


t  Yalavaj .  .  . 
,  '  Kuraman    .     . 

(Ana  Biilegi 

r  Khorasanli .     . 

j  Biraj ;  Hcrzegi 
■  j  Sokhti    .     .     . 

'  Alasha   .     .     . 

(Akhal ;  Otamish 
Merv;  Toktainish 
.  Chakir ;  licgdlli 
j  Kayi;  Karabalkan 
1  Kyryk;  Bajindir 
I  Gerkez ;  Y'andak 
I  Atabay ;  Yafer 
(  Sherei  Ju:^     . 
( Oguijali     .    . 


^Sunnites )3,000,000 


} 


i,9MK-i>im>t!»smmmsJiism-'!'!i0mtf.m!;-' 


uiit0miiMiiiii.itUM)iimim'!ML'  •  •■ 


MONGOLIC  RACES. 


m 


"•^l    617, 
1 


000 


166,000 


110,000 

722,000 

lO.OUU 

I     120,01(0 
2.000,000 


.1 


9,000,000 


.    250,000 


60,000 

P 
30,000 


60,000 
36,000 


I    760, 


000 


•  I      60,000 


)  1,000,000 


] 


3,000,000 


Kaba- 
Kaivaks 


Baymakle  .     . 

Khandelki  .     . 

Terstomgali    . 

Achamayli . 

Kaychih-Kitai     .  [^  Sunnites . 

Ingakli  .     .     . 

Kenetloz      .     . 

Tomboyun .     . 

Shakii    ■     •    • 

Ontonturuk     .     .- 

Great  Horde  (Ulu-  I 


KlROHIZ- 

Kasaks 


Tulatai  . 
Sargam  . 
Arfjhyiio 
Caiman  . 


300,000 


450,01)0 


rAt; 


Kaha- 

KlMOHIZ 

(Burutfl) 


Yuz) 

Middle         Hordo, 

(Urta-Yuz)  .    .  \  \^m}^^,\.  :. 
^  LUvak-Ghirei 

--     ,    I  Alimuly      . 
Little  Horde  )„^iu,y   .     . 

(Kachi-Yuz)     .  I  jetir-tlrug 
Inner  Horde   .    .    Bukeyevskaya 
rBogu;  Sultu 
Son  Bagish 
8arv  Bagish     - 
On  ("Right")  Sec-)  CVierik;  Jadigar 
tion    .     .    .    .isayak:  Tungatar 
1  Baasmz  . 
1  Monandyr 
lAdygina 
f  Kokcba  . 
Sol  ("Left")  Sec- jSoru, 
tion 


Nominal  Sunnites,  with  Shaman   and  J  1,100,000 
Pagan  observances 


\  Sunnites  and  Shamans 


„  fKashcarians   . 

E.TURKKSTAN  j  rj^yruks  .      .      . 

AND  Fbk-     '  Kummas    .     . 

GHANA  1  AT AK8  L  Sarte-Kipchaks 

Yakuts   .     .    ■ 

Dolgans      •    • 


.  ^  MunduB . 
iKitai.    . 


SunnitcB  .     .     .    • 

Nominal  ChriBtians 
Shamans  .     .     .    • 


MONGOLIAN  FAMILY. 


Kalmuks 


(^Zungars 
Torguts . 

J  Khoshods 
Turbets  . 
Chorasses 
Teletzes. 


r  Kudara  . 

BuRiATS      j  Selengha 

(Eastbranih)  ]  Khonnsk 

L  Barguzin 

I  Tunka 


Buddhists  and  Shamanists 


BWBIATS 

(Westbranch) 


TOHOCBBS 


Samotidw 


Verkho-Lensk  . 

Olkhon  .    .    .  • 

Kuda;  Ida     .  . 

Balagansk  .    .  .. 

AlarSt    .    .    .  • 

Lamuts  .    .    .  • 

Orochos .     .     •  • 

Golds     .     .     .  • 

Chapoghirs      .  • 

Maiiegrs     .     •  • 

Mangnns    .     •  • 

Samag^rs    .     .  • 

Nuatkons    .     •  • 
Nigidals ;  Negda 
LTazi;  Olenes  . 

f  Chfldes  (extinct) 

Yuraks  .     .  • 

Tagurs  .     .  • 

Abators .     .  • 

I  Koibalg .     .  • 

j  Boyots    .     .  . 

Motors  .    .  . 

Karagnsses  . 

I  Kamasses  .  ■ 

iTagvis  .    .  . 


Shamans,  Buddhists,  and  ChristianB. 


MANCHU  FAMILY. 


.  Shamans  and  Nominal  Christians 


FINNISH  FAMILY. 


Shamans  and  Nominal  Chrirtiaas 


1 1,000, 

1 


,000 
200,000 


I 


400,000 


.     .  )    100,000 


200,000 
1,000 


20,000 


I    260,000 


>      80,000 


20,000 


'-'' pmmmmm 


wEsibwB.  :*Mm»0tHKItl» 


488 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA. 


Mixed 

FlSNO- 

Tataus 

UoniAN 
Finns 


Darkhuts 
Soyons  . 
Assan     , 

I  Arinzi    . 

l  Kottish  . 

(  Ostiakfl  . 

I  Vogulg  . 


■  I  Buddhists "i      15^, 

.  I  Shumans .     .     "     ;'  1 

.)  -    .    .    .j 

.     Shamans 25  OOO 

.    Nominal  Christians •    •    •         „-,'-. 


000 

6,000 

15,000 
20,0U0 


K0KIAK8 


Of  doubtfcl 
Affinities 


III.— SUB-ARCTIC  EACE8. 
UNCLASSIFIED. 


Sundries 


{Koriaks  proper  . 
Chiikchis  .  .  . 
.  Chuvantzcs      .     . 

Yukaghirs  .  .  . 
I  Kamchadalos  .  . 
I  Onkilon.orAnkah 
~;  Giliaks  .  .  .  . 
I  Ainos     .     .     .     . 

Chuklukmut 
I      Eskimos  .     . 

Chinese  .     .     . 

Coreans .     .     . 

Manchurians  . 

Japanese     .     . 

Europeans .     . 

Hindus  .     .     . 

Gipsies  .     .     . 


Shamans 

Pagans  and  Nominal  Christians 

I  Shamans 

Nominal  Christians         ,     .     . 

Pagans    

Pagans    

Pagans 


I  Pagans 

1 


Buddhists 


Christians 

lirahmans  and  Sunnitos 
Pagans   


6.000 

12,0U0 

Extinct 

1,600 

3,000 

6,000 
2,600 

600 

10,000 
7,000 

400 


mm 


15,000 

6,000 

25,000 
20,0U0 


6.000 

12,000 

Extinct 

1,600 

3,000 

6,000 
2,500 

600 

10,000 
7,000 

400 


APPENDIX. 


STATISTICAL    TABLES. 


Provinces. 


I. — OOVEUNMENT  OF  StAVBOPOL  . 


II._Pkovimcb  or  the  Tbbbk 


III.— Pbovinci  ok  Kvbah  . 


IV.— CiBCLi!  OP  THS  Black  Sea 

v.— D.VI810N   OF   SUKUNI     .      .      . 

88 


CAUCASIA. 


Dtstrictv,  ClrcleB.  and  Capttlncleg, 


Iforth,  or  dteawatia, 


,  District  of  Sta^Topol 

I  „  Alexandrovskaya     .     . 

I  „  Novo-Origoryevskiy     . 

J  „  Medviejlnskiy     .     .     . 

Detached  town  of  8viatoi-KreBt     . 

Territory  of  the  Nomad  Kalmuks . 

Territory  of  the  Turkomans  and 

others 

Total 


( Circle  of  Vladikavkaz 
„       Argun 
„       Vedeno 
„        Khnsav-Yurt 
„       Kizlar 
„        Grozniy 
„        PatiKorsk 
Town  of  Mozdok 
„       Georgyevsk 

Total      .    .     . 


District  of  Yekaterinodar 
„         Yeisk 
TemrAk 
Zakubanskiy 
Maikop .     ■ 
Hatalpashinsk 

^        „       •  Kavkazskaya 

Total      .... 


!■:: 


OlBCAUCASIA 

South,  or  Tranreaueasia 


ropulation. 


92,619 

83,333 

99,301 

106,433 

3,786 

88,606 
473,976 

137,027 
22,620 
22,002 
65,700 
24,972 

120,596 

136,280 
8,iJ7» 

3,346 

630,980 

171,731 
121,064 
100,034 
38,-^93 
147,408 
127,462 
137.316 

643,807 
1,848,263 

16,736 
74,442 


mm 


4.90 


APPENDIX. 


Caucakia—  cntitinued. 


Frovinoes. 


Diatriota,  Cirolea,  and  Cuptuiuoioi. 


VI. — GoVEIlNMEXT    OK    Kl'TAIS  — 

(Iiiicriii,  Miiifrrt'liii,  Svania, 
liiicha,  IitThgiiin,  (Juriit, 
iSuumrzakuu) 


District  of  Kutai'g 

„         O/.urL'cti 

„  Shiiropan 

„  Itacha 

,,  Zii!>:(li(li     and     Hudont- 

knl.h 

„  S(>naki 

„          Lcchgum  aud  Svania    . 
k  Town  of  Poti 

Total 

District  of  Tiflis 

Signakh 


VII.— GoVEIINMENT  or  TiFMS — 

( Karthalia,  Kakhutia,  Oiisetia, 
Sukhet,  Moskhia)     .     .     . 


\ 


VIII.— CiucLB  OP  Zakataua 


IX.— GoVEKNMENT  OF  EuiTAN  . 


X.— GOVBHNMENT  OF  TbLIZAVBTPOL 


XT.— GOVEMNMENT  OF  BaKU- 

(Shirvan,  &c.}   .    . 


XII.— Daouestah 


XIII.— Pkovincb  of  BatOm. 
XIV Province  of  Eabs  . 


Tolav 
Tionoti  .  . 
Oori .  .  . 
Diishot  .  . 
Akhaltzik  . 
Akhulkalaki 


Total 


^  District  of  Erivan 

„  Nakhichevan  .  .  . 
„  Alexandrapol  .  .  . 
„  Novo-Bayazid  .  . 
„  (■^chmiadziii     .     ,     . 

„  Surmuliu    .     .     .     . 

„  hharruro-Daralagoz 

Detached  town  of  Urdubtit  .     . 


Total 


!•  District  of  YelizHvetpol 
.,         Ntikha  .     . 


Areshki 
Shu-'ha  . 
Jevanshir 
Jobrai'l  . 
Zangeziir 
Kazakh . 


Total 

District  of  Baku  .... 
„  Shemakha  .  .  . 
„  Kuba  .  .  .  . 
„  Lenkoran  .  .  . 
„  Jevat  and  Salyan 
„  Giik-thai     .     .     . 


^Islands 

Total 

Transcaucasia  (without  Kara  and 
Btttttm) 

Town  and  Captaincy  of  Derbend  . 
Circle  of  Temir-Khan-Shura     .     . 

„       Gunib 

„       Kazi-Kumukh  .... 

„       Andi 

„        Avnria 

District  of  KaliHgo-Tabasaran  .     . 

»         Dargo 

„         Kurinskiy 

„  Saniur 

Town  and  I'ort  of  Petrovsk  .     .     . 

Total 

I  District  of  Bat&m  .... 
I  „  Artvia  .... 
I  „  Ajara  .... 
I  „  Childir  .... 
)  „         Kars 


Aroi  in 
Squtire  MUea, 


Total  of  Caucasia  . 


2,023 
1,317 
1,830 
3,170 

1,768 
1,008 
1,387 


12,493 

6,538 
3,730 
1,468 
2,922 
3,91)8 
2,360 
1,614 
1.681 


Fopulation. 


141033 
64,191 

109.086 
60,641 

89,296 

86.7(J9 

35,160 

3,1 1 26 

670,601 


24,281 

2,388 

1,870 
2,668 
2,300 
3,694 
2,200 
2,160 
1,800 


16,691 

5,731 
2,242 
1,927 
3,036 
2,666 
1,876 
4,636 
4,160 


221,042 
81,328 
62,412 
32,404 

124,829 
57,558 
43,377 
49,909_ 

662,869 

68,839 

95,163 
6n,776 
109,690 
76,061 
84,303 
69,2;i0 
62,066 
3,525 


26,176 

2,362 
4,670 
4,302 
3,230 
6,717 
2,106 
24 


23,410 

110,613 

166 
3,658 
2,224 
1,242 
2,086 

912 
1,764 

9S8 
1,920 
2,200 


d48,'.^93 

98,687 
94,336 
38,776 
105,466 
49,(;06 
41,329 
88,b>fi 
77.601 


593,784 

60,164 
09,986 
148,268 
97,244 
73,691 
61,050 


17,148 


16,964 


176,953 


639,383 

307,342 

16,562 
68,110 
47,916 
36,056 
41,168 
3K,!)10 
42.7ti8 
05,450 
60.482 
59,819 
„  3,883^ 
481,414 


184,300 


6,826,606 


'.riTaintiTinn':'»i"i  ii.nwiin^Bgs^wi«i^)imm»iimipa»> 


APPENDIX. 


491 


80,206 

8(i,7(J9 

3o,lG0 

»,ii26 


fi7U,691 

221,042 
81,328 
62,412 
32,404 

124,829 
57,oi8 
43,377 
49,909_ 

662,859 

68,839 

95,163 
6n,776 
109,690 
76,(i6l 
84,303 
69,2;iO 
62,965 
3,;)2o 


648,'^93 

98,687 
9^,336 
38,776 
106,466 
49,(;05 
41,329 
88,b>fi 
77.6C1 


593,784 

69,164 
99,086 
148,268 
07,244 
73,691 
61,060 


639,383 

307,342 

16,552 
68,110 
47,916 
36,056 
41,168 
38,!)  10 
42.7ti8 
66,460 
60.482 
69,819 
„  3,883^ 
481,414 


184,300 


5,826,506 


mmmm 


Towns  in  the 


Cavcasia— <»w<»»««rf. 
KuRA  Basin  and  Eastbun  Thans.aucasia  with  over  6.000  Inhahitants  in  1874. 


Ardutian 


Tiflis      . 
Akhaltzik 
8i)<nakh 
Teluv     . 
Gori 


Baku 


lUteiil  Coiiqueitt. 
Goirnimeiit  of  Tiflit. 


Government  of  Baku, 


I  Salyani  . 
5^000   I  Mushtugi 


104,750 

13,260 

9,250 

7,026 

6,000 

Tali       . 
14,676  I  Belokani 


Oovemment  of  YMzavetpol. 

Shusha 

Nukha 

Yolizavetpol 


Circle  of  Zakatali. 


9,050 
6,075 


24,650 
20,900 
18,600 


5,950 
6,560 


Towns  of  tmb  Kcma  and  Terek  Basins  with  over  5,000  Inhabitants. 

Government  of  Stavroppl. 


Patifforsk  (1875) 
Praskoveya 
Aloxandrovskaya 
BlaKodanio'io  .  • 
Otkaznoio 


13,650 
8,000 
7,400 
6,050 


Territory  of  the  Terek. 

Vladikavkaz  (1876) 
KLzl«r(1876) 
Grozniy  . 


Mozdok 
6,160  1  Urus-Martan 
Ak-sai     . 


20,000 
9,176 
8,450 
8,380 
6,900 
6,000 


Towns  and  VitLAOES  op 


Eastern  Caucasia  with  over  4,000  Inhabitaotb  in  1876. 


Daghf»tan. 


Derbcnd 
.  Gubdon 


13,775 
6,500 


Tarki 

Temir-Khan-Shura 

Government  of  Baku. 


Vr?.™ 6,650      Kuba 

^^i'',«h    •    :    :    :    .    .    moo  l  khz 


Kazaniah 


4,100 
6,100 

11,300 
4,800 


Towns  of  ths  Araxis  Basin  tvith  a  Pophlation  or  over  6,000  Inhabitants. 

TT                                                            .        10,000  i   Kiivan  and  suburbs       .        .        •        ■ 
^"1;«^nn 6,000  j    Nakhichevan         .         .        .         •         ■ 

I?-"'.   •;   ;   :   ;   :    SSS I  SSTuVr ^'   :    :   :    : 


Towns,  Stanitzas,  and  Villages  of  Western  Caucasia  with  over  6,000  Inhabitants  in 


Province  of  the  Kuban 


Yekaterinodar 

Ye'isk 

Maikop    . 

Temrvlk  . 

Novo-Petrovskaya  . 

Pashkovskaya 

Novo-Michn8tovskaya 

Staro-Alinskaya 

Ladovskaya     . 

Novo-Troitzkaya     . 

Petrovskaya    . 

Ivanovskaya    . 

Staro-Shcherbinovskaya 

Umanskaya     . 

Uspenskaya     . 

Temirgoyevskaya 

Ilyinskaya 

Batalpashinskaya 


32,600 
28,600 
22,56() 
11,160 
7,000 
6,600 
6,660 
6,250 
6.175 
6,160 
6,050 
6,950 
5,900 
6,H60 
5,600 
6,420 
6,400 
5,320 


Grigoropolisskaya 
Bekeshevskaya 


Anapa 


Cirek  of  the  Black  Sea, 


Government  of  Stavropol. 


Stavropol 
Belaglina 
Bezopazno'ie    . 
Kriisnapolana . 
Ladovskaya  Bnlka  . 
Novo-Dmitrevskoie 
Ponskoie 

Novo-Georgyevskoie 
Sredne-Yogorlikskoio 
Kugulta  . 

Peschanookopskoie  . 
Sandata  . 
Medvej'ie 


12,600 
6,900 
5,360 
3,600 


1874. 

6,300 
6,100 


5,200 


29,600 
11,220 
6,850 
6,600 
6,200 
6,800 
6,775 
5,000 
6,450 
5,400 
5,3ll0 
6,200 
6,150 


ft 


!}JjFlMI|lllllllli]    liHii»     - 


402 


APPENDIX. 


TURKESTAN. 


PaiiVINCEB  ANI>  DlsTHIOTB  OF  Rl'SSIAN  TURKKSTA.V,  INCLl'DINO  THF  TkAN«-Ca8PIAV  DisTUICT,  TH> 
'rEUHlTllUY  OF  (JkAI.i-K  KART  OF  TIIK  UllAl,,  ANll  THE  XoKTIIEIl!*  DlBTIllCTH  OF  CeNTHAL  AglA, 
N    W    A1>MINIKTRIiril    1IY    TUB    CiOVKllNO«-lJ  KNKUAI,. 


riuTJncei, 


DistrioU 


Area. 
8<i.  MUcs. 


f  »  iiy  of  'rnBhkoiiil   . 

I  District  of  Kunima 

„  A&li  iita 


PboVINCB  op  SlU-nAHIA  (1870) 


I 


Chimkont  .  .  . 
Turkestan  ,  .  . 
I'orovsk  .  .  . 
Kiixfilinsk  .  .  . 
Khojend  and  Jizak 


i'opula'ion. 
18BU-77. 


Total 


ClBCLE  OF   THE   AmU-DARIA 


CtucLE  OF  Zahafshan  (1871) 


{ 


fistrict  of  Penjakent  .     , 
„  Katti-kurnan . 

„         Samarkand 

Total 


PuoTixcB  OP  Fekghana 


Protincb  of  Semiuecuinsk  (1869)  .    < 


District  of  Sergfiopol 
„  Kopal    . 

„  Vcmiy  . 

„  Tokmak 

„         Issikkul 

Total      .     .     . 


EULJA. 


Thanb>Ca8Pian  Teubitoiiy  (1877) 


.,*•»*<■■ 


PhoVINCB  OF  IjBALhK,  EAST    OP 
UllAI,  RiVEK 


THE      I 


Bailiwick  of  Turkomans  .     .     . 

„  MangiHhlak.     .     . 

„  Dusachi   .... 

„  Tuk-Karagan  .     . 

District  of  Krasnovodsk  ... 

Now    Akhal    Tokko     District 

(Daman-i.koh),  1881     .     .     . 

Total 

Part  of  the  District  of  Uralsk  . 
„  .,  Gurzev  . 

„  „  Kalmikov 

(.District  of  Embinsk    .... 

Total 


PuovmcB   OF    TxjBOAi  (exclusive  of    f  I>»«t«ct  of  Turffai 
the  Nikolayevsk  Dibtnct)     •     •     •    1         "         JJ.  hlL 

Total      .     . 


Provincb  op  Akmolinsk 


District  of  Sari-Suisk  . 
Orand  Total    .    , 


17,700 

27,481) 
24,730 
32,320 
43,750 
25,480 
10.47" 

181,99o" 

70,063 

195,685 

103,835  • 

176,205 

I    115,852 

1    1011,090 

61,790 

1    12-.M90 

951,700 

41,400 

107.200 

6,680 

i.ono 

2.170 

70,760 

96,4(56 

121,726 

9,840 

287,950 

34,.'?00 

729,690 

31,630 
43,550 
30,350 
34,090 
17,230 

100,952 
106,474 
160,631 
128,000 
43,443 

15U,850 

63!),500 

26,000 

139,680 

130,820 

4,000 
10,000 
16;780 

1,500 
107,400 

15,000  F 

260,000 

146,820 

389,680 

19,7201 
20,640  ! 
23,710  ( 
66,510  J 

276,000  f 

119,480   1 

64.6301 
23,660  ^ 
62,420  J 

200,000  P 

160,700 

92,400 

150.000  P 

943,780 

3,520,400 

Population    op   the    Chief   Towns   in    Bvmsian    Turkestan    exclvsite  op   Fxuohana  and    the 


Province  of  Sir-daria. 

Tashkend  (1874)      . 
.,        (^880)       . 
Khojend  (1879) 
Ura-tepe  and  suburbs 
Jizak 
Pangas     . 
Turkestan  (Yasi) 
Chimkent 
Pskent 
Ash . 
Perovsk   . 


Samahkand  D  strict. 
Aaii-ata  . 


86,260 

100,000 

29,000 

15,000 

7,000 

6,000 

6,600 

6,400 

6,000 

6,00.. 

3,400 


Kazalinsk 

Provinee  ;  '  Amu  Juri". 
Chimbai  (in  bummer)       .        .        . 

Semireehittsk, 

Vemiy  (1879) 

Sepsinsk 

Kopal 

Karakol 

Kttlja. 
Old  Kulja  and  suburbs    . 
Suidum 


3,300 
2,960 

TOO 

14,860 
3,000 
2.700 
2,275 

'6,000 
4,000 


APPENDIX. 


498 


*N     DliTBICT,    THB 
OF  CbNTHAL   A8IA, 


cs. 

i'opula'ion. 
18UU-77. 

U 

) 
) 

0 
0 

» 

1 

70,063 
t9o,68.i 
103,835 
170,206 
1 16,862 
100,090 

61,790 
122,190 

i) 
) 

961,700 
107.200 

70,760 
96,406 
J2I,726 

287,950 

729,690 

100,952 
106,474 
160,631 
128,000 
43,443 


I 


} 


63!),500 
139,080 

4,000 
10,000 
16;780 

1,500 
107,400 

250,000 


389,680 


275,000  P 


200,000  P 


150.000  P 


I    3,620,400 

DHANA    AND     TBB 
3,300 

2,950 

r»'/. 

700 

.  14,860 
3,000 
2,700 
2,276 

.  -.6,000 
4,000 


ESiiu-ij  -t  WW 


ProvlnceB. 
Siniirechinsk 
Sir-dariii 
Kt'rglmna 
ZiirafHliHU 
Aniutl'iriu 


TUKKESTAN— CO/lfiMlwrf. 
AORlCUtTTHAL  DoMA.N    o.    UlHH.AN  TuKKESTAN   IN   AcHE«. 

Pftnture.  Ue»eit  iind  Wiute. 

6(l,0UU,00U  o0,0i.0,000 

50,000,000  68,612,(100 

8,250,000  8,526,000 

3625,000  2,407,000 

3,626,000  19,040,000 


V'udev  Cultivation. 

•J,;i60,U00 

084, 00>) 

1 ,650,0011 

026,000 

120,000 


LnE  Stock  ok  Russian  TinKBhTAN. 


Provinoet. 
HomirechinsV 
8ir-drtria 
Zaratshan 
Forghana 
Amu-darin 

Total 


Camela. 
«7,4I2 

242,130 

1,248 

38,294 

11,267 


norneii. 
892,007 
306,66» 

61,991 
21i«,7«0 

48,000 


Cattle. 
6.'3,200 
29  1,660 

84,463 
220,717 

38,070 


TotJil. 

I02,.156,000 

110,406,010 

18,4?6,000 

0,781,000 

23  090,000 


Bheep. 
6.200,000 
3,183,000 

•28:t,000 
1,260.000 

32!>.000 


^^^         l,60V,3ll  1,100,000  U,35l,0U0 


Population  of  Afghan  T«rke«tan,  accohd.no  to  Ghoi.bkov. 


Wnkhnn 
Badakshan 
Kunduz 
Ualkh  . 
Andkhoi 


3,(100 

168,0(»(> 

400,000 

04,0110 

60,000 


Shibirkhan  \ 


Ak-clia 

Saripul 

Maiinene 

Gurzivan 

Darzab 

Total 


270,000 

5,000 
060,000 


KUIVA. 


Oasis     . 
Sti'ppos,  Ac. 

Totul 


Area  in 
Square  Milei. 
5,400 
17.700 

23,100 


Fopalntion. 
300,000 
400,000 

700,000 


1.  «r.„   ^v    Pl.ROUANA.   WITH  THEIR  ESTIMATED   POPULATIONS   IN    1876-7 

Chief  Towns  of  the  Province  or  Ffrouana,  with  _^^^ 


Kokan    . 

Namangan 

Marghilan 

Andijan 

Osh 

Nadknt  . 

Kasaan  . 


60,000 
60,000 
40,000 
20,000 
20,000 
15,000 
10,000 


Chust  (Tus) 
Uzghent  . 
Assakch  . 
Sharikhan 
Balikchi  . 
Isfara 
Vadil       . 


7,500 
0,000 
5.000 
6,000 
5,000 
6,000 
3,000 


Tashkond 
8ani!irkand 
Khojend 
Ura-tepo 
Jizak     . 


Schools  in  Tdhkbbtan  (1879). 
Schools. 
118 
80 

•  •         •  20 

•  •         •  13 

•  •         •  7 


Fupili. 

2,360 

1.600 

400 

280 

140 


SIBERIA. 


_    .  _                                       Dirtiiots  Circles,  and  Captaincies 
ProTinces. . 

~'  "     '  ~~iMrict»  attributed  to  Europe. 

f  Vtrkho-Turie 

j  Yekaterinburg 

Ahatic  Slope  OF  THE  Government  ^Irbh^^    .     •     •    •     •     ;    ; 
OF  PER-:  6  Districts      .     .     •     •  '  K^'^^    ; 

I     Total 

rTroi'tzk 

„  Chelabinsk 

AmATIC  portion  OF  THE  G<)VEENMBXT     ^  Qrsk 

OF  ORBSBruo:  4  Distncts   .     .     ■    ^  Verkhnjo-L'ralsk 

L    Total 


uptil'ition  in 
1870—77. 


189,615 
318.317 
122.135 
214,797 
260,.'i97 

1,105,301 

103,363 
277.561 
113,362 
132.834 

"627,120 


404 


ArrENDix. 


8inf.mA— continued. 


rrovinoea. 


Distrioti,  CiroleH,  and  Captainoiei. 


OoVEUNMENT   Of   TrKOAI 


GovnnNMRNT  OF  Akmdi.inrk 
4  DiHtricts 


Central  Atia  {Ob  Bat  in). 
Kikolayevsk 


TAkmoIinsk 
I  KokohotttV     . 
<[  Omsk  .     . 
I  Potropavlovgk 
t-     Total    .     . 


GOVEKNMBNT   OV  SeMIPALATINSK  I 

■1  Districts 


SninipHliitinsk 
Kiii'kiiralinak 
Kokbokti .     . 
i'uvlodnr  ,     . 


OOVEIINHENT  OP  ToBOLHK  ; 

(Okrug,) 


lOCirclos 


fVeit  Siberia, 
'Tobolsk         .... 
UtTyozov  ) 
Surgut      J    •     •     •     . 

Ishiiii 

Kurffiin 

<,  Tukalinsk  (Omsk)  .     . 

Tnra 

Turinsk 

Tuinen 

Yalutorovsk  .... 


Total 


OoTBRNMBNT  OF  ToMBK :  6  Circles 


(■Tomsk 

Barnaul    . 
I  Uiisk    .     . 
^  Kainsk 
I  Kiizrictzk 
I  Maiiiusk  . 

*-     Total    . 


£att  Siberia, 
"     ,     r  Krasnoyarsk      .     .     . 
'    I  Yeniseisk      .... 

I  Kansk 

QovERNMENT  OF  YiNiiiBiSK :  6  Circles  ^  Achinsk 

Minusinsk     .... 
Turukhansk  .... 


Total 


GOVEKMMBMT  OF  luKLTSK  :  6  CirclcS    « 


f  Irkutsk     .     . 
Balugansk 
Nijne-Udinsk 
Verkho-  Lonsk 
Kironsk    .     . 

L     Total     .     . 


Pkovincb  op  Yakutsk  :  5  Circles 


Yakutsk 


Olokminsk     . 

Vilui    .     .     . 

^  Verkho- Yansk 

Kolima     .     . 

Total    .     . 


Provinceof Transbaikalia:  6  Circles  < 


Province  of  the  Amur 


rChita 

Nyerchinsk  .  .  . 
Nyerchinakiy-Zavod 
Vorkhnye-Udinsk  . 

1  Selenginsk    .     .     . 

I  Barguzin  .... 

L    Total    .... 


Area  in  Square 
MileR, 


33,000 

50,300 
2h,!»90 
I8,(i80 
27,740 

150,700 

20.000 
80,000 
30,000 
46,000 

194,000 

48,530 

404,250 

10,450 

0,300 

26,530 

32,030 

34,780 

7,760 

8,970 


688,b60 

119,500 
51,210 
74,950 
30,580 
30,170 
20,610 

344,957r 


8,190 

181,630 

33,220 

23,200 

42,560 

730,060 


1,028,640 

31,940 
17,470 
48,610 
37,230 
187.040 


322,290 

346,750 
144,660 
435,160 
321,966 
304,910 


1,553,430 

11,430 
10,630 
14,420 
16,680 
15,560 
17,180 


85,800 
112,840 


ropiiliition  lu 
lWo-77. 


90,000  P 


232,000  P 


5 1 0,000  P 

1 10,208 

23,763 

7,348 

200,049 

106,880 

110,064 

113,479 

65,463 

94,389 

16(1,136 

1,086,818^ 

175,820 
1H6,9I2 
187,127 
100,067 
113,<)a3 

09,907 

838,766 


84,473 
69,107 
64,688 
70,H10 
110,288 
7.427 


396,783 

116,608 
108,341 
41. 784 
65,851 
3rt.065 


o58,629 

140,435 
13,817 
61,212 
31,802 

__  ^'^IL 
236,067 

72,981 
28,841 
130,372 
100,026 
70,144 
10.416 

430,780 
28,689 


«i 


"^ 


IBlfii  UMI^'MMUfljIiJ^I^ 


API'FINDLX. 


40S 


KinRiiTA — roiiiiiiHtd. 


huore    ropuintion  in 
'•  '       1W0-.7T, 


PrnvlncCT. 


Diitriotm  Clrclpi,  nnd  ruptaliirirx. 


"T. 


Arm  In  Hniiiiii' 
MileM. 


BOO 

llOO 
l»0 
1)80 
U{) 

ruo 

poo 

too 

too 

Joo 

00 

30 
.50 

•')() 

liO     I 
M) 

m 
so    I 

30     I 
JO 


90,000  p 


ii32,000  P 


o  1 0,000  P 

U  0.208 
'A  763 
7,348 
200,049 
1U6,889 
110,004 
113,479 
Co,4l!3 
94,389 
16(1, 1  ;i6 

1,086,818 

17o,820 
1H5,9I2 
187,127 
100,057 
U3,!)33 
_0'<,907 

838,76«~" 


84,473 
69,197 
64,d88 
70,810 
110,288 
7.427 

396,783 

116.598 
108,341 
41. 784 
55,851 
3H,065 


^58,629 

140,43« 
13,817 
61,212 
31,802 

6.8il_ 

236,067 

72,981 

28.841 

130,372 

109,026 

70,144 

_[MI6_ 

430,780  " 
28.«89 


f  Nikoliivcvik 

j  SolliHk' 

UakitimbPuovince:  0  Circles    .     •  <(  oli^Xu'?""!'    '.     \         '    \    \ 

OiiiKiKxk 

Li;d 

f  TTgnri 

I  Siufun 

Teuuitouy  op  tub  Ukuhi  ;  6  Circlca  ■{  Klmnkii 

{  Avviikiimov 

^Sut'liun 

Tutal  (Maritime  Pnv.  and  Usuri) 


ArPllOXIMATB    PUPULATION    OF    HUIEUIA,    ACCOIiniNd   TO    RaCE8    (1880). 


VokuIh    . 

Kiinioycdcg       .       '  . 
OHtiiticB   . 

Soyots 

4,501) 

Finnish 

26,000 

Stock 

25,0(10 

8,000 

r  'lunguiicB 

25,000 

Biiriiits   . 

250,(100 

Mongol 

KalmukH 

20,000 

Stock    ^ 

ChincHu  and  Manchus 

10,000 

Cori'ans  . 

3,000 

,  Yukaghirs 

1,600 

Turki 
Stock 


Yiikiita 


I  DoIgiinM 
(  Tatiirs 
(  Chukchiii 
Koriaks 


a„_  j_.  -  J  Kiinichadalog 
Sundries  <j  j.j,;^^^ 

I  AinoH  . 
(.Gipsies 
Slavs    .... 


YiBLD  OP  TUB  AltaI  Mines  prom  1745  to  1860. 

3,568,760  lbs.,  valued  at  £10,000,000. 

-J 

Prouvct  of  tub  Altai  Mines  in  1876. 

Silver 25,260  lbs. 

Gold 2,666    „ 

Copper l,3Mi,000    „ 

Nickel 04,050   „ 

Pig  and  Cast  Iron 1,730.750   „ 

Total  Value 2,000,000  roubles. 

Chief  Towns  in  tub  AltaT  Distkuts  (1873). 


BamaAI   . 
Bisk 

Zmcinogorsk    . 
Suzunskiv-zaxod 
liOktcvskia-zavod 


Pop. 
13,626 
6,360 
6,000 
6,400 
5,000 


Ziryanovsk 
Kuziietzk 
Salair 
Kiddersk 


Abba  and  Population  of  the  Om  Basin. 


Government  of  Tobolskv 

„  Tomsk 

„  Semipalatinsk 

AMiatio  portion  of  the  Perm  and  Orenburg  Governments 
Portion  of  the  Ob  Ba^in  in  the  Turgai  and  Akmolinsk  Oovmts. 
District  of  Achinsk.  Government  of  Ytniaeisk 
Basin  of  the  Black  Irtish  in  Mongolia 


Total 


1,405.560 


Towns  in  the  Yenesbi-Aicoaua   IUsin. 


xatittx* 


Krasnoyarsk  (1873) 
Yeniseisk  „ 

Minusinsk  „ 

Knnsk  „ 

Turukhansk       „ 


Pop. 

14,160 

7,180 

4,440 

2,270 

216 


Angara. 


I'lipiiliitiim  to 
1K7I>    77. 


0.031 
8.-.H7 
6,846 
4.608 
6.001 
1,454 

6,779 
1,106 
4,779 
1,173 
H50 

60,610 


200,000 

500 

80,000 

12,001) 

5,000 

3,000 

6.000 

3,000 

5,000 

4,500,000 


Fop* 

4,500 
3,250 
3,000 
2,600 


AreninSq.MUes. 

top.  187.1. 

551,100 

1,1188,8.50 

340,870 

838,750 

196,000 

510,100 

60,900 

1.360,000 

274,400 

321,8."0 

23,290 

70,810 

40.000  P 

100,000 

4,280,400 


4 


i§"5 


(  Kiiikhta  and  suburbs  (1873) . 
I  Verkhnye-l/dinsk  „ 

(  Novo-Selunginfk  „ 


i!.-S  (Irkutsk  (1876)       . 
91  \Nijne-TJdinsk(1876) 


Pop. 
9,050 
3,475 
1,050 
32,520 
3,820 


IM 


AITKNDIX. 


YnkiitMk  (|87;<)  . 
yi;il<h<i.|,()ni)k(1873). 
Kiri'iiHk  ,,     , 

Hi'<Mliio-Koliiiisk    „     . 


fitnttMA— font  iiiiinl. 

Towns  in  th«  Dasinh  »»•  Lena  ami  Eaktbhn  Rivrrs. 
P(ip. 
.      4.830       Olokmimk  (1873) 

070  i    ViiaiHk 

820  j    Virkhn-Vaniik  „ 

flOO  I  Nyiiu.KoHniik{1873) 


ToWNH   IN    THR   AmUII  BawN  AND  OK  TIIH  EakT  CoAM  OK  HllllHIA. 


Amur  JIaiiii. 


Nyorchiimk  (II 

N.V('rrhitiHkiy-ZHVo(l 

Chilli 

Itluf^nvycNlirhnnsk 

Nikiiliiycvsk 

Khubitruvka 


r  iiasm. 

Pl.p. 

^73)  . 

3,700 

•1       • 

3,100 

»l       • 

2,750 

f>       • 

3,000 

If       • 

6,300 

ff       • 

770 

Maritime  llittrict. 


Okhiitik     (1873) 
Ayiin  „ 

fJiJiffinsk      „      . 
Vladivostok  (1878) 


1^. 
AOO 
300 
330 
2U0 


Top. 

210 

200 

200 

8,860 


flilinka 

AinoB 

Orochca 


Population  of  Sakhalin. 


2,000 

2,600 

400 


Jiipancse . 
ChiuHsc  . 
Kiisgians  . 


400 

700 
6,000 


Population  op  Kiiibria  at  vahtouh  Epoch*,  bxclihivb  op  thb  Asiatic  Slopes  op  tub  Uhals. 


1796 
1816 
1800 


1,193,145 
1,540,424 
3,327,627 


1870-73 

18K0  .         .         .         . 

1880,  with  tho  Urali 


3.340,362 
3,000,000  P 
6,200,000  P 


Public  Inrthuction  in  Sibbria,  bxclusivb  op  thb  Easteun  Si-opes  op  thb  Uralh. 

Elementary  Schools,  1876:-600.     Attflndanco,  16,200,  of  whom  14,000  boys.  2,M00  girla. 

Higher  Schools,  UO.    AtteaUauoe,  3,800. 


■,-/*■■ 


■"^^ 


^m 


mmmmi'^mmmmmim 


ii-W-'.      WW— Bi 


^•^mmm^^mmm^ 


•n^MHMqi^qa 


Ittp. 
fiUO 
300 

a3o 

•iOO 


Pop. 

210 

200 

200 

8,860 


♦         • 


INDEX. 


400 

700 
fi.ouo 


AbaVnn  River,  364 

Stei>iM>.  3A4,  3fiO 
Abakiiniik,  3o0,  362 
Alikhiwiang,  67 
Abltiikit  Kivor,  340 
Almiu,  Uko,  30 
Abftl.  Mount,  101,  102,  130 
Abuskun,  271 
AchinRk,  351 

Adai-kokli,  Mount,  42,  64 
AtliKbuh,  6o 
Aili»h,  Mount,  04 

AdlorFort,  61        .    ^,  ... 

Administration  of  tho  CftUCMUi,  160 
'f  urkegtan,  287 ' 
Siberia,  472 
Afghan  Turkestan,  237 
Afontova  Mountains,  Abi 
Aghish-tau,  Mount,  36 
Agralihan  Bay,  79 
Auri-Jagh,  133 
Agvania,  126 
Aibughir  Oulf,  200 
Aigcr-giil,  1-akc,  136 
Aigun,  380,  443 
AinoB,  466 
Airi-chai  River,  40 
Airivansk,  147 
ATya,368 
Ajara  Mountains,  00 

River,  95 
Ak-bara  Uivw,  276 
Ak-baital  River,  171 
Ak-bush,  Mount,  186 
Ak-bulak,  246 
Ak-cha,  248 
Ak-dengh«,  Lake,  191 
Akcro  River,  138 
Akhal-atok,  214,  262 
Akhalkalaki,  101,  lil 
Akhal  Tekke,  478,  483 
Akhaltzik,  121,  lo4 
Ak-hissar.  121 
Akhtari  Liman,  52 
Akhti,  88 
Akiska,  121 
Ak-ktnd,285 
Ak-kum,  193,  194 
Ak-kurgan,  286 
Ak-mochod,  283 
Ak-Meiid,  164 
Akroolinsk,  349 


Ak-robat,  '-'45 

Ak-sai,  78 

riateau,  186 
Akscrai  liivcr,  244,  247 
Ak-shiirak,  180,  1»0 
Ak-si,  276 
Ak-su.  202 

River,  193,  202 
Ak-tash,  263,  264 
Ak-t  tu,  202 
Ak-tupo,  271 
Aktogoi  River,  182 
Ak-tuboh,  331 
Akuli-i,  140 
Akusha,  85 

Ala  denghijs.  Lake,  101 
Ala.goj-„Moui.t,  41.  46,  130,  136 

Alai  Mountains,  108,  Id 

Aliii-tagh  Mountains,  l7o,  202 

Ala-kul,  Lake,  100  _ 

Alakhftn-dagh,  78,  <  9 

Alupayevsk,  347 

Alapolarim,  137-8 

Alaska,  7 

Alat,  Cape.  109 

Altt-tHU  Mountains,  182,  18.1 

Kungei  Mountains,  !»•»,  i»* 
Terskei  Mountains,  184 

Alazan  River,  78,  102 

Albai.ia,  126 

Albazin,  443 

Aldan  Mountains,  420 

RivCT,  386,  420 

Alet  Pass,  191 
Aleutian  Islands,  401 

Alexander  Mountains,  176,  l»» 
Alexandrapol,  146 
Alexandrovsk,  269        • 
Alexandrovskaya,  7a 

Alhom,  271  ^ 

Alibert,  Mount,  460 
Alim-tu,  286 
Allaho-Akhbar,  482 
Almati,  Mount,  188 

Town,  284 
Altai  Mountains,  310 

Great,  322 

Little,  322 
Altaiskaya,  320 
Altio-imol  Pass,  188 
Altin  tau  Mountains,  ali 
America  Bay,  446 


Amga  River,  3S8 
Anigun  River,  428 
Aum-diiria  River,  202 
Amur  Oulf,  432 

Hivtr,  422 
Anabiira  Uivrr.  306,  382 
Anadir  Gulf,  31)9 

Hivor,  401 
Anadirsk,  402 

AnaiMi,  6*'  ^^    ,     ,„ 
Andaman  Islands,  10 
Andi  Mountains,  79 
Andijan,  270 
Andlihoi,  248,  249 
Angara  Basin,  3  .4 

River,  3.V2,  370,  373 

Ani,  140 
Aniva  Bay,  464 
rtnkuli,  410 

Anti-Caucasus  Mountains,  34 
Apsheron  Peninsula,  97,  106 
Arabs,  220 
Aragova  River,  102 
Aral  Sea,  208 
Aralo-Caapian  Basin,  103 
Ararat,  Mount,  130,  1  2 
Aravan,  276 

Araxis  River,  100,  104,  139 
Ardahan,  120,  140 
Ardanfij,  100 
Ardimot-Kaghak,  147 
Ar-don  River,  64,  68 
Argun  River,  410,  423 
Arguri,  134 
Arjevan,  Mount,  102 
Ar'kat  .Mountain,  100,  101 
Armavir,  147 
Aitnenia,  140 

Russian,  130 
Armenians,  i40 
Arpa-chai  River.  140 
Arsiani  Mountains,  01 
Artomonova,  318 
Artaxates,  148 
Artvin,  100 
^Vrvans,  20      _ 
Ashur-adoh.  271 
Asia  Station,  346 
Assakeh,  276 
Astara,  130 
Astrabad,  216 
Ast-urt,  216 


mmm 


im 


INDKX. 


AlKuMir,  !l4n 

AtiHli-Kiih.  l(M> 

Atok,  ..Ml 

Alrrk  ItiviT.  'iM 

Auli'iitii,  '.'Mi 

Aviicliit  lliiy,  400,  iU        ^' 

Mount,  tUl 
Aviirn,  .';t 

y\vii-Kii>!  lUvor,  103 
Ayiiii,  142 

Miili/i'iliiuh,  "H 
IWiikxIiuii,  nn 

Hiv.r,  -M.T 

'I'own,  il.'l 
IlailiikhHhiini,  'HO 
lliiKiii'iiHh-kiil,  I'D 
lliiKiliiil  l-'i>rt.  im 
Ituikiil,  l^itkf,  :;U8 
MiOkiiiKl,  WO 
lliiiHiiri,  'i't^i 
lliikhtii  River,  .3/14 
ItiikNii  KiviT,  OH 
II  <kti'iiiiiii,  1(1(1,  237 
ll:ikii,  12!) 
HaliiKiiiiHk,  IIHl 
lliilitklmn,  KM),  111 
lliilakhiiii  KiviT,  382 
llulkaii  Oiilf,  207 
lliilkitiiH, ;«,  214 
ititikh,  247 

Hivi  r,  24S 
lliilkliiisli,  Liikr,  101 
Maliii'hiHtiiii,  2 
Itaiiii,  -.'.v.',  4.-i3 
Haiitiaii,  '.')'> 
ll.tiinar   .Mount.  180 
JIarabii  .Sti.pjie,  332 
llarda,  12(1 

Harxu/in  Uivor,  370,  373 
bHrkiii,  178 

Moiinlaina,  170 
Ilarluk  Moiintuias,  182,  180 
li.irnafl!,  327 
llnrnadlka  Uivor,  334 
liarxkuAn  l'ait»,  186,  188 
itush-Alai,  17'>  ', 

HaHli-Karni,  147 
liaiihkira,  330 
Haskiin  Kivor,  193 
Hatalpaghinskaya,  64 
IJatum,  90 
Hayandui,  285 
Buzardidz,  Mount,  78 
Mcar  Island,  380 
Bosh'tau,  Mount,  fi6 
Uei-kom  Kiver,  3.52 
liok'pak  dala  Steppe,  104 
Itolnya  Hivor,  4U 
UoIiy-KIilch,  124 
Uond-i-barbari  Kivor,  248 
Kerda,  160 

UeresovBkiy-zavod,  348 
Uergushot  Itiver,  138 
Bering  Island,  408 

Peiiii)8itla,  390 

Sua,  402 

Strait,  402 
Berozov,  348,  351 
Beryozov,  348 
Bervozovka  River,  328 
Besh-tau,  65 
Bielo-Udovskiy,  340 
Bielukha,  Mount,  322 
Biisk,  320 
Hingol-dagh,  139 
Birza  Uiver,  329 


Biv»»  Uivpr,  3S4 

Hiv  n  Kivir.  103 
lllai(iiiliirii(iii',  75 
lllaitcivviHlii'lii  nik.  443 
ItiiKijci  .MiiuiitainN,  17H 
It  Ifla  nor.  I7U 
Itoklmra,  2'i2 

City,  2.^8 
Doll  hava  Kvi'ka  Kivir,  402 
Boikalak.  ;IH| 
Uoliii^,  I.'i5 

llolor  .MoiintaiiiN,  I,  1(15 
Itorliulo,  Mount   ';i 
llorjoni.  Kill,  121 
Koro-klioro  .Mountainn,  \Hi 
l<orok)iui|/.ir,  285 
ItoNkal,  l(i; 

HuNporuN,  Kantcrn,  473 
lloNtan-nor,  liU 
Hragiiiii,  83 
llrahinaputra  llivi<r,  13 
llratitkiy-oHtrdg,  378 
Krianiik,  78 

Hujnurd.  215  | 

llukhtarniiuHk,  328 
llulun,  3<JU 
llurcva  Mountuini,  422 

Itivcr. 
lluriatM,  375,  303  ,- 

llurutH.  324 
Bzll)  Kivur,  61 

Canpian  Hoa,  2 1 7 

Castrifii  Hay,  2'J6,  431 

CaucaHia,  33 

Cnui'HsianH.  40 

(laiicaitni)  Mouiitiiina,  337 

Chabdara,  Mnunt,  175 

Chagan-obo,  101 

IhagoR  Bank,  8 

Chaino,  0 

Chani,  Lako,  !132-3 

('harin  Kiver,  182 

Cliarjui,  207,257 

Chasash,  155 

(.'Imtir  kul,  185,  188 

('horhonztg,  "0 

Chekhatiii,  Mount,  00 

Chuleken  Island,  207,  270,  484 

('holuskin,  CH|ie,  205 

Chepishli,  481 

Cherdin,  470 

Chcrek  Kivor,  68 

CheromissiunB,  164 

Cherkt'sses,  64 

Chernishev  Bay,  217 

Chiber  Pass.  245 

(.'hiehiklik  Mountains,  169 

Chikishlar,  218,  270 

Chikoi  River,  37» 

Childir,  Uke,  M 

Childir-dagh,  13U 

Chilik  River,  183 

Chimkcnt,  282 

Chindagatin  River,  320 

Chingil,  Mount,  131 

Chirchik  River,  279 

Chita,  307,  442 

Chitral,  244 

Choktol  Mountains,  100,  279 

Chon-su  Kivor,  171 

Chorukh  River,  91,  96 

Chu  River,  184,  "200 

Chades,  317,  356 

Chudors,  220 

Chugiichak.  189,  360 

Chukchis,  408 


niiilintsknl  Nos,  Tapfl,  S0» 
Cliitliui  UiviT,  333 
I  huitii  Kivir,  IU3 
CliuHt  (Tun),  27(1 
(  hnvant/.i'ii,  30(1 
Cliuvaitlii'it,  I(i4 
Cliuya  itivcr,  327 
Cliniate  of  Aitia,  8 

( !aui'ai«uii,  40 

Oi'orgia,  too 

Mancliuria,  432 

MiiuriOia,  Ul 

I'aniir,  1(12  ■, 

Sakhalin,  453 

SiJN'ria,  MO'i 

Turki'Stiin.  213 
(.'(H'hin  l^hina,  H 
l.'olchiH,  33,  HN,  06  ' 

Coinedi'S,  KiU 

Cuniiujindi'r's  An.'hiiMjIaifo,  408 
Coniinunc,  4(i3 
('orcans,  438 
('oSMaiiks,  60 
CuouinW  Island,  210 

naghodtan,  78 

lulai.  Uki',  421 

Dalai  kui  Island,  360 

Dalai- nor,  3(18 

Dalinatov,  349 

Danian-i-kuh,  216 

Dandan-Hhikan,  245 

DapsauK  ^lountains,  2 

Uarial  (■<    :;e,  42 

Darja  I'eui  >suln,  207 

Darjo,  83 

DrirkhatH,  367 

Darvaz,  252,  253 

Dasht-i-Bakara, 

Dail-kara,  I.aki',  200 

DaQria  41!) 

DaArs,  43(1 

Da&HS-alin,  422 

Dt'haH  Kivor,  248 

Dekabrists,  462 

Dulijan,  147 

Denau,  2.i6 

Donghiz-tau,  190.  101 

Dera-guz,  476,  481 

Derbend,  86,  100 

Derbendi,  482 

Di'rogez-ntok,  214 

Dovdoraki  Glacier,  42,  476 

Dicksonshavu,  365 

Dido,  84 

Digoiin,  71  i 

Dikh-tau,  36,  64 

Diklos-mta,  Mount,  70 

Diomede  Island,  411 

Diri-dagh,  130 

Discovery,  progress  of,  in  Asia,  26 

Dolgans,  306 

Donva,  367 

Dora  Pass,  240 

DuY,  466-7 

Dukhobortzi,  466 

Dundinka,  864 

Dungan,  232 

Du^•hambe,  265 

I  )u8h-kachan,  380 

Dzirilla  River,  96 

Dzuu-tarei,  Lake,  420 

"  Eagle  "  Mountains,  328 
East  Cape,  403 
Ebi-nor,  191 
Kchmiadzin,  147 


'    ..■.wy.M.«y«,.o/v.v^Ti«>^^tJrf)^^w»-»»(»^,f^yf^<^^r  ^y^^.;fA^  ■^-^.^^.^;7-^■^•^'^'.■^■i*?M-':3a^^'j^»*i^l■i 


190.  101 

,481 

I(i0 

214 

laor,  42,  476 
,  3dd 


64 

[ount,  70 

id,  411 

I 

>gre8s  of,  in  Asia,  26 


466 
I 

5 

380 
,  96 
nke,  420 

intains,  328 
i 


Flhm*  Mountiiinn,  Sft,  04 

Kl-Kli.  2'^" 

Ktnl-ii  Mur.h.  W) 

F.mil  liiv.  r,  Ulll 

Kinliiki,  Mount,  lOi 

Kiiwiiiihctliii  IhIiiihI,  1102 

Kr^ik-tiiiKiik  Mimnluius,  H'i,  300 

Kriviin,  117 

Kri>viiiitiiK'  ""il,  \  irt 

Kroviiiitiinh:!)!,  1  Vi 

Kruikri,  HO 

Vm\wUm[,  Vfil 

y^hvk  Miiiiluri  rufit,  1-7 

F*ki-thiim2,  'i'H 

Kttlkiiym,i  K' y,  300 

Kiiphrutt'H,  1 

KMri'Mt,  Muuiit,  3 

l':xiUm,  403 

iMiililoyiv  Iiilnnri,  300 
l'"nuiiii  of  thii  t'limiiHii*,  46 
Mimr  t'liuciwiiH,  01 
M.    I'hiiriu,  434 
I'likiiiilin,  4ft'J 
Hihrriii,  314 
'riirkutitBii,  10) 
Fiii/iit'iid,  Budttkitlmn,  243 

Itiikham,  255 
FtTuhunii,  100 
KiiiK-don  Uivor,  08 
Finno-TiitHre,  10 
Finn*,  3.56 
Fiithi)ri«'»,  406 
Floro  of  AmieniH,  136 
Aain,  14 
I'liucnHiiN,  43 
FjiMt  '.'iiucaiius,  91 
MaiK'huria,  41)4 
Kiikhiilin,  4o3 
Siberia,  310 
Turkestun,  196 
Franz-Josoph    Archipfllago,     304, 
392 

Gnatii  Fort.  61 
ORlclmg,  236,  484 
Oainigh,  Mount,  138 
Giingeii,  13 
Gnnja,  126 

Oarji>tar  Mountains,  2  i3 
Gate  of  Hamian  Fass,  244 
(^auri8nnka^  Mount,  3 
Garibolo  Mountains,  41 
Garni,  148.  255 
Gaz  kul,  202 
Geok-tepe,  164,  252,  271 
Geology  of  Asia,  6 
Georgia.  100 

Georgians,  111 

Goorgyevsk,  76 

Germans,  119 

Geshik-hashi,  Mount,  186 

Ghimri,  86 

Giiiainsk,  442 

Giliaks,  439 

Giriisi,  149 

Godorebi,  Mount,  102 

Gog  and  Miigog,  216 

Gok  thai.  Lake,  136 
Plateau,  147 

G'ik-gol,  liako,  127 

Goklans,  220 

Golden  Horn  Bay,  430 

Golds,  436 

Gold-washings.  46S 

Golodnnya  Steppe,  194 
Goltzi  tfiountains,  366,  420 


INDEX. 


(lori.  123 

Our<i-lllago(liit,  316 
UiiiiMlishihi',  340 
(iiiit/l.  40 
Uroxnaya,  81 
(irii/iiiy.  77 
(irusiitns,  112  , 

Ciilrha,  270 
UuliNliin,  214 
(iCtiiili,  M  uiit,  H5 
(turgari  llivir,  215,  271 
I  iiii'iiin.  1 12 
(luruMiili,  172 
(luml-diin  Kiver,  6H 
(iToxdi'VU  Islands.  411 


ilai.  Ilaik.,  HO 
llaji-kak  I'ass,  244 
llaji-Ktnd,  127 
llukwinli.  482 
Ifaiiiah-kaii,  242  , 

lliimi,  178 

Mountains,  179 
llaniisli.  Mount,  184 
llan-hai,  8,  176 
Harm,  255 
llH»iwin-d«gh,  6 
IhiKiutn-kalrh.  270 
llavasdan.  140 
llaicar,  256 

Hazar-Masiid  Mountains,  482 
Jlazroti-Sultan,  Mount,  176 
iliiWondorf,  127 
lloUrnt^s,  21 
lltilmand  Hivor,  6 
H«long-ki»ng  Uivor,  424 
llorat,  481 

llori-iud  Uiver,  204,  261 
tlimalava  Mountains,  2 
llindu-kush,  170,  244 
lliH.'«ar.  255 
Hoang-hai,  II 
Hoang'ho,  11 
Huang-tu,  11 
Hoi-yuan,  285 
Uoja-bakargan,  278 
Hoia-Mohammed  Mountains,  242 
IhVidilk  Lakes,  67 
"  Hunger"  Steppe,  194 
Ilunns,  376 
Huns,  23 
Hyroania,  215 

Sea  of,  206,  271 
Hyrcanopolis,  271 

Iberians,.  46 
Idokopaz,  60 
lir-tash  Glacier,  199 
Ike-cral  Kivor,  322 
Hi.  285 

Kivcr,  192.  284 
Iliisk,  192 
Imaus,  165 
Imeria,  94 
Imerians,  94 
Indar-ab  River,  244 
Indigirka  River,  388 
Indus,  13 
Industries  of  the  Caucasus,  164 

Siberia,  467 
Ingoda  River,  442 
Ingiir  River,  88 
Ingushes,  83 

Inhabitants  of  Armenia,  140 
Asia,  18 
Caucasus,  46 
East  Caucasus,  70 


409 


Inhabitiintiiof  Georgia,  Ul 
KiiMu'hiitka,  i\>V 
Lii/ixlNti,  t>2 
l.i'ua  Itiiitiu,  3N4 
Mam  liiinii,  436 
>Hltlialiii,  456 
Silxi'ia,  317 
'ruikiKtHn,  220 
Went  ( 'aM<  iixiiK.  54 
Wr  xt  Sil).  ria,  33H 
\f\u  iM'i  Kasin,  355 
IraU  I'awt,  205 
I  run,  103 
jtanians,  10,  220 
I  man,  2 
libit  lliv.-r,  347 
Town.  317 
Fmn-khNbirgan,  182 
Irjar,  278 

Irkut  RiviT,  366,  373 
Irkutsk,  380 
Iron,  71 

h'  sh  llnsin,  3:10 
Irtinh,  Hlack,  Uiv.  i,  331 

White,  332 
Iset  Uivir,  345,  MO 
Isfairani,  171,  "-il 
Ishkanbii.'   ''lO 
Ishikli,  Mount.  138 
Uhim.  340 
Ukander-kul.  202 
iHsik-kul,  Ukc,  184 
Itelniun,  414 
Ivanovskaya,  401 


.lahfl-Shovi,  93 
Jabeshi.  NH 
.Fagatai,  Ts.i 
.IairHk>  \'mbs.  101 
Jaluuii^^h,  183,  101 

Jarim.-daria.  2i,0 

Jam  ilariu,  200 

.InpiiicS' ,  458  -'  ' 

.111:  komi,  286 

.Itilosnovoilsk,  74 

.lorm,  243 

Jews,  2811 

Jigansk.  :i09 

Jihttn  River,  202 

Jizak,  275 

River,  275 

.lonquiere  Hay,  450 

.lufa.  149 

JugjuT  Slountitins,  420 

Jiilun  Mountains,  173 
Juman-tau,  42.  60 
Jun-bulak,  367 

Kabadian,  166 
Kabarda,  69 
Kabards,  60 
Kabul,  477 
Kacha  Rivir,  363 
Kacha-kum,  480 
Kachal  dagh.  138 
Kachines,  358 
Kachu,  Mount,  79 
Kachuga,  386 
Kaiirnahan,  256 
Kaflankir,  216 

Kaghizmun,  146 

Kaidak,  218 

Kalnsk,  J50 

Kaltago-Tabasseran,  84 

Kakhctia,  113 

Kaktietians,  112 

Kala  Kaushid  Khan,  479 


800 


INDEX. 


Knlniis  River,  66-7 
Kaljir  Kivcr,  331 
Kiil'ch  i-kuinb,  263 
Kiiliiiuks,  325 
Kiiltber,  Mount,  42  \ 

KHninr-Uttban,  367  ■"'' 

Kiimassos,  3-44 
Kiimoiishiki,  326,  440 
Kiimishlov,  319 
Kumchadalea,  413 
Kamchatka,  401 

River,  401,  402 
KandahHr,  477 
Kanii  Pass.  1U2 
Kansk,  363 
Kiipchegai,  199 
Kaiiitaii,  Mount,  421 
Kaptagal,  Mount,  188 
Kapujish,  Mount,  138 
Kara-adir  MoiintaiuH.  189 
Karabagh  Mountains,  1 38 

Steppes,  106 
Kara-boghHZ,  Lake,  212,  217 
Karabura,  Ii[ount,  188 
Kara-daria  Rivor,  199,  276 
KiirigMBses,  368 
Kiiragati  River.  333 
Karagiil-bas,  Mount,  185 
Karii-lrtich  River,  331 
KaraKaloh,  146 
Kara-Kalpaks,  225 
Kiira-Uazik,  176  .;.    i  ,..; 

Kara-Kirghiz,  226 
Kara-koh,  247 
Kara-koin  Mountains,  186 
Karakordin  Mountains,  2 
Kara-kotal  Pass,  2j5 
Kara-Kuban  River,  62 
Kara-kul,  175 

Lake,  171 
Kara-kum  Desert,  16>,  212 

Steppe,  196 
Karasai  River,  199 
Karn-su,  218 

River,  300     -■ 
Kara  Sea,  303 
Karn-uzflk  River,  201 
KiinitHgh,  266 
Kara-tul  River.  193 
KaiH-tau  Mountains,  173,  187,  188 
Kiirateghin,  173,  262,  263 
Karikji,  267 
Kami-chiii,  14  7 
Kars,  115 

Kars-chiii  Ri.-er,  145 
Kaithvelian,  111 
Kas  Kiver,  336 
Kashan-tau,  36,  64 
Kiishgar,  187 
Kashgarians,  232 
Kashka  Rivor,  266 
Karshi,  267 
Kassia  Mountains,  16 
KathoHcos,  143 
Katti  kurgan,  275 
KatOn  Mountains,  1 79,  322 

liiver,  '22,  326.  334 
Kauffmann  I'enk,  171 
Kaushid  Khan,  479 
Kavuk,  176 
Kazuks,  226 
Kazalinsk.  276,  283 
Kazangul-dagh,  138 
Kazbek,  Caucasus,  36 
Kobin,  Great,  River,  183 

liittle.  River,  184 
Kedabek,  166 


Kcgiirt,  147 

KcKon  Rivor,  182 

K'ilat-Htok,  214 

Koinchik  Kiver,  352 

Kentei  Mountains,  423 

Keptagai  Mountains,  389 

Kei'ch  Peninsula,  36 

Korgash,  147 

Reiki,  267 

ivoi-ulen  Uivcr,  422 

Ket  River,  336 

Khabur-Hssu,  190 

Khabarovka,  4i7,  444     ^  . 

Khiiliir  River,  423 

Khamil,  178  .,,,;.' 

Khangalat,  387  : 

Khiiiii  River,  96 

Khanka,  Luke,  421,  425 

Khan-tengri,  Mountains,  176,  184 

Khiiranlakh  Hills,  388 

Klwrezm,  '.04 

Khat'tnga  River,  382 

Khazars,  59 

Khevsarw,  116 

Khingan  Mountains,  421,  424 

Khinzirak,  149 

Khiva,  263 

City,  265 
Khojend,  200,  278 
Khoju-oba,  260 
Kholmogori,  337 
Khoni,  97 
Khorasan,  478 
Khorgos,  286 
Khosheti-davan,  178 
Khosrabad,  482 
Khotur-tau,  173 
Khua-kem  Kiver,  362 
Khulm,  247 

Hiver,  245 
Khulussutai,  419 
Khunzak,  86 
Kiakht  I,  376 
Kicbi-Ala'i,  17i 
Kila-bar-panja,  253 
Kila-kumb,  253 
Kila-panja,  239 
Kilch,  439 
Kilif,  267 
Kihp,  204 
Kipchak,  227 
Ki-pin,  167 
Kirechii-dagh,  130 
Kirenga  River,  398 
Kirensk,  366,  398 
Kirghiz,  226 
Kirghiz-Kazaks,  226 
Kistin,  83 
Kists,  81 
Kitoi  Kiver,  373 
Kizi,  Lake,  428 
Kizil-agach  Gulf,  156 
Ki^il-alan,  216 
Kizil-art  Mountains,  171 

Fa88,  176 
Kizil-arvat,  252,  480,  483 
Kizil-dagh,  131 
Kizil-gyaduk,  Mount,  102 
Kizil-Kaya,  Mount,  78-8 
Kizil-kum  Steppe,  194-6 
Kizil-robat,  252 
Kizil-BU,  269 

River.  172,  254 
Kizil-yart,  4 
Kizlar,  78 

Klyilchevskoi,  Mount,  401 
Kobdo,  327 


Kobdo  Plateau,  322,  330 
Kodor  River,  51 
Kof-dagh,  34 
Kog-art-ta\i,  171,  186 
Koh-i-amber,  246 
Koh-i-baba,  214 
Koh-i-Nuh,  133 
Kuhistan.  274 
Kojor  Pass,  102 

Town,  124 
Kokan,  278 
Kokcha  River,  240 
Kok-kiya,  185 
Kok-shaal,  Mount,  186 
Kok-su  River,  193,  322 
Kok-tuke  Mountains,  185 
Kolima  River,  388 
Kolivan,  329,  361 
Kolota,  45 
Konchalo,  414 
Konda  River,  339 
Kondora  River,  329 
Konyam  Bay,  391 
Kopal,  284 
Kopot-dagh,  214 
Koriaks,  413 
Koriss,  149 
Kuraakov,  458 
Kosheti-davan,  178 
Kosio,  Lake,  366 
Koao-gol,  Lake,  362,  367 
Kospeti  Pass,  188 
Kotatission,  97 
Koton-karagai,  329 
Kotyelnly  Ostrov,  389 
Koyeretin-dagb,  102 
Krafto  Island,  449 
Krusnovodsk,  218,  269 

PlaiM,  269 
Krasnoyarsk,  354,  362 
Krestovaya  Gora,  65 
Krostovoye,  349 
Krunotz,  Mount,  401 
Kuba,  88 
Kuban  Basin,  50 

River.  61 
Kubergenti  Mountains,  186 
Kubichi,  84 
Kuchka,  240 
Kuda  River,  373 
Kuda-ko,  6» 
Kuen-liin  Mountains,  2 
Kugaran  River.  276 
Kukcha-denghiz,  200 
Kukhtu\a  River,  442 
Kulali  Island,  217,  218 
Kulaahi,  97 
Kulja,  284 

New,  286 

Old,  285 
Kul-kalian,  167 
Kulpi,  Mount,  132 
Kultuk  Gulf,  377 

Town,  380 
Kuma  River,  64-6,  67 
Kumani  Island,  109 
Kumans,  23.  69 
Kumskiy  Proran,  67 
Kunduz,  244 

River,  247 

Town,  246 
Kungei  Ala-tau,  186 
Kunges  liiver,  192 
Kungrad,  216 

Lake,  200 
Kunia-urgenj,  206 
Kur  or  Kura  River,  100 


INDEX. 


501 


oau,  322,  330 
)r,  61 
11 

I,  171,  186 
T,  240 
,  '244 
,  133 
!74 
,  102 
124 
I 

i^er,  240 
1H5 

Mount,  185 
'er,  193,  322 
[ountains,  185 
lOT,  388 
!9,  351 

(14 

er,  339 
iver,  329 
iy,  391 

1,214 
3 

458 

mn,  178 
0,  3(i(i 

juke,  352,  357 
9S,  188 
,97 

igai,  329 
Dstrov,  389 
dagb,  102 
nd,  449 
)k,  218,  269 

269 
k,  364,  362 

Gora,  65 
,  349 
[ount,  401 

in.  60 
51 
Moantains,  185 

0 

,  373 
» 

tIountain8,  2 
iver,  276 
nghiz,  200 
Itiver,  442 
id,  217,  218 


:86 
15 

167 

int,  132 
If,  377 
380 

r,  64-6,  67 
and,  109 
1.69 

roran,  67 
4 

247 
246 

-tau,  186 
'er,  192 
16 
!00 

nj,  206 
u  River,  100 


Kuram,  236 
Kuran-dngh,  214 
Kunihum  Kiver,  332  ■ 

Kurdistan,  2 
KuidB,  482,  485 
Kiireika  River,  3i4 
Kuren-dagh,  476,  483 
Kurgan,  349 
Kurgan  tube,  255 
Kurilfis  Islands,  18,  401 
Kurk-tepe.  480 
Kurmckti  River,  199 
Kuro-sivo  Stream,  448 
Kurush,  4IJ 
Kuruluih  River,  4':2 
Kusunai,  453 
Kushk  River,  480 
Kutai'a,  96 
Kutomaldi,  184 
Kuvan-jerma,  206 
Kuznetzk,  319,  322,  329 
Kuznetzkiy  Alatau,  322 
Kvirila  River,  96 

Laba  River,  40 

Lacha,  107 

Ladovskaya,  64 

Lajurd,  240 

1^'khva  River,  45 

Lamuts,  436 

Lxngir-kisht,  202 

La  TerouBe  Strait,  449  , 

Lazes,  95 

Lazistan,  90 

Lekhi.  83 

Lena  River,  300,  382,  384 

I^nkoran,  107, 130 

Lcnkorud,  130 

Lepsa,  182,  193 

Lepsinsk,  284 

Lc'zghians,  83 

Li-hai,  10 

Listvenichnaya,  380 

Lob-nor,  In 

Loktevskiy  Zavod,  32<} 

Long,  Mount,  392 

Lozi  Island,  109 

Luli,  236 

Lyakhov  Archipelago,  389 

Magyars,  23  _ 

Maidan-Kuni,  482 

Maikop,  64 

Maimachin,  378 

Maimene,  247,  249 

Majxri,  75 

Miijuj,  215 

Makachinga,  Mount,  399 

Makhntm,  278 

Malays,  20 

Malavsia,  1 

Malka  River,  68 

Mamia  Rinzo  Strait,  461 

MamiBBon  Pass,  36,  65 

Manchuria,  417 

Mandzi,  438 

Mnnegrs,  436 

Mangiizsya,  361 

Manghishlak  Peninsula,  216,  269 

Manghits,  233 

Munglix,  124 

Mango  River,  424 

Manguna,  437 

Mani'h  River,  67 

Manigonians,  147 

Manrap,  Mount,  101 


Manuo,  468 

Marcaiida,  272 

Mard-ab,  130 

Margbilan,  270         '  ' 

Murgiana,  478 

Maiiiiisk,  351,  446 

Marka-kul,  331 

Markiin-BU  River,  171 

Marukh,  Mount,  60 

Mashtagi,  130 

Miisis,  Mount,  132 

Miiskovskoye,  3«6 

Mauka  Cove,  46H 

Maverantmhr,  262 

Maya  River,  388 

Muzaii^,  235 

ilazar-i-shortf,  24.S 

Mazduran,  271 

Mejuda  River,  122 

Mekran,  6 

MekhitaristB,  147 

Merke  River,  182 

Me-khong  Ifiver,  13 

Melchihi  River,  69 

Meru,  478 

Merv,  260,  476,  478 

Meshed,  480 

Mesk  MonntainB,  86 

Miankal.  261 

Michish  River,  61 

Migrations,  As  ati'-,  13 

Migri,  149 

Mikhai  o-SemyonovoBk,  445 

Mikhailovsk,  483 
Miiigilke,  Mount,  188 
Mingrelians,  94 
Mining  Industries,  467 
l^Iinuxinsk,  363,  362 
Mir,  463 
Mipjeghi,  80 
Mkinvari,  Mount,  64 
Mogol-tau,  278 
Mohamedabad,  481 

MolokaneB,  120 

Mongols,  23,  326 

Mortviy-kultuk,  212,  218 

Motors,  367 

Mozdok,  64,  76 

Mtzkhet,  112,  123 

Mugan,  105 

Muja),  88 

Muk-su  River,  173 

Munku-Bardik,  Mount,  364,  367 

Murad,  131 

Miiraviov,  467-8 

Murgh-ab,  Merv,  203,  260 
Pamir.  202 

Muyun-kum,  193 

Muz-art  Pm88,  186,  188 

Muz-art-tau,  185 

Muztagh-ata,  Mount,  169 

Muz-iau,  Mount,  189 

Mztmta  River,  61 


NHJebo,  Mount,  90 
Kakhichevan,  149 
Namangan,  270 
Namollo,  410 
Narat  Mountains,  181 
Nara-tau,  181 
Nargiri  Isliinii,  108 
Nari  River,  249 
Narim,  332,  336,  361 
Narin  Fort,  188 

River,  185,  199 
NarinkMleh,  87 
Narzau,  74 


NMilkat,  276 
Neiva  River,  347 
Nopia-tzkaro,  Mount,  90 
Neiom-kura,  346 
Neriinla,  148 
Neviansk,  34fi.  347  - 
N«w  Siberia,  389 
Nian-shan  Slountains,  182 
Niiis.  262 

Nib-kiimb,  263  ,* 

Nigidals,  437 
Niine-Tagilsk,  340 
Nijne-Udinsk,  363,  381 
Nijiiyayii-Tunguskii,  364,  364 
Nikobar  Island,  18 
Nikolaya,  44 

Amur,  440-7 
Nikolayevskaya,  04 
Nini-ilardan.  271 
Nin-yuan,  286 
Nissa,  262 
Nitza  River,  347 
Nogui  Tatars,  73 
Nohwandan,  481 
Nomin  mingin-gobi.  179 
Novaya  Zemlya,  304 
Nov.'-AlexandrnvBk,  218 
Bayazet,  491 
Dmitryevskoie,  491 
Georgyevcko'ie,  491 
Nikolayevsk,  474 
Roxsiisk,  39,  61 
Troiizkaya,  491 
Nukha,  128 

Nukii-daban,  Mount,  367 
Nukus,  2U4,  283 
Nura-tau,  173,  200 
Nuskan  Pass,  240 
Nyerchinsk,  443 
Steppe,  420 
Nyerchinskiy  Zavod,  443 

Ob  Basin,  329 

River,  300,  329,  334 
Obdorsk,  361 

Ogurchinskiy  Island,  216,  218 
Oigur  River,  322 
Oi-kul,  202 
Oka  River,  362,  368 
Okhota  River,  442 
Okhotsk,  442 

Mountains,  7 
Sea,  431 

Olenyok  River,  383 

Olga,  447 

Gulf,  431,  433 

Olkhon  Island,  368 

Oloknia  River.  386,  388 

Olokminsk,  398,  468 

Olti,  100 

River,  91 

Om  River,  333 

Omsk,  360 

"  Onion  "  MountainB,  4 

Onkilnn,  410 

Onon  River,  420 

Ordubat,  138,  149 

Orkhon  River,  419 

Orkhu-nor,  189 

Oioches,  436 

Oroks,  466 

Orpiri,  97 

Osh,  276 

Oahtek,  Mount,  41,  60 

Oshten,  4t 

Osses,  67 

Ostiakii,  340 


602 


INDEX. 


Otkaznoio,  7/> 
Uxus  Uiver,  202 

rakaran,  UG 
Pnlasostom,  Luke,  90 

Panibak,  Mount,  137 

Pamir,  165 

Panja  Kiver,  240  ' 

Panj  Deh,  479 

Pito-tui-tze,  4J8 

Partav,  12S 

PassanaAr,  6o 

PassiB-mta,  Mount,  89 

Patience,  Gulf  of,  448 

Ptttigorsk,  7  a 

Pechonoghs,  23 

r.-chora  Hivor,  338 

Pelim,  346,  461 

PcninsuluB  of  Asia,  16 

Penjiikent,  272 

Penjina,  442 

Gulf,  407  i 

Penshambe,  275 

Porli-dagh,  131 

Perm,  1 

Perovsky,  Fort,  200 
Persians,  234 
Petro-Alexandrovsk,  283 
Petropavlovsk,  349,  416 
Petrov  Glacier,  198 
Potrovsk,  86 
Phiwis  liivtfr,  68 
Pishan,  178 
Piiniak,  204 
Piizuuda,  51,  61 
Plaalun  Gulf,  431 
Plateaux  of  Asia,  1 
Podkuinok  River,  76 
Poronai  River,  452 
Posolskoye,  380 
Possiet  Bay,  417,  447-8 
Poti,  98-9 
Port  Imperial,  447 
Praskoveya,  75 
Pribilov  Islands,  408 
Protok  River,  62 
Pshavs,  116 
Pskhuv,  Mount,  51 
Pyasina  River,  382 

Racha,  94 
Rachiaiis,  94 
Railway  Priijoct.9,  472 
Raira,  283 
Rainfall  of  Asia,  14, 

Caucasus,  40 
Bang-kul,  169 
Rani  Mountains,  138 
Redout-Kaleh,  98 
Regar,  255 
Reshd,  156 
Riddersk,  328 
Rion  ]{iver,  96 
River  Systems  of  Armenia,  139 

Asia,  12 

Central  Caucasus,  65 

East  Caucasus,  79 

Georgia,  101 

Kulja,  192 

Manchuria,  422 

Siberia,  300,  330,  334,  352, 373, 
384,  388  ' 

Turkestan,  193 

West  Caucasus,  60 
Roshan,  202,  253 

River,  263 
Russians,  120,  236,  818,  326,  440 


Sagai,  368 

Sagalatlo,  Mount,  90 
8aglik,  165 
Sairam   Lake,  182 
Sakhalin  Islumi,  448 
Salai'r  Mountains,  328 
Salor,  220 
Salyani,  13n 
Samagirs,  437 
Samarkand,  272 
Samarkand-tau,  257 
Samarova,  350 
tSainoyedes,  344 
Samsar  Volcano,  101 
Sannir  River,  79 
i^ancharo,  60 
Santash  Pass,  182 
Sarakhs,  251,  480  : 

Sarapaues,  90  U 

i^ardarabad,  140 
Sarghilan  River,  243 
Sari-dagh,  78  ^ 

Sarijassi  River,  186 
Sari-JHSsi-tau,  186 
Sari-kamiBh,  207,  212 
Sariks,  220 
Siirikul,  202-3 
Saripul,  246,  248 
Sari-su  River,  194,  200 
Sarkad,  238 

River,  238-0 
Sarkan  Ri\er,  193,  265 
Sajics,  234 
Sartlnm,  Lake,  332 
Sassik-kul,  192 
Saudal,  176 
Sailru,  Mount,  189 
Savan  Mountains,  322,  364,  366 
Sefenga  River,  362,  364 
Selenginsk,  379 
Sel-su  River,  174 
Semipalatinsk,  &49 
Semirechinsk,  182,  192 
Semirechinskiy  Krai,  193 
Semonovka,  147 
Semur  River,  79 
Semyonov,  Mount,  184 
Serdze-Kamen,  3U9 
Sorebrakovskaya,  67 
Sergiopol,  284 
Seri-ob-nor,  182 
Severia,  293 

Shabin-dabag,  Mount,  322 
fehadrinsk,  349 
Shah-dagh,  78 
Shah-i-mardan  River,  276 
Shalbuz-dagh,  78 
Sh«lik-tau,  185 
Shamakhi,  129 
Shamkhor  Column,  124 
Shamsi  Pass,  1 88 
Shan-alin  Mountains,  426 
Shantar  Archipelago,  431 
Sharikhan,  276 
Sharojwn,  96 
Shartash,  Lake,  349 
Shash  Uiver,  199 
Shchurovskiy  Glacier,  173 
Shehr-i-sobs,  256 
Sheik  jeili.  Mount,  200 
Shelveli,  Mount,  176 
Shemakha,  107,  109,  129 
Shevelynch  Volcano,  401 
Shialis,  156 
ShiWrkhan,  246,  248 
Shibo,  232 
Shignan,  169,  202,  263 


Shikov,  Cape,  109 
Shilka  River,  420 
•Shirabad,  256 
Shirabad-daria  River,  266 
Shirikum,  105 
Shusha,  128 

Mountains,  138 

Siborin,  2y  t 

New,  Island,  388 

Siberians,  4U3 

Sibir,  293 

Sibiryaks,  463 

Siuos,  232 

Signakh,  128 

8i-hai,  L»Vo,  191 

Sihun  River,  2(i0 

Sikhota  alin  Muu  tains,  422 

Sim  River,  334,  354 

Sir-daria  Rivor,  198 

Sirikol,  167 

Sitirti  Pass,  188 

Sizim  River,  362 

Slav-,  U» 

SoSisk,  446 

Sogd  River,  212,  262 

Sogdiana,  252 

Soghanli-dagh,  130 

Soglik,  125 

Sogol  River,  272 

Sokhondo  Mountains,  419,  423 

Solons,  232 

Somkhet  Mountains,  137 

Son-kul,  187 

Soyons,  358 

Soyots,  3o6 

Sredne-Kolimsk,  399 

Sredne-Yegorlik  River,  64 

Stanovoi  Mountains,  399,  417 

Stark  Bay,  431 

Stavropol,  64 

Stretensk,  443 

Sufld-koh, 248 

Sulfdn  River,  422 

Suiagird,  248 

Sukhum-Kaleh,  39,  60 

Sulak  River,  ^h~Q 

Sunga  River,  68 

Sungacha  River,  427 

Sungari  River,  425 

Sunnites,  156 

Surakhan,  109 

Suram,  122 

Mountains,  42 
Surghab  Kiver,  172,  202,  244 
Surgut,  351 
Sus?ik  kul,  171 
Svania,  92 
Svans,  92-3 


Tagharma  Mountains,  4,  169 


Ta^l  River,  346 
'J'aimir  Pi 


I'aimir  Peninsula,  299,  382 
Taimira  River,  382 
Taimura  River,  366 
Tajiks,  234 
Takhta-kuvat,  255 
Takht-i-pul,  248 
Takht  i-Suliman,  243,  276 
Talas-tau,  187 
Taldik  River,  206 
Talgar,  Mount,  176,  188 
Tali  khan,  246 
Talish  Mount4«in8,  107 

Town,  146 
Talisbes,  119 
Talki  Mountains,  182 
Tamon,  62 


IJape,  109 

iver,  420 

,  266 

•daria  Kiver,  266 

,    109 

28 

ntains,  138 
yt 

Island,  388 
,  403 

,463 

128 

it",  191 

er,  200 

liii  Mnu  tains,  422 

,  334,  354 

Kiver,  198 

17 

s,  188 

it,  362 

5 

r,  212,  262 

262 

lagh,  130 

i 

r,  272 

Mountains,  419,  423 

[ounlains,  137 

*7 
8 

timsk,  399 
jorlik  River,  64 
lountains,  399,  417 
431 
34 
143 
248 

;r,  422 
18 

tleh,  39,  60 
•,  7^-9 
r,  68 
tiver,  427 
'er,  425 
16 
09 

lino,  42 

iver,  172,  202,  244 

171 


Fountains,  4,  169 
346 

asula,  299,  382 
er,  382 
'er,  366 

it,  266 
248 

man,  243,  276 
7 

•,  206 

nt,  176,  188 
5 

tAins,  107 
16 

tins,  182 


Taman  Poninaula,  60,  63 
'I'liniiu-ola  Mountains,  362 
Turn,  330 
I  iiragni  Itivor,  199 
'I'lininchi,  232 
I'lirbagatai  Mountains,  189 
Tnrei,  Luko.  4;!0 
Tiiriin  Hiver,  10,  167 
Tarki,  86 
Ta-eiovskoyo.  360 
'I'lishkond,  278 
Trtsh-kiirf,'.!',  26,  166 
Tash-r  bat,  18S 
Tii8-tau  Mountains,  189 
Tataw,  19,  56,  119,  326,  338,  356 
Kumik,  93,  86 
Nogai,  485 
Tatary  v^trait,  434,  449 
I'ats,  86 
Taurus.  3 
Tavda  Rver,  346 
Tavgi,  ;<44 
Taz  Kiver,  337,  361 
Tazi,  437 
Tazovka,  361 
Tebulo8-mta,  77,  78 
Tekesltiver,  1H2,  192 
Tekke,  220,  476 
Teletzkoyo,  Lake,  322 
Telev,  127-8 
Temir-Khan-Shura,  86 
Temurlik  Moiiniains,  182 
Temnlk,  62,  61 
Tenjcn  River  251 
Ten'tek  I'ass,  1>2 
'i'entiak  8or,  215 
Tepli  Mountains,  64 
Terek  River,  68 
Terek-da  van,  175,  276 
Termez,  256 
Ters-agar,  176 
Ters-airik  River,  189 
Terskei  Ala-tau,  187 
Terter  River.  l:m 
Tian-shan  Mountains,  2,  176 
Tiani,  Mount,  452 
Tibet,  2 
Tibetans,  20 
Tiflis,  123 
Tigris  River,  13 
Tim  River,  453 
Tir,  429 

Titari  Island,  386 
Tkhfan-dagh,  78 
Tobol  Kiver,  333 
Tobolsk,  333,  350 
Tokmak,  284 
T'okran  River,  192 
Tolbaeha,  Mount,  401 
Tom  River,  361 
Tomsk,  361 
Ton-kin,  8 
Tonu  River,  207 
Topography,  Altai",  327 
Rering  Peninsula,  416 
Bokhara,  267 
Cintral  Caucasus,  73 
East  Caucasus,  80 
Georgia,  120 
Kulja,  284 
I^iia  Basin,  398 
lilanchuria,  442 
Rion  Basin,  96 
Russian  Armenia,  146 
Sakhalin,  457 
Turkestan,  272 
West  Caucasus,  00 


INDEX. 

Topography,  West  Siberia,  316 

Yenisei  Basin,  378 
Toporovan,  I^ako,  lOi 
Tortum  River,  90 
'I  orusk,  190  V. 

Toyu-boyin,  •-'04 
Trade  of  the  Caucasus,  164 

Siberia,  409 
Trnkt,  471 

Trans- Alai'Mouutiiins,  108,  175 
Transbaikalia,  301.  :  64 
TVans-Ciispian  Territory,  4S0-1 
Transcaucasia,  34 
Trialetes  Mountains,  101     * 

Troitzk,  349 
Troitzko-savsk,  379 
Truibor,  Mount,  8S 
Tsung-ling  Mountains,  4 
Tubnlars,  357 
Tak-kanigan,  218 
Tumatskiy  River,  387 
Tumen,  347 
Tumkent,  283 
T'unguses,  358,375,436 
Tunguska  River,  354 
Tunka,  366,  380" 
Tura  River,  333,  347 
Turan,  163 
Turmiiins  220 
Turfan,  178 
Turgen  River,  183 

Town,  2.S6 
T'urinsk  347 
Turka,  380 
Turkestin,  161 

Afghan,  16).  237 

Russian,  160,  268 

Town,  283 
Turkey.  233 
TOrki  Race,  19 
Turkmansheir.  475 
Turkmeninns,  220 
Turkomans,  73,  220 
Turug-art,  188 
Turukhan  River,  364 
Turukhansk,  363 
Turuks.  233 
Turyeika  River,  364 
Tdshes,  116 
Tuskane,  200 
Tuz-i.ltin  dara  River,  173 
Twapse,  61 
Tzea-kokh  Mountains,  64 


TJba  River,  S>8,  362 
Ubsa-nor  River,  322 
Ueh-kurgan,  276-7 
Ud  River,  421 
Uda  River,  381 
Udskoy  Ostrog,  442 
Ugodai,  327 
Uglich,  461 
Uffus-bas,  Mount,  186 
Uigurs,  233 
Ujarskaya,  284 
Ukhbukanos,  84 
Ulan  River,  199 
Ulba  River.  328 
ITliasutai,  41 
Ulu-kem  River,  362 
Ulungur,  Like,  330 

River,  321,  331 
University,  473 
Ura-tepe,  278 

Mountains,  173 
Urals,  469 


SOB 


Urgenj,  205 

Uiiankhs,  367 

Ur-koshar  Mountains,  189 

Urs-kokh,  Mount,  64 

Urukh  River,  68 

Urumtsi,  178 

Urus-Martan,  78 
:    Us  Uiver,  35+ 
;    Ushba,  Mount,  36 

Usolka  River,  360 
I    Ust-Kamenrgorsk,  327,  332,  340 
'    Ust-Kiakhta,  379 

Ust-Olunskoie,  384 

Ust-urt,  I'lateau  20^,  216 

UsuriOulf,  43i 
River,  427 

Uzbegs,  233 

Uz  bel  Pass,  175 

Uzboi  liivcr,  207 

I  zghent,  276 


Vadil,  277 
Vagarshabad,  147 
Vakh,  324 
Vakhsh  River,  254 
Vak-shu  River,  202 
Vardandzi,  260 
Vardoj  River.  243 
Varzaminor,  276 
Vedeno,  86 

Vcrkhnaya  Tunguska,  376 
Verkhnye-Udinsk,  380 
Veskhniy-pristen,  327 
Verkho-Lensk,  3i>2 
Turie,  346 
Yansk,  15,  398-9 
Mountains,  388 

Vemiy,  284 

Victoria  Gulf,  432 
Lake,  202 

Viliii  River,  384,  386 

Viiaisk,  399 

Vitim  River,  385 
Plateau,  385 

Vitziri,  Mount,  78 

Vladikavkaz,  76 

Vladimir,  447 
Gulf,  431 

Vladivostok,  447 

Voguls,  338 

Voikar  River,  338 

WakhHn,  238 
Wakhi,  238 
Waksli  River,  254 
Wamur,  263 
Wi-tagh.  169 
Wrangell  L>ind,  392 

Yablonoi  Mountains,  419 

Y'agnaubs,  236 

Yajiij,  216 

Yakuts,  393 

Yakutsk.  398 

Yak-tash  Mountains,  199 

River,  199 
Yalmal  Peninsula,  337 
Y..lutorovsk,  349-60 
Yaman-su  River.  200 
Y'ana  River,  388 
Yanp-tso-kiang,  13 
Yani-chinaz,  278 
Yani- daria  River,  200 
Yani-su  Kiver,  206 
Yaniurgeuj,  206,  267 


y^i 


1/ 


p" 


604 

YHshil-kni,  109 
Yiisi,  282 
Yhsscs,  59 
YnxHit()f(,ltivpr,  199 
Yazova  Hiver,  33rt 
Yegorlik,  f>4 
YolfHterinliiirff,  348 
Yokatoi  inodiir,  64 
YekaterinogrMd,  76 
Yeisk,  H5 
Yokhoi,  I^iko,  3G0 

Hivor,  334 
Yelizavetpol,  126 
Yeloffui,  364 
Yenisei  Kiver,  300,  362 


INDEX. 

Yenigoisk,  363 
Yosontuki,  74 
Yozid  B,  146 
Yomuds,  220 
Yom  Kivor,  101 
Yuknghirs,  396 
Yuldtiz  Ijakcs,  179 
Mountains,  179 
Yulutan,  479 
Yu-pi-to-tz',  437 
Ytiraks,  344 
Yiirehi,  256 

Zaisnn,  331 

Lake,  179,331 


Zanga  Rivor,  147 
ZiinniH  Kiver,  181 
Zarafshan  Glacit-r,  202 

Kiver,  202,  272 
Ziirdeo  Kivnr.  243 
Ziiiiku  M  lint,  188 
Zavitaya  Kiver,  443 
Zelupchiik  River,  40 
Zilga-kokh  Mountains,  64-6 
Zikiiri  Moiintiiins,  36,  64-6 
Ziryanovsk,  328 
Zinoinogorsk,  327 
Zuchan.  253 
Zungaria,  165 
Zyeya  Kiver,  421,424 


"V.  -., ,  y 


■•.'::V;  %: 


END  OF  VOL.  I. 


\5"N\ 


"Wj-'iljl;^ .    I.      '•■"       ■^■^I'l 


(?a  Rivor,  147 

tiiH  Wiver,  181 

ifshnn  GlHcitT,  202 

Kivor,  202,  272 

leo  Kivnr.  243 

<a  M  lint,  188 

taya  Kiver,  443 

ichuk  River,  40 

i-kokh  Mountains,  04-5 

ri  Moiintiiins,  30,  64-& 

tnovsk,  328 

inogorsk,  327 

an.  253 

raria,  1(0) 

a  Itiver,  421,4^6 


